ECOLOGY  Relationship between plants and environment
(ex. Diseases of plant caused by weather
 oldest science
 indigenous practices in the Philippines
a. Bontocs in Cordillera
 Nutrient cycling (each house w/ pig pen under
where all waste materials are dumped; pigs
slaughtered for religious practices; wastes to the
paddies
b. Ikalahan in Nueva Vizcaya
 Shifting cultivation; incorporated soil and water
conservation and nutrient cycling
c. Hanunoo Mangyans of Mindoro
 Practice kaingin farming from lands from forest;
w/ long fallow period and established indication
species to show when the area is ready for the
next cropping
IMPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS PRACTICES
 Survival strategy is an integral part
 Evolutionary dev’t not only bet. Plants and
animals w/ their env’t but also bet. Human
communities and their environments.
ECOLOGY
 Study of organisms their relationship with other
and with their physical environment
*organisms- all living organisms
* relationship- both positive and negative
interaction with the physical environment and
with other organisms
* environment- includes all the physical and
biological factors and conditions under which an
organism lives
- consist of all the factors and phenomena
outside of the organism that influences its
survival and reproduction
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
Physical Factors (physico-chemico env’t)- includes
temperature, moisture, soil, humidity, ph)
Biological Conditions (biotic environment)- refers to
the influence of organism on another
Ennvironment acts as a system that consists of
interdependent parts making up a whole with man as
one of its components; life support system of organisms.
SCIENTISTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECOLOGY
1. ARISTOTLE (3RD CENTURY BC)
 Wrote about the relationship of organisms with
the environment
 Historia Animalia
2. THEOPHRASTUS
 First ecologist
conditions like frost)
3. CHARLES JOSEPH KREBS
 Scientific study that define ecology in 1972
 Distribution and abundance of species
4. ARTHUR GEORGE TANSLEY
 Coined the term “ecosystem” ---- ecological
system in 1935
5. CHARLES ELTON
 Father of animal ecology; study of periodic
fluctuation as characteristics of natural
population; introduced food chain/food web/
niche concepts
6. EUGENE ODUM
 Defined ’’ systems in ecology” (ecosystem
ecology) in 1966 as an integrative discipline
where the interdependence of organisms and
the environment is highlighted
 Famous author of “Fundamentals of Ecology”
7. BARRY COMMONER
 Four basic laws of Ecology
8. HERODOTUS AND PLATO
 Providential ecology “nature should provide”;
nature is designed to benefit and preserve each
species
9. ROBERT MALTHUS
 Developed the idea bet. The rel’ship of
population and food supply (food supply is not
unlimited and can determine the population)
10. VIVO VOLTERRA & ALFRED LOTKA
 Predation-prey model (prey is dependent on
the population of predators and vice versa)
11. PIERRE VERHULTS
 Proposed the logistic growth of population
(growth rate decreases as the population
reaches carrying capacity)
12. ALEXANDER HUMBOLDT
 Father of Ecology; rel’ship of organism and env’t
 First to describe ecological difference of
latitudinal biodiversity (correlation bet. Plants
and climate)
 Biodiversity increases when you become
near the equator because the climate is
constant and favorable
 Nature is dynamic, “Nothing in nature can be
studied in isolation”
13. JUSTUS VON LIEBIG
 Proposed the LAW OF MINIMUM in 1840
14. VICTOR SHELFORD
 Law of Tolerance in 1913
15. GEORGY GAUSE
 “ Competitive exclusion principle” (species
cannot occupy the same niche at the same time)
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF ECOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
 Species/ individual- group of organisms of the
same kind capable of interbreeding and
producing viable off springs
 Population- same species living together in the
same area at a given time
  Community- population of diff. species
interacting within an ecosystem; living
component of ecosystem
 Ecosystem- various populations of the
community interacting with each other and w/
physical env’t (exchanging matter and energy)
 Biome- terrestrial ecosystems present in a large
geographical area having similar vegetation
types (dictated by climate)
 Biosphere- outer layer of the Earth’s crust,
bodies of H2O and the lower layer of the
atmosphere where life exists and where
elements of weather and climate are; sphere of
life
ECOLOGY
 How do ecologists study nature? *begins at the
organismic level and observe organism in
natural habitat; specific place where organism
lives together with all the conditions present in it;
considered as ecologists’ laboratory so they can
observe the natural behavior of the organisms
TYPES OF HABITAT
 Terrestrial
 Aerial
 Aquatic
APPLICATION OF ECOLOGY
 (1970) env’tal awareness
