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Partial Derivatives
Double Integrals
Functions of Several Variables
z
f(x, y) = x2 + y2
x2 + y2 = 16
x2 + y2 = 9
x2 + y2 = 4
x2 + y2 = 1
y
x2 + y2 = 0
x
Functions of Two Variables
f ( x, y ) x xy y 2 2
f (2,1) 2 (2)(1) 12 2 7
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
Solution
f(x, y) is defined for all real values of x and y, so the
domain of the function f is the set of all points (x, y) in the
xy-plane.
Examples
Find the domain of the function
2
g ( x, y )
x y
Solution
g(x, y) is defined for all x ≠ y, so the domain of the function
g is the set of all points (x, y) in the xy-plane except those
lying on the y = x line. y
y=x
x
Examples
Find the domain of the function
h ( x, y ) 1 x 2 y 2
Solution
We require that 1 – x2 – y2 0 or x2 + y2 1 which is the set
of all points (x, y) lying on and inside the circle of radius 1
with center at the origin:
y
1
x2 + y2 = 1
x
–1 1
–1
Applied Example: Revenue Functions
x0
1000 1 3
240 x y 0
y0 8 8
D
x
1000 2000
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
Consider the task of locating P(1, 2, 3) in 3-space:
One method to achieve this is to start at the origin and
measure out from there, axis by axis:
P(1, 2, 3)
3
y
1
2
x
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
Consider the task of locating P(1, 2, 3) in 3-space:
Another common method is to find the xy coordinate and
from there elevate to the level of the z value:
P(1, 2, 3)
3
y
2
1 (1, 2)
x
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
Locate the following points in 3-space:
Q(–1, 2, 3), R(1, 2, –2), and S(1, –1, 0).
Solution
z
Q(–1, 2, 3)
y
S(1, –1, 0)
x –2
R(1, 2, –2)
Graphs of Functions of Two Variables
The graph of a function in 3-space is a surface.
For every (x, y) in the domain of f, there is a z value on the
surface.
z
z = f(x, y)
(x, y, z)
(x, y)
x
Level Curves
z=c
f(x, y) = c
x
Examples
Sketch a contour map of the function f(x, y) = x2 + y2.
Solution
The function f(x, y) = x2 + y2 is a revolving parabola called
a paraboloid.
z
f(x, y) = x2 + y2
x
Examples
Sketch a contour map of the function f(x, y) = x2 + y2.
Solution
A level curve is the graph of the equation x2 + y2 = c, which
describes a circle with radius c .
Taking different
z values of c we obtain:
f(x, y) = x2 + y2 y
x2 + y2 = 16
4 x2 + y2 = 9
x2 + y2 = 4
x2 + y2 = 16 2 x2 + 2y2 = 1
2
x +y =0
x
–4 –2 2 4
x2 + y2 = 9
–2
x2 y2
+ =4
x2 + y2 = 1
–4
y
x2 + y 2 = 0
x
Examples
Sketch level curves of the function f(x, y) = 2x2 – y
corresponding to z = –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2.
Solution
The level curves are the graphs of the equation 2x2 – y = k
or for k = –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2:
y
2x2 – y = – 2
4
2x2 – y = – 1
3 2x2 – y = 0
2 2x2 – y = 1
2x2 – y = 2
1
0 x
–2 –1 1 2
–1
–2
Partial Derivatives
f 2 f
x 2
f x x x
x f 2 f
x
y y x yx
2 f 2 f
f
yx xy
f 2 f
When both are
f x x y xy continuous
y
y f 2 f
2
y y y y
First Partial Derivatives
z
f f(x, y)
What does mean?
x
x
Geometric Interpretation of the Partial Derivative
z f
slope of f ( x, b)
f f(x, y) x
What does mean?
x f(x, b)
y = b plane
b y
a
(a, b)
x
Geometric Interpretation of the Partial Derivative
z
f f(x, y)
What does mean?
y
x
Geometric Interpretation of the Partial Derivative
z
f f(x, y)
What does mean?
y
f
f(c, y) slope of f (c, y )
y
x = c plane
d
y
c
(c, d)
x
Examples
Find the partial derivatives ∂f/∂x and ∂f/∂y of the function
f ( x, y ) x 2 xy 2 y 3
Use the partials to determine the rate of change of f in the
x-direction and in the y-direction at the point (1, 2) .
