GRAMMAR AND TOPIC VOCABULARY

MASTERMIND
USE OF ENGLISH
For students on different learning levels
 1. Main Parts of Speech
Definitions and Examples

Noun

The name of something, like a person, animal, place, thing, or concept. Nouns are typically used as
subjects, objects, objects of prepositions, and modifiers of other nouns.
o I finished the study.
o I = subject
o Maggie wrote the dissertation.
o the dissertation = object
o The author presented the results in Chapter 4.
o in Chapter 4 = object of a preposition
o His research findings can contribute to social change.
o research = modifier

Verb

This expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. In English, verbs follow the
noun.

o It takes a good deal of dedication to complete a doctoral degree.

o She studied hard for the test.
o Writing a dissertation is difficult. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a
linking verb. It links the subject, in this case writing a dissertation, to the complement or the
predicate of the sentence, in this case, hard.)

Adjective

This describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives typically come before a noun or after a stative verb,
like the verb to be.
o The diligent student completed her assignment early.
 o Diligent describes the student and appears before the noun student.
o It can be difficult to balance time to study and work responsibilities.
o Difficult is placed after the to be verb and describes what it is like to balance time.
Remember that adjectives in English have no plural form. The same form of the adjective is used for
both singular and plural nouns.
o A different idea
o Some different ideas
o INCORRECT: some differents ideas

Adverb

This gives more information about the verb and about how the action was done. Adverbs tells how,
where, when, why, etc. Depending on the context, the adverb can come before or after the verb or
at the beginning or end of a sentence.
o He completed the course enthusiastically.
o Enthusiastically describes how he completed the course and answers
the how question.
o Steven recently enrolled in the Graduate Certificate in Communication program at Walden.
o Recently modifies the verb enroll and answers the when question.
o Then, I verified that most of my sources were peer-reviewed.
o Then describes and modifies the entire sentence. See this link on transitions for more
examples of conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join one idea to another to improve the
cohesion of the writing).

Pronoun

This word substitutes for a noun or a noun phrase (such as it, she, he, they, that, those,…).
o Smith (2014) interviewed the applicants as they arrived.
o they = applicants
o He was interested in ideas that were never previously recorded, not those that have already
been published.
o He = Smith; that = ideas; those = those ideas
Determiner

This word makes the reference of the noun more specific (such as his, her, my, their, the, a, an,
this, these,…).
o Jones published her book in 2015.
o The book was very popular.

Preposition

This comes before a noun or a noun phrase and links it to other parts of the sentence. These are
usually single words (on, at, by,…) but can be up to four words (as far as, in addition to, as a result
of, …).
o I chose to interview teachers in the district closest to me.
o The recorder was placed next to the interviewee.
o I stopped the recording in the middle of the interview due to a low battery.

Conjunction
A word that joins two clauses. These can be coordinating (an easy way to remember this is
memorizing FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or subordinating (such as because, although,
when, …).

o The results were not significant, so the alternative hypothesis was accepted.
o Although the results seem promising, more research must be conducted in this area.

Auxiliary Verbs

Helping verbs. They are used to build up complete verbs.

 Primary auxiliary verbs (be, have, do) show the progressive, passive, perfect, and
negative verb tenses.
  Modal auxiliary verbs (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) show a variety
of meanings. They represent ability, permission, necessity, and degree of certainty. These
are always followed by the simple form of the verb.
 Semimodal auxiliary verbs (be going to, ought to, have to, had better, used to, be able to,…).
These are always followed by the simple form of the verb.

o Researchers have investigated this issue for some time. However, the cause of the
problem has not beendetermined.
o primary: have investigated = present perfect tense; has not been determined =
passive, perfect, negative form
o He could conduct more research, which may lead to the answer.
o The modal could shows ability, and the verb conduct stays in its simple form; the
modal may shows degree of certainty, and the verb lead stays in its simple form.
o Future researchers are going to delve more into this topic. They are about to make a
breakthrough discovery.
o These semimodals are followed by the simple form of the verb.

Common Endings
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs often have unique word endings, called suffixes. Looking at
the suffix can help to distinguish the word from other parts of speech and help identify the function
of the word in the sentence. It is important to use the correct word form in written sentences so that
readers can clearly follow the intended meaning.

Here are some common endings for the basic parts of speech. If ever in doubt, consult the
dictionary for the correct word form.