 Involved in social, political, economic sciences
 Awareness about pollution, overpopulation
degraded environments (i.e Rachel Carson-
Silent in Spring 1962)
 Effects of chemical in the env’t ( Aldo Leopold- a
sand county Almanac 1949)
 Called for ecological land ethics (Fairfield
osburn- Our plundered paradise 1948)
 Growing population- resource problem
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:
 Based on ecosystem and theoretical ecology
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION
 Animal eco
 Plant eco
 Microbial eco
 Wildlife eco
 *Env’tal Chem
 *Env’tal Molec Bio
 *Env’tal Science
 *Fisheries Science
 *Marine Science
BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY
 BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY- study of behavioral
interaxns bet. Individuals within populations and
communities, usually in an evolutionary context
 ECO-PHYSIOLOGY- how organisms adapt to
certain env’t; how the env’t interacts with the
physiology of an organism
 ECOTOXICOLOGY- toxic chemicals effects to
ecosystem
 TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY- study of how land-
based organisms interact with each other and
the env’t
 AQUATIC ECOLOGY- focuses on water env’t;
includes all these relationships in all aquatic
env’ts
LAWS OF ECOLOGY by Barry Commoner
 American cell biologist
 College prof
 Politician
 Leading ecologist; founder of the modern env’tal
movement
 Director of critical genetics project and the
center for Biology of Natural System
LAWS OF ECOLOGY
 Everything is connected to everything else-
food chain and food web
Ex: GPP and NPP
 Everything must go somewhere- Water or
Hydrological Cycle
 Nature knows best- ecological succession;
how the overall make-up of the envt change
through time
 There’s no such thing as free lunch- in
every gain there is something that is lost
ECOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING LIFE
 Biotic components shouldn’t be separated with
abiotic because they are one physical unit =
ecosystem
 Ecosystem is the basic unit of ecology
 Biotic + abiotic
 Biotic component shouldn’t be studied apart
from the physical env’t where the organisms
evolved. One can explain why a particular
organism lives that way it does in the context of
the kind of physical and biotic env’t of its habitat.
a. Biotic- populations of the community
b. Abiotic- physical and chemical factors
ROLES OF ABIOTIC FACTORS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
 influence various metabolic and physiological
processes of the organism and regulate their
functions
 at the population lvl, they determine the
population size of the species present in a
community, also the presence/absence of
population in the area
 define the species’ distribution and abundance
 act as selective forces to which an organism
adapts or cope with, in order to survive and
reproduce
 determine the type of biome present in a
geographical area
 affects behavior of plants and animals as a
response to the physical factors of the
environment
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
 resources- factors that can be
consumed/directly utilized by organism
*renewable/non-renewable
 conditions- factors that are not directly
consumed but affect the growth and survival
of the organisms
 can also be changed/ affected by organism
 climatic- factors directly related to climate
 ex. Light, temp, humidity
 edaphic- factors related to soil
 ex. Soil temp, moisture, pH, organic matter,
nutrients, soil profile and texture
 topographic- elevation
 ex. Altitude, angle of slope, land formations
 wind- pollination
 ex. Anemometer- used for measuring wind
speed
 Light- light meter (used to measure light
intensity)
EARTH’S ENERGY BUDGET
*solar radiation is related to temp and light
intensity
*ALBEDO-term used to describe reflectivity of a
surface
*3 fates of Solar rad that Earth receives;
reflected, absorbed, transmitted
*LIGHT is both resource and condition
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
(TERRESTRIAL)
 aspect
 north facing slope are cooler and darker than
south facing slopes in Northern hemisphere
 biotic factors
 food availability
 climatic factors
 effects of weather (i.e rain)
 edaphic factors
 soil pH (effects of growth of a particular plant as
pH affects enzyme action)
2 SEASONS
 DRY
 WET
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (AQUATIC)
 Light penetration
 e.g plankton grows better in the upper layers of
water due to higher light intensity
 currents
 transferred organism; some attach themselves
to objects
 e.g limpets and barnacles
 wave action
 moves and damages organisms
 salinity
 freshwater/saltwater organism (cause issue with
water moving in and out of their cells the effect
is osmotic pressure = expel or absorb the salt)
 oxygen concentration
 lower dissolved oxygen
 tides
 the amount of time organisms are exposed/
submerged