Solution
To compute ∂f/∂x, think of the variable y as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of x with respect to x:
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 x y 3
f
2x y2
x
Examples
Find the partial derivatives ∂f/∂x and ∂f/∂y of the function
f ( x, y ) x 2 xy 2 y 3
Use the partials to determine the rate of change of f in the
x-direction and in the y-direction at the point (1, 2).
Solution
To compute ∂f/∂y, think of the variable x as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of y with respect to y:
f ( x, y ) x 2 xy 2 y 3
f
2 xy 3 y 2
y
Examples
Find the partial derivatives ∂f/∂x and ∂f/∂y of the function
f ( x, y ) x 2 xy 2 y 3
Use the partials to determine the rate of change of f in the
x-direction and in the y-direction at the point (1, 2).
Solution
The rate of change of f in the x-direction at the point (1, 2)
is given by
f
2(1) 22 2
x (1,2)
The rate of change of f in the y-direction at the point (1, 2)
is given by
f
2(1)(2) 3(2)2 8
y (1,2)
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
xy
w( x, y )
x2 y2
Solution
To compute ∂w/∂x, think of the variable y as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of x with respect to x:
xy
w( x, y ) 2
x y2
w ( x 2 y 2 ) y xy (2 x )
x ( x 2 y 2 )2
y( y 2 x2 )
2
( x y 2 )2
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
xy
w( x, y )
x2 y2
Solution
To compute ∂w/∂y, think of the variable x as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of y with respect to y:
xy
w( x, y ) 2
x y2
w ( x 2 y 2 ) x xy (2 y )
y ( x 2 y 2 )2
x( x 2 y 2 )
2
( x y 2 )2
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
g ( s, t ) ( s 2 st t 2 )5
Solution
To compute ∂g/∂s, think of the variable t as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of s with respect to s:
g ( s, t ) ( s 2 st t 2 )5
g
5( s 2 st t 2 )4 (2 s t )
s
5(2s t )( s 2 st t 2 )4
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
g ( s, t ) ( s 2 st t 2 )5
Solution
To compute ∂g/∂t, think of the variable s as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of t with respect to t:
g ( s, t ) ( s 2 st t 2 )5
g
5( s 2 st t 2 )4 ( s 2t )
t
5(2t s)( s 2 st t 2 )4
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
u 2 v 2
h(u, v) e
Solution
To compute ∂h/∂u, think of the variable v as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of u with respect to u:
u2 v 2
h(u, v) e
h u2 v 2
e 2u
u
u 2 v 2
2ue
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
u 2 v 2
h(u, v) e
Solution
To compute ∂h/∂v, think of the variable u as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of v with respect to v:
u2 v 2
h(u, v) e
h u2 v 2
e ( 2v )
u
u2 v 2
2ve
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
w f ( x, y, z ) xyz xe yz x ln y
Solution
Here we have a function of three variables, x, y, and z, and
we are required to compute
f f f
, ,
x y z
For short, we can label these first partial derivatives
respectively fx, fy, and fz.
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
w f ( x, y, z ) xyz xe yz x ln y
Solution
To find fx, think of the variables y and z as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of x with respect to x:
w f ( x, y, z ) xyz xe yz x ln y
f x yz e yz ln y
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
w f ( x, y, z ) xyz xe yz x ln y
Solution
To find fy, think of the variables x and z as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of y with respect to y:
w f ( x, y, z) xyz xe yz x ln y
x
f y xz xze
yz
y
Examples
Find the first partial derivatives of the function
w f ( x, y, z ) xyz xe yz x ln y
Solution
To find fz, think of the variables x and y as a constant and
differentiate the resulting function of z with respect to z:
w f ( x, y, z ) xyz xe yz x ln y
f z xy xye yz
The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
f(x, y) = 30x2/3y1/3
Solution
The first partial derivatives are
1/3
2 1/3 1/3 y
f x 30 x y 20
3 x
2/3
1 x
f y 30 x 2/3 y 2/3 10
3 y
Applied Example: Marginal Productivity
f(x, y) = 30x2/3y1/3
Solution
The required marginal productivity of labor is given by
1/3
27 3
f x (125, 27) 20 20 12
125 5
or 12 units of output per unit increase in labor expenditure
(keeping capital constant).
