Unit 3 – human learning

Criteria being assessed in this unit are:

3 – analyse theories about human learning
7 – use evidence to support a psychological point of view
8 – communicate psychological ideas, information, opinions, arguments and conclusions
 Criterion 6 Criterion 7
Rating A Rating B Rating C
Rating A Rating B Rating C
summarises summarises summarises
accurately records accurately records records sources of quantitative and quantitative and quantitative and
Criterion 3 sources of information sources of information information qualitative data in a qualitative data in a qualitative data in a
Rating A Rating B Rating C selects and effectively selects and uses a uses a limited range of wide range of formats range of formats limited range of
uses tools and range of tools and tools and strategies to formats
explains terms and describes terms and identifies terms and
concepts and provides concepts and provides concepts and provides strategies to strategies to collect collect and organise uses a wide range of uses a range of uses a limited range of
a wide range of a range of examples of an example of each effectively collect and and organise information relevant empirical and relevant empirical and relevant empirical and
examples of each each organise information information textual evidence to textual evidence to textual evidence to
support observations support observations support observations
explains characteristics describes outlines characteristics selects and uses selects and uses uses given categories and analysis and analysis and analysis
of human learning, characteristics of of human learning, appropriate and useful categories to to organise evaluates research analyses research assesses research
correctly using a wide human learning, correctly using a limited categories to effectively organise information to findings and draws findings and draws findings and draws
range of terms and correctly using a range range of terms and methodically organise information to indicate relationships, valid conclusions valid conclusions conclusions consistent
concepts of terms and concepts concepts information for indicate relationships, patterns and trends consistent with the consistent with the with the research
analysis of patterns and trends research question research question question
explains how research describes how research outlines how research
relationships, patterns
has informed different has informed different has informed different argues a well-reasoned argues a point of view presents a position on
and trends
psychological psychological psychological and coherent point of on psychological issues psychological issues
perspectives that are
used to explain human
perspectives that are
used to explain human
perspectives that are
used to explain human
Criterion 8 view on psychological
issues using a wide
using a range of
empirical evidence and
using a limited range of
empirical evidence and
Rating A Rating B Rating C
learning learning learning range of empirical theoretical theoretical
communicates complex communicates ideas and communicates basic ideas
ideas and explanations explanations clearly, and explanations clearly, evidence and perspectives perspectives
critically evaluates analyses theories of describes theories of theoretical
coherently, selecting and selecting and consistently correctly using appropriate
theories of human human learning human learning perspectives
consistently using using appropriate language conventions
learning appropriate language language conventions refers to at least two refers to at least two refers to at least two
argues a well-reasoned argues a point of view presents a position on conventions for specific theoretical theoretical theoretical
and coherent point of on an aspect of human an aspect of human audiences and purposes
perspectives to analyse perspectives to explain perspectives to
view on an aspect of learning using a range learning using a limited clearly identifies the clearly identifies the differentiates the substantive issues substantive issues describe substantive
human learning using a of evidence, concepts range of evidence, information, images, ideas information, images, ideas information, images, ideas
under discussion and under discussion and issues under discussion
and words of others used and words of others used and words of others from
wide range of evidence, and theoretical concepts and explains connections describes connections
in the learner’s work in the learner’s work the learner’s own
concepts and perspectives theoretical perspectives between them between them
theoretical perspectives clearly identifies sources clearly identifies sources identifies the sources of
of the information, of the information, information, images, ideas explains links between describes links outlines links between
explains and applies describes and applies identifies and applies images, ideas and words images, ideas and words and words that are not the empirical evidence and between empirical empirical evidence and
conceptual linkages conceptual linkages conceptual linkages that are not the learner’s that are not the learner’s learner’s own. Referencing psychological concepts evidence and psychological concepts
own. Referencing own. Referencing conventions and and theories. psychological concepts and theories.
between psychological between psychological between psychological
conventions and conventions and methodologies are and theories.
ideas and real life ideas and real life ideas and real life methodologies are methodologies are generally followed
situations. situations. situations. followed with a high followed correctly* correctly*
degree of accuracy*
creates appropriate, well- creates appropriate, creates appropriate
structured reference lists/ structured reference reference
bibliographies. lists/bibliographies. lists/bibliographies.
Unit 3 Human Learning
This topic is a HUGE topic! As such, we divide into 2 parts.
1 – Operant and Classical Conditioning
2 – Social and Cognitive Learning
At the end of each part we will be having an in-class essay. One will be this term (Conditioning)
and one will be next term (Social Cognitive Learning)
You will also have to answer a question on Human Learning in the mid-year exam. You can
decide if you want to answer the Conditioning question or the Social Cognitive question.
You will have to answer a question on Human Learning on your end-of-year exam as well. You
can decide if you want to answer the Conditioning question or the Social Cognitive question
(pick the same as the mid-year).
Learning
Learning is not the same thing as behaviour.
However, it is difficult to think of a behaviour that was not learnt!
This is because learning is involved in nearly all of our behaviours.
There are some physiological responses that are involuntary however – breathing, digesting
food, sleeping, secreting hormones, blinking
But generally, a large amount of what you do each day depends to a large degree on learning.
Many of our emotions are also learned
Learning
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
practice or experience