Greenhouse effect- caused by greenhouse
gases which are naturally occurring = advanced
greenhouse gases will result to higher level of
concentration due to pollutants
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE
PATTERNS
A. shape of the Earth (higher altitudes =
greater variation in temperature)
B. revolution and rotation of the Earth
around the sun
C. tilt of earth/s axis
= 4 types of climates (effect: type of
biome formed)
D. atmospheric movement- gas expands,
cool down; gas compress, the temp will
go up (heat) warm air rises, expands
and moves into an area of low temp
1. Thermal inversion- due to high air pressure it
compresses warm air and the cold air below
becomes concentrated
Cause; pollutants, presence of building and
mountains
2. Global circulation of air

3. Local winds (cause; sea and land breeze)
Effects:
Soil moisture and humidity
Physiological drought
Wind removes humid air about the leaves =
increase H2O loss
Tall plants grow
E. Relative humidity- percentage of
moisture in the air relative to the amount
of water the air could hold at saturation
 Affected temp is warmed by air whle air moisture
content remains constant = pH drops (warm air
can hold more moisture)
 Gen. lower by day (temp)
 Directly related to precipitation/ rainfall
 Effect of RH: alternation of wet and dry seasons
influences reproduction and activity of
organisms
Moisture- water taken up = water loss
Absorption= evaporation, excretion, evapotranspiration
F. Ocean currents- influence climates of
continental land masses especially in
the coastal regions
G. Microclimates- climate is the immediate
vicinity of an organism; influenced by
topographic differences
H. Temperature
REGULATION = how to cope/ general responses of
organisms
Ex. Eat when hungry
HOMEOSTASIS= how to maintain balance/ equilibrium
RESPONSES TOWARDS REGULATION AND
HOMEOSTASIS
 Behavioral- what are you going to do?
 Physiological- cactus (succulent); they hav small
leaves to resuce evapotranspiration
 Evolutionary- insescts develop resistance
against insecticides
 Developmental- higher RBC count
RESPONSE TO LACK OF MOISTURE
 Conserve water/ prevent water loss
RESPONSE TO EXCESSIVE MOISTURE
 Get rid of excess absorbed water/ prevent
excessive intake
*flooding  aeration (soil is porous)  lack of
oxygen, there is space, it can’t hold too much water
 water displaces in soil= roots lack O2
accumulation of toxic substances and anaerobic
metabolites in roots.
*all organisms can respire but not all can
photosynthesize
RESPONSES OF PLANT TO MOISTURE
a. Pneumatophores- mangroves; pneuma
means “to breathe”
Prop roots- stability, additional support
b. Formation of hollow tubes
c. Having shallow and spreading roots
RESPONSES OF PLANTS TO DROUGHT
 Avoidance/drought resistance
 Germinate during rainy season(dormant until
right moisture condition)
 Regulation of stomatal opening
 Reduce transpiration (across the cuticle; thicken
it to reduce transpiration)
 Extending root system
 Increase water storage
 Diff photosynthetic pathways (related to
availability of moisture)
RESPONSES OF ANIMALS TO MOISTURE
 Excretory system; feces, respiration,
evaporation
 Drinking
 Store h2o from the kidneys in the bladders
(amphibians)
 Reabsorption (ex cloaca in birds, reptiles)
 Avoidance (leave area during dry season) 
behavioral
 Reduce respiratory water loss (concentrated
urine, dry feces)
THERMAL RELATIONS IN ANIMALS
1. POIKILOTHERMY
 Means “varied temp”
 Cold blooded “cool to touch”
 Rates of metabolism and oxidation of env’tal
temp (i.e for every 10 deg C rise in temp, rate
doubles)
 w/ low metabolic rates and high thermal
conduction bet. Body and env’t
 Aquatic* fish and mollusk can maintain constant
seasonal body temp; become temp specialists
w/ a low range of temp variation
 *ACCLIMATIZATION (ex. Undergo cellular and
enzymatic changes over a period of time)
ADVANTAGES:
 No normal temp be dependent of external env’t
 Glu+O2CO2+H2O= regulation
  Able to allocate their energy intake to biomass
rather than metabolic needs
 Doesn’t depend on internally generated body
heat = can decrease metabolic activity during
food and water shortage or temp extremes
 Low energy demand= enables colonization of
areas with limited food and water = expolitation
of habitats and resources
 Not restricted to a minimal body size because of
metabolic rate loss
 Poikilotherms  slow-moving  low metabolic
rate  low energy input
2. HOMEOTHERMY
 Can maintain normal body temp
 w/ high metabolic rate and low thermal
conditions
ADVANTAGES:
 can remain active regardless of env’tal temp
 maintains body temp higher than ambient thru
internal heat production
 can maintain a high level of physical activity w/
exhaustion due to high lvl of aerobic energy
production
 with efficient cardiovascular & respiratory
systems that bring oxygen to tissues
 can exploit wider range of thermal env’t
 can generate energy rapidly when situation