The required marginal productivity of capital is given by
2/3
125 25
f y (125,27) 10 10 27 79
27 9
or 27 7/9 units of output per unit increase in capital
expenditure (keeping labor constant).
Applied Example: Marginal Productivity
f(x, y) = 30x2/3y1/3
Solution
The government should definitely have encouraged capital
investment.
A unit increase in capital expenditure resulted in a much
faster increase in productivity than a unit increase in labor:
27 7/9 versus 12 per unit of investment, respectively.
Second Order Partial Derivatives
f 2 f
x 2
f x x x
x f 2 f
x
y y x yx
2 f 2 f
f
yx xy
f 2 f
When both are
f x x y xy continuous
y
y f 2 f
2
y y y y
Examples
Find the second-order partial derivatives of the function
f ( x, y ) x 3 3x 2 y 3xy 2 y 2
Solution
First, calculate fx and use it to find fxx and fxy:
3
f x ( x 3x 2 y 3xy 2 y 2 )
x
3x 2 6 xy 3 y 2
f xx (3x 2 6 xy 3 y 2 ) f xy (3x 2 6 xy 3 y 2 )
x y
6x 6 y 6 x 6 y
6( x y ) 6( y x)
Examples
Find the second-order partial derivatives of the function
f ( x, y ) x 3 3x 2 y 3xy 2 y 2
Solution
Then, calculate fy and use it to find fyx and fyy:
3
f y ( x 3x 2 y 3xy 2 y 2 )
y
3x 2 6 xy 2 y
f yx ( 3x 2 6 xy 2 y ) f yy ( 3x 2 6 xy 2 y )
x y
6 x 6 y 6x 2
6( y x) 2(3x 1)
Examples
Find the second-order partial derivatives of the function
f ( x, y ) e xy 2
Solution
First, calculate fx and use it to find fxx and fxy:
xy 2
f x (e )
x
ye 2 xy 2
2 xy 2 2 xy 2
f xx ( y e ) f xy ( y e )
x y
ye 4 xy 2
2 ye xy 2
2 xy e
3 xy 2
2 ye (1 xy 2 )
xy 2
Examples
Find the second-order partial derivatives of the function
f ( x, y ) e xy 2
Solution
Then, calculate fy and use it to find fyx and fyy:
xy 2
f y (e )
y
2 xye xy 2
f yx (2 xye )
xy 2
f yy (2 xye )
xy 2
x y
2 ye xy 2
2 xy e
3 xy 2
2 xe xy 2
(2 xy )(2 xy )e xy 2
2 ye (1 xy )
xy 2 2
2 xe (1 2 xy 2 )
xy 2
Maxima and Minima
of Functions of Several Variables
x (g, h)
(a, b) y
(c, d)
(e, f )
Relative Extrema of a Function of Two Variables
x y
(a, b)
Graphic Example
There is an absolute maximum at (c, d).
(It is also a relative maximum)
z
x y
(c, d)
Graphic Example
There is a relative minimum at (e, f ).
x y
(e, f )
Graphic Example
There is an absolute minimum at (g, h).
(It is also a relative minimum)
z
x (g, h)
y
Relative Minima
At a minimum point of the graph of a function of two
variables, such as point (a, b) below, the plane tangent to the
graph of the function is horizontal (assuming the surface of
the graph is smooth):
z
(a, b)
x
Relative Minima
Thus, at a minimum point, the graph of the function has a
slope of zero along a direction parallel to the x-axis:
f
( a , b) 0
x
(a, b)
x
Relative Minima
Similarly, at a minimum point, the graph of the function
has a slope of zero along a direction parallel to the y-axis:
f
( a , b) 0
y
(a, b)
x
Relative Maxima
At a maximum point of the graph of a function of two
variables, such as point (a, b) below, the plane tangent to the
graph of the function is horizontal (assuming the surface of
the graph is smooth):
z
y
(a, b)
x
Relative Maxima
Thus, at a maximum point, the graph of the function has a
slope of zero along a direction parallel to the x-axis:
z
f
( a , b) 0
x
y
(a, b)
x
Relative Maxima
Similarly, at a maximum point, the graph of the function
has a slope of zero along a direction parallel to the y-axis:
f
( a , b) 0
y
y
(a, b)
x
Saddle Point
In the case of a saddle point, both partials are equal to zero,
but the point is neither a maximum nor a minimum.
