Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
BASIC CONCEPTS
– Constant scale
– Areas correctly represented in their correct relative
proportions to those on the Earth.
– Both GC and RL represented as straight lines,
overcoming the problem of convergence.
– Positions easy to plot
– Adjacent sheets fitting together with the graticule
of lat. and long. aligned from one sheet to the next.
– Bearings on chart identical to the corresponding
bearings on the surface of the Earth.
– Shapes correctly represented.
– Parallels and Meridians intersecting at right angles
as on the surface of the Earth.
– Worldwide coverage.
• METHODS OF PROJECTION
• PERSPECTIVE
• MATHEMATICAL
METHODS OF PROJECTIONS
• PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONS: Mapmakers
work from the “Reduced Earth” which is a model
earth (globe) reduced in size to the required
scale.
• A light source, at
some given point within the
globe, projects the shadows
of the graticule of the globe
onto a piece of paper.
PROJECTION TYPES
PLANE PROJECTIONS
CONICAL PROJECTIONS
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS
PLANE/azimuthal PROJECTIONS
• Points on Earth directly projected to a flat
plane tangent to the Reduced Earth.
• Light source:
• Centre of globe: Gnomonic projections
• At the opposing point of the tangent point:
Stereographic projections
• At the infinite: Orthographic projections
Projection plane
Tangent point
Light source:
B. GNOMONIC
C. STEREOGRAPHIC
D. ORTHOGRAPHIC
CONICAL PROJECTIONS
• Cone placed over the Reduced Earth
tangential to a predetermined parallel
• Light source in centre of globe
Further modification: Cone cutting two parallels
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS
•A cylinder is placed over the
reduced Earth
• Complex mathematical
construction
MERCATOR ECUATORIAL PROJECTION
• Meridians:
• Vertical parallel lines.
• Equally spaced
• Parallels:
• Horizontal parallel lines
• Cross meridians at right angles
• distance increasing towards the poles
MERCATOR ECUATORIAL PROJECTION
• RL Straight lines
• GC Curved lines convex to the nearer
pole
MERCATOR ECUATORIAL PROJECTION
• FOR VOR:
– Take reciprocal of RMI to get radial
– Apply conversion angle
– Convert into TB using the station variation
REVIEW OF MERCATOR CHART
PROPERTIES
• CONFORMAL? – YES
• SCALE CORRECT? - ONLY AT EQUATOR
• CONVERGENCY? – 0º AND CONSTANT
• GC? – CURVED
• RL? – STRAIGHT LINES
REVIEW OF MERCATOR CHART
PROPERTIES
• SHAPES NOT DEFORMED? – ONLY SMALL
ONES AND AT LOW LATITUDES
• EQUAL AREAS? – NO. EXAGGERATED AT
HIGH LATITUDES
• ADJACENT SHEETS FIT? – YES
• COVERAGE – UNTIL 70/75º N/S
• POLES REPRESENTED? – NO_
CONICAL PROJECTION
• Cone placed over the reduced Earth
• Tangential along one parallel of latitude
(parallel of origin or standard parallel)
• Light source at the centre of the globe
• Scale expands away from the tangential
parallel
• Unwrapped cone: forms a segment
representing the 360º of real Earth
CONICAL / LAMBERT
• Constant of the cone (c.c) – Ratio between the
developed cone arc (size of the segment) to
the actual arc on the Earth covered by the
chart (360º)
• Chart convergence:
• Larger than Earth
convergence at lower
latitudes than parallel of
origin
• CONFORMAL? – YES
• SCALE CORRECT? - ONLY AT STANDARD
PARALLELS
• GC : curves concave to
the Pole. The closer to the
centre of projection, the
more it will approximate
to a straight line.
• Convergence = Ch Long
1. SPOT HEIGHTS
2. CONTOUR LINES
3. HATCHURES
4. COLOURING OR TINTING
• Lines connecting
places of equal
elevation, normally
AMSL.
• Sometimes used
instead of regular
contour lines
COLOURING OR TINTING
• To further emphasise
relief indicated by
contour-lines.
• Colour legend on each
chart.
• To designate areas within
certain elevation ranges.
• Darker colours mean
higher terrain.
SHADING OF SLOPING TERRAIN
• Graduated shading
to the SE side of
elevated terrain and
on NW side of
depressions
• Three-dimensional
effect
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS
• Cultural features or man-made structures
• Landmarks hazardous to low flying aircraft
• Natural features
• Information
related to
aerodromes