demands 9ex escape from predators)
DISADVANTAGES:
 high energetic cost of aerobic metablism =
minimum of energy for biomass accumulation
ANIMAL HEAT STRATEGIES
 basking in the sun (butterflies&dragonflies)
 moving bet. Diff thermal env’t (amphibians)
 raising or lowering bodies relative to the ground
(reptiles)
 seeking shde; burrowing into the soil
 huddling togther (penguins)
 insulations (feathers, fur, fat)
 evaporative cooling (sweating&panting)
 diapause, aestivation, winter sleep and
hibernation
Diapause Hibernatio Winter Aestivatio
n Sleep n characteristics of the individual and the env’t
Delay in Long Short Summer
dev’t period of period sleep
response inactivity of in
to env’tal Activit
condition y
s (not
conti
nuous)
ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS TO TEMP
 reflectivity of leaves and bases
 orientation of leaves to incoming radiation
 size and shape of leaves
 plants protein resistant to freezing of cell fluids
to avoid frost damage during growing season
 lowering the freezing point
 insulation (hair- traps heat *trichomes)
 in tropic: spadix and spathe
TEMP AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION
 tropical rainforest
 temperate forest (conifers, pines, deciduous)
 grasslands- high tem, low precipitation
 desert (palm, cacti, ephemeral organisms)
 Taiga (coniferous/boreal forest)
 Tundra (moss, lichens, low growing plants)
SALINITY – concentration of salt in water
w/ body fluids w/ the same osmotic pressure as sea
water (algae)
kidney, salt-excreting glands
maiintains osmotic pressure
tolerance (halophytes)
SOIL AND VEGETATION- vegetation reflects the soil
and influences its dev’t & formation
 Ex. In high time soil plants have uptake of Ca
need adequate supply of P and MG, intolerant of
Al ions.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION
 Climate (temp, rainfall)
 Parent material (particle size)
 Relief- topography, elevation
 Hydrology- drainage (poor H2O, water logging)
 Organisms- ex. N fixers
 Time- affecting weathering
NATURAL SELECTION
 Individual making by a population that aren’t
identical
 All populations have the potential to populate the
Earth however; there is mortality (env’tal
resistance)
 Diff indiv. Have diff no. of descendants
 The no. of descendants produced by the
individual will depend on the interaxn bet. The
*Survival of the fittest (evo by natural selection);
does natural selection predict perfection? No,
because there’s no such thing as perfect genes
but there are more fitted than the others
*fitness proportionate contribution of the
individuals to future generations “we are the
consequences of the past”
LIMITING FACTORS AND RANGE OF TOLERANCE
LAW OF MINIMUM
 Developed by Carl Sprengel in 1828
  Popularized by Leibig who is a plant physiologist
and published in 1873
 “growth is not dictated by the total resources
available, but by scarcest resource
LAW OF LIMITING FACTOR
 “single factor that is either too much or too little
determines the growth rate of species or the
presence/absence of its population in a
particular place even if all other required factors
are in optimal levels”
LIMITING FACTORS
 Resource/env’tal condition
 Physical/biological interaxn
 Limits growth, distribution and abundance of
organisM
 Basis for niche theory/ competition
 Functional roles of species in the community
including activities and rel’ships (fundamental
and realized niche)
 Restricts organisms from occupying their
fundamental niche  realized niche
 *fundamental niche is the total range of env’t
that can be utilized by an organism in the
absence of limiting factors
LIMITING FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF
POPULATION
 DENSITY INDEPENDENT- effect is not
dependent on size of population
Ex. Earthquake, tsunami, drought, storm,wildfires
Abiotic
 DENSITY DEPENDENT- effect is
determined by the total size of the
population
Ex. Predation-prey model;disease and parasites; waste
accumulation; competition
Biotic
LAW OF TOLERANCE
 Ability of an organism to survive in a particular
habit or to have the size of population in a
community is determined by its ability to tolerate
a range of physical and chemical factors present
in area
3 SET POINTS OF TOLERANCE RANGE
 Optimum range- conducive for
reproduction and growth
 Minimum zone- lowest range tolerable;
lower limit of tolerance; organism’s
growth is inhabited
 Maximum zone- highest range tolerable
Zone of intolerance- unfavourablefor growth and dev’t of
organisms; no species survive
EXTREME CONDITIONS- may disrupt biological
functions = death; must maintain certain level of
biological activity to survive
DEGREE OF TOLERANCE
STENO  NARROW EURY  WIDE
Haline  salinity phagic  food
Thermal  temperature ecious  habitat
Hydric  Water
ABIOTIC FACTOR: TEMPERATURE
-mostly organisms fail to grow/ reproduce their outside
temp range
-Optimum temp may vary with the life stage activity (ex.