x
Saddle Point
In the case of a saddle point, the function is at a minimum
along one vertical plane…
f
( a , b) 0
x
(a, b)
x
Saddle Point
… but at a maximum along the perpendicular vertical plane.
f
( a , b) 0
y
(a, b)
x
Extrema When Partial Derivatives are Not Defined
A maximum (or minimum) may also occur when both partial
derivatives are not defined, such as point (a, b) in the graph
below:
z
x (a, b)
Critical Point of a Function
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
Solution
We have fx = 2x and fy = 2y.
To find the critical points, we set fx = 0 and fy = 0 and solve
the resulting system of simultaneous equations
2x = 0 and 2y = 0
obtaining x = 0, y = 0, or (0, 0), as the sole critical point.
Next, apply the second derivative test to determine the
nature of the critical point (0, 0).
We compute fxx = 2, fyy = 2, and fxy = 0,
Thus, D(x, y) = fxx fyy – f 2xy = (2)(2) – (0)2 = 4.
Examples
Find the relative extrema of the function
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
Solution
We have D(x, y) = 4, and in particular, D(0, 0) = 4.
Since D(0, 0) > 0 and fxx = 2 > 0, we conclude that f has a
relative minimum at the point (0, 0).
The relative minimum value, f (0, 0) = 0, also happens to
be the absolute minimum of f.
Examples
Find the relative extrema of the function
f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
Solution
The relative minimum
value, f(0, 0) = 0, also z
f(x, y) = x2 + y2
happens to be the
absolute minimum
of f:
y
Absolute
minimum
at (0, 0, 0).
x
Examples
Find the relative extrema of the function
f ( x, y ) 3x 2 4 xy 4 y 2 4 x 8 y 4
Solution
We have f x 6x 4 y 4 and f y 4 x 8 y 8
To find the critical points, we set fx = 0 and fy = 0 and solve
the resulting system of simultaneous equations
6x – 4y – 4 = 0 and – 4x + 8y + 8 = 0
obtaining x = 0, y = –1, or (0, –1), as the sole critical point.
Next, apply the second derivative test to determine the
nature of the critical point (0, –1).
We compute fxx = 6, fyy = 8, and fxy = – 4,
Thus, D(x, y) = fxx · fyy – f 2xy = (6)(8) – (– 4)2 = 32.
Examples
Find the relative extrema of the function
f ( x, y ) 3x 2 4 xy 4 y 2 4 x 8 y 4
Solution
We have D(x, y) = 32, and in particular, D(0, –1) = 32.
Since D(0, –1) > 0 and fxx = 6 > 0, we conclude that f has a
relative minimum at the point (0, –1).
The relative minimum value, f (0, –1) = 0, also happens to
be the absolute minimum of f.
Examples
Find the relative extrema of the function
f ( x, y ) 4 y 3 x 2 12 y 2 36 y 2
Solution
We have f x 2x and f y 12 y 2 24 y 36
To find the critical points, we set fx = 0 and fy = 0 and solve
the resulting system of simultaneous equations
2 x 0 and 12 y 2 24 y 36 0
The first equation implies that x = 0, while the second
equation implies that y = –1 or y = 3.
Thus, there are two critical points of f : (0, –1) and (0, 3).
To apply the second derivative test, we calculate
fxx = 2 fyy = 24(y – 1) fxy = 0
1 2 3 2 1
P( x, y ) x y xy 120 x 100 y 5000
4 8 4
1 3 1
P(208,64) (208) 2 (64) 2 (208)(64)
4 8 4
120(208) 100(64) 5000
$10,680
The Method of Least Squares
y d5 L
10
d3
d4
5 d2
d1
x
5 10
The Method of Least Squares
Suppose we are given the data points
P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2), P3(x3, y3), P4(x4, y4), and P5(x5, y5)
that describe the relationship between two variables x
and y.