Common Noun Endings

-age: suffrage, image, postage

-al: arrival, survival, deferral

-dom: kingdom, freedom, boredom

-ee: interviewee, employee, trainee

-ence/ance: experience, convenience, finance

-er/or: teacher, singer, director

-ery: archery, cutlery, mystery

-hood: neighborhood, childhood, brotherhood

-ics: economics, gymnastics, aquatics

-ing: reading, succeeding, believing

-ism: racism, constructivism, capitalism

-ity/ty: community, probability, equality

-ment: accomplishment, acknowledgement, environment

-ness: happiness, directness, business

-ry: ministry, entry, robbery

-ship: scholarship, companionship, leadership

-tion/sion/xion : information, expression, complexion

-ure: structure, pressure, treasure

Common Verb Endings

-ate: congregate, agitate, eliminate

-en: straighten, enlighten, shorten

-(i)fy: satisfy, identify, specify

-ize: categorize, materialize, energize

Common Adjective Endings

-able/ible: workable, believable, flexible

-al: educational, institutional, exceptional

-ed: confused, increased, disappointed

-en: wooden, golden, broken

-ese: Chinese, Portuguese, Japanese

-ful: wonderful, successful, resourceful

-ic: poetic, classic, Islamic

-ing: exciting, failing, comforting

-ish: childish, foolish, selfish

-ive: evaluative, collective, abrasive

-ian: Canadian, Russian, Malaysian

-less: priceless, useless, hopeless

-ly: friendly, daily, yearly

-ous: gorgeous, famous, courageous

-y: funny, windy, happy

Common Adverb Endings

-ly: quickly, easily, successfully

-ward(s): backward(s), upwards, downwards

-wise: clockwise, edgewise, price-wise

Placement and Position of Adjectives and Adverbs

Order of Adjectives

If more than one adjective is used in a sentence, they tend to occur in a certain order. In English,
two or three adjectives modifying a noun tend to be the limit. However, when writing in APA, not
many adjectives should be used (since APA is objective, scientific writing). If adjectives are used,
the framework below can be used as guidance in adjective placement.

1. Determiner (i.e., this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, yours, him, his, hers they, their,
some, our, several,…) or article (a, an, the)
2. Opinion, quality, or observation adjective (i.e., lovely, useful, cute, difficult, comfortable)
3. Physical description
 (a) size (big, little, tall, short)
 (b) shape (circular, irregular, triangular)
 (c) age (old, new, young, adolescent)
 (d) color (red, green, yellow)
4. Origin (i.e., English, Mexican, Japanese)
5. Material (i.e., cotton, metal, plastic)
6. Qualifier (noun used as an adjective to modify the noun that follows;
i.e., campus activities, rocking chair, business suit)
7. Head noun that the adjectives are describing (i.e., activities, chair, suit)
For example:

o This (1) lovely (2) new (3) wooden (4) Italian (5) rocking (6) chair (7) is in my office.
o Your (1) beautiful (2) green (3) French (4) silk (5) business (6) suit (7) has a hole in it.

Commas With Multiple Adjectives

A comma is used between two adjectives only if the adjectives belong to the same category (for
example, if there are two adjectives describing color or two adjectives describing material). To test
this, ask these two questions:

1. Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
2. Does the sentence make sense if the word “and” is written between them?
If the answer is yes to the above questions, the adjectives are separated with a comma. Also keep
in mind a comma is never used before the noun that it modifies.

o This useful big round old green English leather rocking chair is comfortable. (Note that
there are no commas here because there is only one adjective from each category.)
o A lovely large yellow, red, and green oil painting was hung on the wall. (Note the
commas between yellow, red, and green since these are all in the same category of color.)

Position of Adverbs

Adverbs can appear in different positions in a sentence.

o At the beginning of a sentence: Generally, teachers work more than 40 hours a week.
o After the subject, before the verb: Teachers generally work more than 40 hours a week.
o At the end of a sentence: Teachers work more than 40 hours a week, generally.
o However, an adverb is not placed between a verb and a direct object. INCORRECT:
Teachers work generallymore than 40 hours a week.

More Detailed Rules for the Position of Adverbs

1. Adverbs that modify the whole sentence can move to different positions, such as certainly,
recently, fortunately, actually, and obviously.
o Recently, I started a new job.
o I recently started a new job.
o I started a new job recently.
2. Many adverbs of frequency modify the entire sentence and not just the verb, such
as frequently, usually, always, sometimes, often, and seldom. These adverbs appear in the
middle of the sentence, after the subject.
o She frequently gets time to herself. (The adverb appears before the main verb.)
o INCORRECT: Frequently she gets time to herself.
o INCORRECT: She gets time to herself frequently.
o She has frequently exercised during her lunch hour. (The adverb appears after the first
auxiliary verb.)
 o She is frequently hanging out with old friends. (The adverb appears after the to be verb.)
3. Adverbial phrases work best at the end of a sentence.
o He greeted us in a very friendly way.
o I collected data for 2 months.

2. Sentence Structure and Types of Sentences.

Definitions and Examples of Basic Sentence Elements
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular font =
prepositional phrase
Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject
and a verb and is a complete idea.

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an
independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.

o Although I like spaghetti,…

o Because he reads many books,…
Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the subject in a
sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”
o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the verb in a
sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”
o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
o The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb.
It links the subject, in this case the movie, to the complement or the predicate of the
sentence, in this case, good.)
Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object in
a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”
o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until, after, of,
during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one of many
questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”

o I like spaghetti for dinner.

o He reads many books in the library.

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.
 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point).
o He obtained his degree.
 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.
o Smith he obtained his degree.
 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.
o He obtained his degree.
 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.
o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).
 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also called an independent
clause.
o He obtained his degree.