Photosynthesis) lower than that for respiration; seeds of
many plants will not germinate and eggs/ pupae of some
insects will not hatch or develop normally chilled
-generally, range is limited by the lowest crit temp in the
most vulnerable stage of its life cycle (e.g reproductive
stage)
RANID FROG SPECIES:
a. Wood frog breeding season in late march (water
temp is around 10C); eggs can develop at 2.5C:
larvae transforms in 60 days
b. Meadow frog breeds in late April (water temp
15C) larvae develop in 90 days
c. Green frog breeding temp 25C eggs develop at
33C (will not develop until temp exceeds 11C)
LARGEMOUTH BASS- builds nest at 44C; begins to
spawn at 8.9C
Living temp is 16-17.8C
Acclimatizes to 20C; dies at 26.7C
KINDS OF ORGANISMS BASED ON RANGE OF
TOLERANCE
A. EURYTOPIC- w/ wide range of tolerance
B. STENOTOPIC- w/ narrow range of tolerance
IDEAL

REALITY- When the growth rate of a
population decreases as the number of
individuals increases, this is called logistic
population growth
CARRYING CAPACITY- no. of organisms within
an area which an envt can sustain
INTERAXN AMONG ABIOTIC FACTORS (temp and
moisture)
 Determines the climate of a region and the
distrib. Of vegetation
 High/low temp= low moisture condition
 High relative humidity= cold is more penetrating
and high temp is more noticeable
 * high temp= less moisture bc moisture dries
out; low temp= less moisture bc moisture
freezes
Ex. North America- distrib of vegetation is more
influenced by pattern of moisture than temp
Europe- more influenced by temp
Mountainous country- temp & moisture changes
on altitudinal gradient (i.e in montane; w/ greater
humidity and lower temp as altitude increases)
Mountains modify vegetation by changing patterns
of precipitation* lusher vegetation at windward side;
dry, desertlike condition in leeward side
ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS
Sun is the main source of energy; the ability t do
work
Potential = stored energy; kinetic = moving
energy
Examples of kinetic energy in the env’t:
 Wind- movement of air mass
 Flow of water- can be used to run electricity
 Electricity- electrons flow to produce electricity
 Heat- total kinetic energy of all moving atoms,
ion molecules within a substance

 Energy that comes from the sun is in the form of
radiation (usually light and thermal/ heat energy)
 Light is for photosynthesis
 Heat is for the heating up ecosystem
 Production in ecosystem involves fixation and
transfer of energy from the sun
 Fixation of solar energy in green plants=
photosynthesis (products accumulate as plant
biomass)
 *non-photosynthetic converts stored energy into
heterotrophic biomass
 Energy is either spent/temporarily stored
expenditure and storage of energy are governed
by laws of thermodynamics
1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (Law of
Conservation of Energy)
 Thermodynamics- study of rel’ship
of heat, work, temp and energy;
heat flow
 Benjamin Thompson- heat as
energy
 Sadi Carnot- new design for
efficient steam engine
 Rudold Clausius- 2 laws of
thermodynamics; entropy=
dissipation of available energy
 Energy gained/lost by any living or
non-living system must equal
energy lost/gained by its
surrounding/env’t---- energy in
(endothermic)= energy out
(exothermic)
 *Heat is low quality form of
energy; not capable of work
 Can’t be destroyed/ created
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
1. RADIATION- emission of electromagnetic
energy
2. CONDUCTION- transfer of kinetic energy
between substances or material in contact
with one another
3. CONVECTION- movement of heat within
liquids and gases
2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Total amount of energy in any reaction doesn’t
increase/decrease but much of potential energy
degrades into a form incapable of doing further
work up (ends up as heat---
 disorganized/randomly dispersed molecules
in motion)
 *entropy- measure of disorderliness;
transformation of matter and energy from an
organized state to a more random disorganized
state
 in every energy conversion, part of the energy is
transformed to heat which causes entropy
 **heat always flow towad cooler
surroundings
 Energy transformation/conversion isn’t 100%
effcient (ex. As energy is transferred from one
organism to another as form of food, a large part
of that energy is degraded as heat (not
transferrable), remainder is stored in living
tissues
 *theoretically applied to closed systems (no
exchange of matter/energy bet. The system &
the surrounding) in living system (open system)
to decrease entropy; w/ continuous input of
energy
 ** when energy changes from one form to
another, we always end up with lower quality or
less usable energy than we started with
LOSS OF ENERGY BACK TO THE ENV’T
 RESPIRATION
 GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION
 DEFECATION
 NON-PREDATORY DEATH
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY: green plants consume
something from the air; discovered plants produce
oxygen
Experimented on candle put inside a container, and
another container with mint plant inside
JAN INGENHOUSZ: work based from Priestley’s
discoveries; stated plants need the presence of light to
produce oxygen
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
 Energy accumulated by green plants
 First and basic form of energy storage
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
 Rate at which energy accumulates
 Autochtonous- materials are from the same
origin
 Allochtonous- materials doesn’t came from
same area
**Production is the accumulation of energy but
Productivity is the rate of production of energy.