By plotting these data points, we obtain a scatter diagram:
y
P5
10 P3
P2
P4
5
P1
x
5 10
The Method of Least Squares
Suppose we try to fit a straight line L to the data points
P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5.
The line will miss these points by the amounts
d1, d2, d3, d4, and d5 respectively.
y d5 L
10
d3
d4
5 d2
d1
x
5 10
The Method of Least Squares
The principle of least squares states that the straight line L
that fits the data points best is the one chosen by requiring
that the sum of the squares of d1, d2, d3, d4, and d5, that is
d12 d 22 d32 d 42 d52
be made as small as possible.
y d5 L
10
d3
d4
5 d2
d1
x
5 10
The Method of Least Squares
Suppose the regression line L is y = f(x) = mx + b, where m
and b are to be determined.
The distances d1, d2, d3, d4, and d5, represent the errors the
line L is making in estimating these points, so that
d1 f ( x1 ) y1 , d 2 f ( x2 ) y2 , d 3 f ( x3 ) y3 , and so on.
y d5 L
10
d3
d4
5 d2
d1
x
5 10
The Method of Least Squares
Observe that
d12 d 22 d32 d 42 d52
[ f ( x1 ) y1 ]2 [ f ( x2 ) y2 ]2 [ f ( x3 ) y3 ]2
[ f ( x4 ) y4 ]2 [ f ( x5 ) y5 ]2
[mx1 b y1 ]2 [mx2 b y2 ]2 [mx3 b y3 ]2
[mx4 b y4 ]2 [mx5 b y5 ]2
This may be viewed as a function of two variables m and b.
Thus, the least-squares criterion is equivalent to minimizing
the function
f (m, b) (mx1 b y1 )2 (mx2 b y2 )2 (mx3 b y3 )2
(mx4 b y4 )2 (mx5 b y5 )2
The Method of Least Squares
We want to minimize
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
Example
Find the equation of the least-squares line for the data
P1(1, 1), P2(2, 3), P3(3, 4), P4(4, 3), and P5(5, 6)
Solution
Here, we have n = 5 and
x1 = 1 x2 = 2 x3 = 3 x4 = 4 x5 = 5
y1 = 1 y2 = 3 y3 = 4 y4 = 3 y5 = 6
Substituting in the first equation we get
( x12 x22 x32 ... xn2 )m ( x1 x2 x3 ... xn )b
y1 x1 y2 x2 y3 x3 ... yn xn
(12 22 32 42 52 )m (1 2 3 4 5)b
(1)(1) (3)(2) (4)(3) (3)(4) (6)(5)
55m 15b 61
Example
Find the equation of the least-squares line for the data
P1(1, 1), P2(2, 3), P3(3, 4), P4(4, 3), and P5(5, 6)
Solution
Here, we have n = 5 and
x1 = 1 x2 = 2 x3 = 3 x4 = 4 x5 = 5
y1 = 1 y2 = 3 y3 = 4 y4 = 3 y5 = 6
Substituting in the second equation we get
( x1 x2 x3 ... xn )m 5b y1 y2 y3 ... yn
(1 2 3 4 5)m 5b 1 3 4 3 6
15m 5b 17
Example
Find the equation of the least-squares line for the data
P1(1, 1), P2(2, 3), P3(3, 4), P4(4, 3), and P5(5, 6)
Solution
Solving the simultaneous equations
55m 15b 61 15m 5b 17
gives m = 1 and b = 0.4.