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers.
However, it contains only one independent clause.

Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font =prepositional phrase

Here are a few examples:

 She read.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.
 They studied APA rules for many hours.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent clauses
can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating
conjunction = green, underlined
Here are a few examples:

 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much to learn.
Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the
causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other
hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two
clauses.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink, regular font; dependent clause = blue,
italics
Here are a few examples:
 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her methods
section.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
o Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent
clause.
 Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at
least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating
conjunction = green, underlined; dependent clause = blue, italics

 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her methods
section even though she finished her methods course last semester.
 Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they decided
that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective.

 Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
 Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the reader is
easily able to follow the intended meaning.

3. Run-on Sentences and Sentence Fragments

Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete sentences)
are connected improperly.

Example: I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the time.

There are two complete sentences in the above example:

Sentence 1: I love to write papers.

Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.

One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when two independent
clauses are joined with just a comma.

Example of a comma splice: Participants could leave the study at any time, they needed to indicate
their preference.
Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.

Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.

Some comma splices occur when a writer attempts to use a transitional expression in the middle of a
sentence.

Example of a comma splice: The results of the study were inconclusive, therefore more research
needs to be done on the topic.

Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive

Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore

Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic

To fix this type of comma splice, use a semicolon before the transitional expression and add a comma
after it. See more examples of this on the semicolon page.

Revision: The results of the study were inconclusive; therefore, more research needs to be done on
the topic.

You can correct a run-on sentence by connecting or separating its parts correctly. There are several
easy ways to connect independent clauses.

Correcting Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence can be fixed by connecting its parts correctly. There are several ways to connect
independent clauses.

1. Use a period. The easiest way to fix a run-on is to split the sentence into smaller sentences
using a period. This revision works especially well with longer sentences. Check, however, to
make sure that this solution does not result in short, choppy sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers. I would write one every day if I had the time.

2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses creates a grammatically

correct sentence. Using a semicolon is a stylistic choice that establishes a close relationship
between the two sentences.
 Revision example: I love to write papers; I would write one every day if I had the time.

3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A comma, paired with a coordinating

conjunction (such as and, but, or or), corrects a run-on sentence. This method emphasizes the
relationship between the two clauses.

Revision example: I love to write papers, and I would write one every day if I had the time.

4. Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses into

a dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction (such as because, unless, and although)
connects two clauses to create a complex sentence. This option works to cement the relationship
between the two parts of the sentence and may improve the flow of the clauses.

Example: Because I love to write papers, I would write one every day if I had the time.

However you decide to revise for run-on sentences, remember that maintaining sentence variety helps
to keep the writing clear and interesting for your readers.

Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a string of words that does not form a complete sentence; there is a necessary
component of a complete sentence missing. This missing component may be a subject (usually a noun)
or a predicate (verb or verb phrase) and/or when the sentence does not express a complete idea.

Here is an example of a fragment with a missing subject.

Example of a fragment: Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.

The sentence above is a fragment since there is no subject (Who shows no improvement?). Fragments
can be corrected by identifying the missing element and including it.

Revision: The patient shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.

Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:

Example of a fragment: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed
to the body of knowledge in their fields, which was obstetrics.

Notice here that although the sentence is quite long, it still contains no action (What are the
doctors doing?). Once identified, the sentence can be corrected easily.

Revision: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to the body of
knowledge in their field, improved their knowledge of obstetrics.
 4. Parallel Construction
Parallel Construction Basics

Parallel ideas must be presented in parallel grammatical form. Parallel grammatical form means that
each part of a sentence uses the same grammatical structure.

Examples of Parallel Construction

Between and And

Incorrect: We debated the difference between the weather in Minnesota in the winter and how
hot it is in the summer.

Correct: We debated the difference between the weather in Minnesota in the winter and the
weather in Minnesota in the summer.
Both and And
Incorrect: The films were enjoyable to watch and discuss.

Correct: The films were enjoyable to watch and to discuss.

Neither and Nor; Either and Or
Incorrect: Neither the responses to the questionnaire nor what we asked on the survey were
answered.

Correct: Neither the responses to the questionnaire nor the responses to the survey were
answered.
Not Only and But Also
Incorrect: It was surprising not only that the house sold, but also it sold well over the asking
price.

Correct: It was surprising not only that the house sold but also that it sold well over the asking
price.
Parallel Construction in a Series

Sentences with series, or lists, require particular attention to parallel construction.

Example 1:
Incorrect: This paper will address No Child Left Behind, how to teach effectively, and
instructing with multimedia aids.
Correct: This paper will address No Child Left Behind benchmarks, effective teaching strategies,
and multimedia instructional aids.
Now, the series has parallel elements (benchmarks, strategies, and aids are all plural nouns).
Example 2:
Incorrect: The students were unprepared, poorly behaved, and disrupted the class.
Correct: The students were underprepared, poorly behaved, and disruptive.
Now, the series has parallel elements (underprepared, behaved, and disruptive are all adjectives).