PRIMARY PRODUCTION MADE BY PRIMARY
PRODUCERS
GPP (gross primary productivity) total amount of
energy that producers convert to chemical energy in
organic molecules per unit of time ** the plant must
use energy to support its own proceses w/
cellular respiration such as growth and opening
and closing of stomata.
NPP (net primary productivity)- energy available
to be used by another **stored as organic matter
GROSS AND NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
PRODUCTION is expressed in units of energy per
unit area (e.g kcal/square meter) or mass of dry
organic matter
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
BIOMASS- accumulated organic matter over time
from net production; weight of living material;
expressed as dry weight
Standing (crop) biomass- accumulated organic
matter in an area at a given time
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Form of energy fixation where light is converted
to energy
 Only process by which sun’s energy enters the
living components of the ecosystem
 AKA as Primary Production energy
accumulated by plants
 **Therefore, flow of energy into an ecosystem
starts w/ the fixation of sunlight by plants thru
the process of photosynthesis
 Absorption and conversion of light energy to
chemical energy
 End products: G3P
 Takes place in chloroplasts (organelle) w/
chlorophyll (pigment) lies in the mesophyll cells
(20-100 chloroplasts)
 Plants,algae, bacteria
 Interior of the leaf exchange gases w/ the
atmosphere through stomata
 Crucial ingredients for photosynthesis: light,
CO2, H2O
 Phosphoglycerate: carbon cmpd
 ATP: provide phosphate grp attachment;
energy currency; energy stored in biological
ecosystems
 CHLOROPLAST
 *inner membrane encloses fluid-filled region
(stroma) w/c contains enzymes needs to
produce carbohydrates
THYLAKOIDS – interconnected set of flat, like sacs
are arranged in stacks called “grana”making up a
membrane system
CHLOROPHYLL- absorbs light in the blue and red
regions of visible light
KINDS OF CHLOROPHYLL:
a. Chlorophyll A- initiates photosynthesis
b. Chlorophyll B- accessory pigment
photosynthesis; yellow green
c. Chlorophyll C- bacteria
** Other accessory pigments: Carotenoids
(yellow&orange)- absorb wavlengths other than
absorbed by Chl, thereby expanding the
spectrum of light
**GEN EQUATION
6𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 𝐶𝑂2
STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A. LIGHT REACTION- PHOTOPART
B. DARK REACTION- CALVIN CYCLE
(SYNTHESIS PART)
LIGHT( DEPENDENT) REACTION:
 Light energy is converted to electrical energy
(flow of electrons thru chlorophyll in the
photosystems) and then into chemical energy (in
the bonds of ATP and NADPH, nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate)
 Produces oxygen as waste
 Occurs in the membrane of thylakoid
 End products: ATP, NADH, OH
** when electrons abdorb energy it gets excited
and pass to the other electrons
 Chlorophyll is in thylakoid because it absorbs
light
SUMMARY:
1. Light hits P680, electron excites, leves PSII,
transfer to other proteins until it reaches
PST
2. H2O is splitted into ½ O2 + 2H+
3. Concentration of H+ in thylakoid drives
proton pump to pump H+ into the stroma
through the ATP synthase
4. ATP Synthase has axle that rotates and
releases energy in the form of ATP
PHOTOSYSTEMS
Heart of the Light Reactions:
Photosystems- light gathering complex
composed of a proteinaceous reaction center
complex surrounded by several light harvesting
(antenna) complexes
Antenna pigments such as carotenoids &
chlorophyll b, pass their exerted electrons to one
another until the electron reaches the
REACTION CENTER COMPLEX w/ large
protein, the PRIMARY ELECTRON
RECEPTOR.