Therefore, the required least-squares line is
y = x + 0.4
Example
Find the equation of the least-squares line for the data
P1(1, 1), P2(2, 3), P3(3, 4), P4(4, 3), and P5(5, 6)
Solution
Below is the graph of the required least-squares line
y = x + 0.4
y
6 L
5
4
3
2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
Applied Example: Maximizing Profit
A market research study provided the following data
based on the projected monthly sales x (in thousands) of
an adventure movie DVD.
p 38 36 34.5 30 28.5
x 2.2 5.4 7.0 11.5 14.6
x p x2 xp
2.2 38.0 4.84 83.6
5.4 36.0 29.16 194.4
7.0 34.5 49.00 241.5
11.5 30.0 132.25 345.0
14.6 28.5 213.16 416.1
40.7 167.0 428.41 1280.6
x 0 22.22 49.37
P(x) –25 374.78 – 222.47
z
f(x, y) = 2x2 + y2
h(x) = 3x2 – 2x + 1
y
(a, b)
g(x, y) = 0
x
Constrained Maxima and Minima
h( x) 2 x 2 ( x 1)2 3x 2 2 x 1
Example
Find the relative minimum of f(x, y) = 2x2 +y2 subject to
the constraint g(x, y) = x + y – 1 = 0.
Solution
We have
z
h(x) = 3x2 – 2x + 1. f(x, y) = 2x2 + y2
y
(a, b)
g(x, y) = 0
x
Example
Find the relative minimum of f(x, y) = 2x2 +y2 subject to
the constraint g(x, y) = x + y – 1 = 0.
Solution
To find this point (a, b), we determine the relative extrema
of a function of one variable:
h( x) 6 x 2 2(3x 1)
1
Setting h′ = 0 gives x = 3 as the sole critical point of h.
1
Next, we find h″(x) = 6 and, in particular, h″( ) = 6 > 0.
3
Therefore, by the second derivative test, the point gives
rise to a relative minimum of h.
1
Substitute x = into the constraint equation x +y – 1 = 0 to
3
get y = 1 .
3
Example
Find the relative minimum of f(x, y) = 2x2 +y2 subject to
the constraint g(x, y) = x + y – 1 = 0.
Solution
1 2
Thus, the point ( 3 , 3 ) gives rise to the required constrained
relative minimum of f.
2 2
1 2 1 2 2
Since
f , 2 , the required constrained
3 3 3 3 3
2 1 2
relative minimum value of f is at the point , .
3 3 3
2
It may be shown that is in fact a constrained absolute
3
minimum value of f.
The Method of Lagrange Multipliers
F ( x , y , ) f ( x, y ) g ( x , y )
(2 x 2 y 2 ) ( x y 1)
Example
Using the method of Lagrange multipliers, find the
relative minimum of the function f(x, y) = 2x2 +y2 subject
to the constraint x + y = 1.
Solution
We have F 2 x 2 y 2 ( x y 1)
To find the critical point(s) of the function F, solve the
system composed of the equations
Fx 4 x 0 Fy 2 y 0 F x y 1 0
Solving the first and second equations for x and y in terms
of λ, we obtain
1 1
x and y
4 2
Which, upon substitution into the third equation yields
1 1 4
1 0 or
4 2 3
Example
Using the method of Lagrange multipliers, find the
relative minimum of the function f(x, y) = 2x2 +y2 subject
to the constraint x + y = 1.
Solution
4 1 1
Substituting into x and y
3 4 2
1 4 1 1 4 2
yields x ( ) and y ( )
4 3 3 2 3 3
2 1 2
Therefore, x 1 and y , and 3 , 3 results in a
3 3
constrained minimum of the function f.
Applied Example: Designing a Cruise-Ship Pool
x2 + 4y2 = 3600
F ( x, y, ) f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) 4 xy ( x 2 4 y 2 3600)
2y
4x 8 y 0 or x2 4 y 2 0
x
Solving for x yields x = ± 2y.
Applied Example: Designing a Cruise-Ship Pool
Solution
We have Fx 4 y 2 x 0
Fy 4 x 8 y 0
F x 2 4 y 2 3600 0
Substituting x = ± 2y into the third equation, we have
4 y 2 4 y 2 3600 0
Which, upon solving for y yields
y 450 15 2
The corresponding values of x are
x 2 y 2(15 2) 30 2
Since both x and y must be nonnegative, we have
x 30 2 and y 15 2
or approximately 42 ☓ 85 feet.