**antenna complex- chl molecule and
accessory pigments+ pigment – binding
proteins; absorb light energy transfer it to a
reaction center
*reaction center= chl molecules & proteins that
directly participates in photosynthesis
Redox reaction = as the chlorophyll molecules
accept excited electrons from other pigments in
the photosystem, they pass them along to the
primary electron accpetor
Cytochrome complex- the excited electron is
passed to a small shuttle protein which leads to
this and forms and electron transport chain
**NADPH is an electron acceptor
TYPES OF PHOTOSYSTEMS
1. PHOTOSYSTEM II- reaction center contains
chlorophyll a molecules (P680) that have
peak absorbance of 680nm
2. PHOTOSYSTEM I- P700
**named in order of their discovery
WHAT HAPPENS TO WATER MOLECULE?
 An enzyme splits water to yield:
 Two electrons: these replace those lost by the
two P680 molecules in the reaction center
 one oxygen atom: this combines with another
oxygen atom from a different split water
molecule to form oxygen gas (O2)
 two protons (H ions): some will combine with
NADP (to form NADP-H) to store energy to be
shuttled to the stroma for the light-independent
reactions.
DARK REACTION
 AKA as light-independent reaction; Calvin cycle
(named after Melvin Calvin in 1940)
  Can proceed with or without light reduces, a 3-carbon intermediate to make
 Occurs in stroma; converts CO2 to sugars G3P.
 Uses rubisco (ribulose biphosphate carboxylate 3. Regeneration:
oxygenase) Some G3P molecules go to make glucose,
 Inputs: CO2, NADPH and ATP while others must be recycled to regenerte
 Products: G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration requires
 Calvin Cycle: produces sugar ATP and involves a complex network of
 Phospholipid bilayer: universl component of all reaction.
cell membranes; its structural components
provide the barrier that marks the boundaries of C4 PATHWAY
a cell - produces a 4-carbon compound (oxaloacetate;
 Concentration Gradient: process of particles mesophyll) as first product
which are sometimes called solutes moving - uses 2 types of photosynthetic cells:
through a solution or gas from an area with a bundlesheath cells: arranged into tightly packed
higher number of particles to an area with a sheaths around the veins of the leaf where
lower number of particles Calvin is confined its chloroplasts. (Mesophyll;
 ATP Synthase: has axle that transform ADP to bet the leaf surface and bundle sheath)
ATP - cycle is preceded by incorporation of CO2 into
organic cmpds in bundle sheath
- Calvin cycle is performed in bundle sheath
- CO2+PEP= oxaloacetate (thru PEP
carboxylase)
METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS IN CONSERVING - PEP carboxylase has no affinity for O2
WATER - Mesophyll cells pump CO2 into the bundle
sheath= CO2 concentration is highly enough for
 Photosynthesis  transpiration
rubisco to bind CO2 than O2= photorespiration
(evaporative loss of H2O through leaf surface) reduced= ATP produced
- Used by tropical plants
RESPONSE: close stomata (partially closed) on (corn,sugarcane,sorghum)
hot, dry days
RESULT: Limited CO2, O2 increases (from light CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism)
reaction) = PHOTORESPIRATION
- Named after the family of plants “Crassulacea”
PHOTORESPIRATION (C3) - Used by desert plants
- Stomata close durig day and open during night
- By C3 plants (first product; 3-phosphoglycerate; (to prevent CO2 from entering the leaves)
3-carbon molecule) - CO2 + organic acids stored at night in vacuoles
- Occurs in light, consumes O2, releases CO2, no till morning
ATP produced, no sugar produced = wasteful - All day, when light reactions can suppply ATp
process (decreased photosynthetic output) and NADPH for the Calvin, CO2 is released
- Low CO2 starves Calvin cycle from the orgnic acids to incorporate into sugar in
- Rubisco can bind with O2 in place of CO2 (O2 > chloroplasts
CO2)
- Products splits and a 2-carbon compound the VARIATION IN PRIMARY PRODUCTION
chloroplast
- Age
- Peroxisomes & mitochondria rearrange and split
- Ecosystem type
the cmpd releasing O2
- Time
- w/ defective genes= impaired to carry out
- Seasonal variation (dormancy period)
photorespiration= more susceptible to damage
- Grazing, defoliation, hebivory
by excess light; ex. Rice, wheat, soybean
- Insufficient nutrients, pollutants
1. Carbon dioxide reacts w/ Ribulose
Biphosphate: Carbon Fixation- CO2
combines with a five-carbon acceptor C3 C4 CAM
molecule, ribulos-1,5 biphospahte. This step Light saturation 3000-6000 8000- ?
makes a6 carbon cmpd, 3 phosphoglyceric footcandles 1000
acid. This reaxn is catalyzed by RuBP. Optimum temp 16-25 C 40- 30-
2. Reduction of 3-PGA: 80C 35C
Reduction- in thr second stage ATP and CO2 30-70 ppm 0-10 0-4
NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA compensation ppm ppm
molecule into molecules of a 3-carbon
Max 15-35 30-45 3-13
sugar, G3p. This stage gets its name
photosynthetic
because NADPH donates electrons to, or
rate
 (MgCO2/dm2 apex predators are lower; organisms below
leaf area/hr) them supply energy and regulates
Maximum 1 4 0.02 population
growth rate
(g/dm2/day)
BIOMAGNIFICATION
Photorespiration High Low low
Stomata Open (day) Open Closed - Tendency of certain chemicals to
behavior Closed (day) (day) accumulate or build up within food
(night) Closed Open chains and multiplies everytime it moves
(night) (night) up the food chain
- Toxins accumulated becomes more
concentrated when passed to upper
trophic levels
SECONDARY PRODUCTION - Organisms at the top of the food chain
suffer greater harm because they
- Net production of consumers consume a lot of bioaccumulated
- Left over energy from maintenance and organisms/plants
reproduction
- For production (e.g new tissues, growth) BIOACCUMULATION:

BIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF LAWS OF - Is when a harmful substance gets

THERMODYNAMICS
A. ENERGY PYRAMID – depicts the
production, use and transfer of energy from
one trophic level to another; transfers are
not efficient and vary from species (10-30%
of the total energy content of the lower
trophic level is transferred; much is lost as
heat during respiration/maintenance 70-
90%)
10% Rule- explains why food chains are
short and pyramidal relationships exist
There is less amount of energy available to
the higher trophic levels as compared to
those in lower levels
B. BIOMASS PYRAMID- total amount of
matter that is tied up in the bodies of
organism
C. NUMBER PYRAMID- depicts relative
abundance of organisms at each trophic
level; primary producers are higher then
absorbed by an organism at a higher
rate than it can be excreted
- This occurs because of the toxins that
are not water soluble but instead fat
insoluble that makes it hard for the
organism to undergo excretion
ECOLOGICAL NICHE
- range of physical environments (place) in which
species occurs and its accompanying behavioral
adaptations (Joseph Grinnell, 1917)
Ex. behavior of the California thrasher is consistent with
its chaparral habitat (breeds and feeds in the underbrush
and escapes from its predators by shuffling from
underbrush to underbrush
*its niche is defined by its felicitous Complementing of its
behavior and physical traits (camouflaging color, short
wings, strong legs) with its habitat
- the trophic or functional role of an organism within the
community - its relations to food and enemies (Charles
Elton, 1927)
**carnivore niche in an oak wood: tawny owls eating
shrews and mice carnivore niche in open grassland:
kestrels eating mice
- “requirements for survival” (Evelyn Hutchinson,
1957)
- Env’tal conditions and resources that define the
requirements of an individual or species to
practice its way of life
- Involves the full range of condition and
resources within which it can survive and
reproduce organism will come into contact w/
on the niches of other  interspecific
competition
- Sum of a species’ use of the biotic and abiotic
resources in its env’t
- Specific functional role of an organism
TYPES OF NICHE: Grazing vs. Detrital Food Chain

 FUNDAMENTAL NICHE- full range of - differs in the source of energy for the first level
conditions and resources to which an organism consumers
is adapted to and could be used without
interference from another species; potential grazing: living plant biomass (NPP)
niche detrital: dead organic matter (detritus)
 REALIZED NICHE- portion of the fundamental
niche that a species actually exploits in the - 1st level consumer in grazing food chain:
absence of competitors and other limitations;
actual niche herbivores
 1st level consumer in detrital food chain: decomposer
Generalists Specialists herbivore
Species w/ broad Narrow niches
niches - above ground consumers more conspicuous
Tolerate a range of Can’t tolerate wide grazers; belowground herbivores can have
conditions ranges of conditions pronounced effect on primary production
Use variety of Require certain foods
FOOD WEB
resources etc.
 interlocking food chains; complex associations
*Two types:
FOOD CHAIN
grazing food web – above ground
- pathway of energy transfer from primary detritus food web - soil-based
producers to primary consumers to the top
carnivore
- simplified illustrations of the path of energy and
nutrient transfer in the ecosystem
- each level from the producers to the next group
of organisms represents a trophic level
- grazing (above ground) and detrital (below the
ground) food chain
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS IN ECOSYSTEM
1. species present and absent in an area
(species composition)
2. stratification  distribution of species an
ecosystem
3. food relationship
** niche  role of an organism in an
ecosystem