Double Integrals
z = f(x, y) = y
R y
x y 1 x2
A Geometric Interpretation of the Double Integral
You may recall that we can do a Riemann sum to
approximate the area under the graph of a function of one
variable by adding the areas of the rectangles that form
below the graph resulting from small increments of x (x)
within a given interval [a, b]:
y
x
y= f(x)
x
a b
A Geometric Interpretation of the Double Integral
Similarly, it is possible to obtain an approximation of the
volume of the solid under the graph of a function of two
variables.
z
y= f(x, y)
c d
y
a
R
b
x
A Geometric Interpretation of the Double Integral
To find the volume of the solid under the surface, we can
perform a Riemann sum of the volume Si of parallelepipeds
with base Ri = x ☓ y and height f(xi, yi):
z
z = f(x, y)
c d
y
a
x
y
R
b
x
A Geometric Interpretation of the Double Integral
To find the volume of the solid under the surface, we can
perform a Riemann sum of the volume Si of parallelepipeds
with base Ri = x ☓ y and height f(xi, yi):
z
z = f(x, y)
Si
c d
y
a
x
y
R
b
x
A Geometric Interpretation of the Double Integral
To find the volume of the solid under the surface, we can
perform a Riemann sum of the volume Si of parallelepipeds
with base Ri = x ☓ y and height f(xi, yi):
z
z = f(x, y)
c d
y
a
b
x
A Geometric Interpretation of the Double Integral
The limit of the Riemann sum obtained when the number of
rectangles m along the x-axis, and the number of subdivisions n
along the y-axis tends to infinity is the value of the double
integral of f(x, y) over the region R and is denoted by
z
f ( x, y )dA
R
z = f(x, y)
c y ·n d
y
a
x
x ·m y
R
b
x
Theorem 1
Evaluating a Double Integral Over a Plane Region
y = g2(x)
y = g1(x)
x
a b
Theorem 1
Evaluating a Double Integral Over a Plane Region
R
x = h1(y) x = h2(y)
c
x
Examples
Evaluate ∫R∫f(x, y)dA given that f(x, y) = x2 + y2 and R is the
region bounded by the graphs of g1(x) = x and g2(x) = 2x
for 0 x 2.
Solution
The region under consideration is:
y g2(x) = 2x
4 g1(x) = x
3
2 R
1
x
1 2 3 4
Examples
Evaluate ∫R∫f(x, y)dA given that f(x, y) = x2 + y2 and R is the
region bounded by the graphs of g1(x) = x and g2(x) = 2x
for 0 x 2.
Solution
Using Theorem 1, we find:
2 1 3
2x
f ( x, y )dA ( x y )dy dx x y y dx
2 2x
2 2 2
0 x
3 x
R 0
2 3 8 3 3 1 3
2 x x x x dx
0
3 3
2
10 3
2 5 4
x dx x 13 13
0 3 6 0
Examples
Evaluate ∫R∫f(x, y)dA, where f(x, y) = xey and R is the plane
region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y = x.
Solution
The region under consideration is:
The points of intersection of
the two curves are found by y
2
solving the equation x = x,
giving x = 0 and x = 1. 1
g2(x) = x
R
g1(x) = x2
x
1
Examples
Evaluate ∫R∫f(x, y)dA, where f(x, y) = xey and R is the plane
region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y = x.
Solution
Using Theorem 1, we find:
f ( x, y )dA 2 xe dy dx xe 2 dx
1 x x
1
y y
R 0
x 0 x
1 1
( xe xe )dx 0 xe dx 0 xe dx
1 x2
x x2 x
0
1
1
( x 1)e x e x
2
Integrating by parts on
2 0 the right-hand side
1 1 1
e 1 (3 e)
2 2 2
The Volume of a Solid Under a Surface
1
y 1 x2
x
1
Example
Find the volume of the solid bounded above by the plane
z = f(x, y) = y and below by the plane region R defined by
y 1 x2 (0 x 1)
Solution
Therefore, the required volume is given by
1 1 x2
V ydA ydy dx
R 0
0
1 1
1 x 2
11
y 2
dx (1 x 2 )dx
0 2
0 2
0
1
1 1 3 1
x x
2 3 0 3
Example
Find the volume of the solid bounded above by the plane
z = f(x, y) = y and below by the plane region R defined by
y 1 x2 (0 x 1)
Solution
z
The graph of the solid
in question is: z = f(x, y) = y
R y
x y 1 x2
Conclusion about the Status of Neural Networks