Learning:
 may be intentional or unintentional
 involves change
 is observed through behaviour
 is relatively permanent
Learning
Some behaviour is not dependent on learning.
Such behaviours include:
 reflex actions
Automatic involuntary actions which do not require prior experience and are basically the same each time the action occurs.
Infants’ sucking reflex and gripping reflex are examples of reflex actions.
 fixed-action patterns
(sometimes called ‘species-specific behaviour’), occur when different members of the same species produce an identical
response to the same environmental stimulus. These patterns are genetically programmed into animals’ nervous systems and
do not seem to change as a result of learning. The patterns are inherited by each member of a species, although they may be
sex-specific. Some examples of fixed-action patterns are nest-building, the ritualistic ‘dance’ of honey bees, and salmon
migration. Generally speaking the ‘higher’ the order of animal the fewer inborn, instinctive behaviours there are. Hence, in the
higher orders of animals, learning influences behaviour more obviously.
 behaviour depending on maturation
Some behaviours are dependent on maturation: the developmental process which leads towards maturity. This process is
based on an orderly sequence of changes that occurs in the nervous system and other bodily structures, controlled by genetic
inheritance. These behaviours generally appear at predictable times in development. One example of maturation-dependant
behaviour is crawling.
Learning
So, for example behaviours that you do often such as brushing your teeth, walking, spreading
vegemite on your toast, etc, all depend on learning in a significant way.
Your attitudes, values, beliefs, opinions, interests and decisions all involve learning.
Many of our emotions are also learned.
Learning is such an integral part of daily living that without the ability to learn, people would be
unable to live independently and would need constant care in order to survive.
And, as we will learn this year, if you cannot learn, then you would have nothing to remember.
Learning
Learning is an ongoing process that continues throughout the lifespan. It is integral to enable us
to adapt and cope in an ever-changing world.
Learning can occur intentionally, such as when you have a driving lesson or show up to class and
actually listen.
Learning can also occur unintentionally, such as when you hear a song a few times on the radio
and learn the words.
Similarly, learning can be active, such as reciting multiplication tables, or passive, such as when
hearing about Australia’s performance in the Winter Olympics.
Learning and change
The notion of change is an important part of the definition of learning, because something must
be different about an organism after learning has taken place.
The change in behaviour may be immediate (for example, changing a tennis serve immediately
after a coach suggests a way to improve it), or the change may be delayed and actually occur
some time after learning has taken place (for example, changing how you write your essays in
psych the next in-class essay after getting feedback from me about your gender one)

Furthermore, the change may be possible, but not evident because of a lack of opportunity (for
example, by getting feedback on your gender essay you know how to write a better essay, but
you never again come to psych)

This means that learning also refers to the potential to behave in a particular way, as well as
behaviour that is observed to take place.
Learning and Permanency
Learned behaviour is also defined as relatively permanent because it cannot be something that
is present one moment and gone the next, or ‘here today and gone tomorrow’.
It must have continuing or lasting effect for a period of time, but it does not necessarily have to
produce a permanent (lifelong) change.
Thus, information you recalled when correctly answering a maths test in Year 8 algebra, is said to
have been learned even if you can’t recall that information now.
Learning is regarded as relatively permanent because most, if not all, learned behaviours can be
modified. For example, someone who has learned to fear spiders can subsequently learn not to
fear them.
Temporary changes in behaviour
Temporary changes in behaviour that are caused by illness, prescription and illegal drugs, injury,
fatigue and alcohol, are not classified as learning.
Such changes in behaviour are often brief
compared with those that result from
learning.
For example, the effects on behaviour of a
sleepless night will typically wear off after a
night or two of rest. Similarly, the effects of
medication will usually disappear after a certain
period of time.
Neural basis of learning
The human brain follows a predictable pattern of growth and development, with different
structures and abilities progressing at different rates and maturating at different points in the
lifespan.
Although the basic structure and organisation of our brain in terms of a cerebral cortex with
hemispheres, lobes, lower brain structures and so on are irreversibly established well before
birth, our brain continues to develop after birth.
A brain is not a solid, fixed, organ. Nor are the neural pathways extending without and between
different areas of our brain ‘hardwired’ like a computer or other human-made electronic device.
Instead, neurons are soft, flexible, living cells. They can change their sizes, shapes, functions,
connections with other neurons and patterns of connections. These types of changes can occur
at any time in the human lifespan, including old age.
We refer to this ability to change our neural pathways and un-learn and re-learn things as
neuroplasticity.
Brain Plasticity – Jody’s Story
https://youtu.be/VaDlLD97CLM
(5 mins)
Un-learning – the backwards bike
https://youtu.be/MFzDaBzBlL0
(8 mins)
Learning
In your books:

1. Define the meaning of the term learning.

2. Briefly describe three key characteristics of behaviour that is learned.
3. Differentiate between a learned response, a reflex action, a fixed-action pattern and
behaviour dependent on maturation. Give an example of each.
Rat Maze Experiment
Probably the most common image used to stereotype psychological research
into learning would be that of rats running through a maze.
In such experiments, the rats are placed into the maze and, over repeated
sessions, they demonstrate learning by running the maze in progressively
shorter times, mostly to receive a reward of cheese at the end.
These times are usually plotted onto a graph known as a LEARNING CURVE to
clearly represent the learning displayed by the experimental subjects.
In this experiment that we will be completing, it will be HUMAN subjects (us!)
that will have to negotiate a simple maze in order to demonstrate their ability to
learn.
Rat Maze Experiment
The procedure that we complete for this experiment will hopefully result is us
generating a learning curve to demonstrate how practice should improve the
subjects’ performance on the task.
While there may be an intrinsic (internal) reward due to the satisfaction of
completing the maze, there won’t be any official addition of external rewards
from me.
Do you think that this would make a difference to how you perform?

We will be completing the experiment in pairs.

Do you think that you will have an advantage if you complete the maze second?
Rat Maze Experiment
Using the procedure given to you on the worksheet, we will be completing our first experiment.
You will pair up and your test subject will be your partner. We will be running the experiment
and then writing it up in IP format as a class.
This report is due Wednesday 28 March (next week!)

The report needs to be written in a very particular report structure with particular headings.
This is practice for when we write our official IPs in term 3.
Rat Maze Experiment
Aim: The aim of this experiment is to generate a learning curve in order to demonstrate the
effect of practice on the performance of a simple task.
The desired response if for the participant to correctly negotiate their way through the maze as
quickly as possible.
Before we complete the experiment, you need to formulate an operational hypothesis based on
the information we have discussed.

An operational hypothesis would be something like…

That the time taken by the participants to correctly negotiate their way through the maze will
increase/decrease with each successive trial (WHAT DO YOU THINK WILL HAPPEN?)
Rat Maze Experiment
Materials needed: At least 5 copies of the maze for each participant; writing implements; a
stopwatch or timer.

Procedure:
Explain the process to your participant. There are standardised instructions that you may
choose to follow on the handout.
Give you subject a copy of the maze and a pen or pencil. Time how long it takes for the
participant to complete the maze and record this time in seconds. Collect the completed maze
and cover it up.
Have your participant repeat this process for up to 5 trials. You will also need to fill in their
times on the board. Make sure to record your data on the worksheet as well.
Rat Maze Experiment
Now, let’s complete the experiment!

I have (many) blank mazes for you to use with your partner. I have some stop-watches available
for you to use, which is more precise than those on your phones.

Once we have all completed the maze 5 times, please make sure to put your participant’s times
up on the board so that I can calculate the class mean for each trial.
Rat Maze Experiment
Write Up
Now that we have actually conducted our first psychology experiment, it is important that we
make sure we write it up properly.
In our Investigation Projects, you are only going to be marked on how well you write it up – not
on how well you conduct the experiment.
It is important to make sure that we get the structure and ‘rules’ of writing the report correct.
Rat maze experiment
write up
Introduction

In the introduction section you need to make sure that you have included some background
information, which in this case will be key definitions.
Your introduction needs to include a definition of learning, and some kind of brief discussion
about how practice can influence learning.
In your IP, your introduction would also include a brief overview of previous research in the area,
but because it is only term 1, I am not going to make you do that!
Your introduction needs to include your operationalised hypothesis at the end.
Rat maze experiment
write up
Methodology
The procedure is provided for you on the worksheet.
This needs to include the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable(DV).
The IV is the thing that changes (amount of practice – number of trials)
The DV is the thing that you measure (time taken to complete the maze)
Rat maze experiment
write up
Results
You need to create the table that you completed when you ran the experiment. You then need
to use this data to generate a graph by creating the table in excel, highlighting it, right clicking
and choose to create a chart. You can choose to graph your participant’s times or the class
mean times (or both if you are some excel ninja!)
Make sure your graph has both axes labelled and a title.
Rat maze experiment
write up
Discussion
A well-written discussion can get you an A on the IP! This should be the longest part of the
report.
This discussion should answer the following questions:
- What did the results show? (Be specific!) Did your data support your hypothesis?
- Did the progress for each subsequent trial indicate gradual learning? How?
- What would the curve have looked like if there had been more trials? Or more participants?
What were the strengths and weaknesses of your experiment’s design?
Rat maze experiment
write up
Conclusion
Conclude about whether the hypothesis was supported or not
This is very brief!
Please note: don’t ever say that we proved anything. Instead it might have supported the
theory or not, but nothing is ever completely proven or disproven.
Conditioning
There are two types of conditioning: classical and operant.
These are also known as associative learning
Classical Conditioning:
Think about your favourite food. Close your eyes. Picture seeing the food in front of you right
now.
How is your body reacting?
Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a method of learning where you link one stimulus to another stimulus to
produce a response
Example: Thinking about food helps you recall the taste. This in turn makes your mouth water.
Before I learned that cupcakes were the best tasting thing EVER, the thought of it would not
make my mouth water and my tummy rumble. Now it does.
How to train a brain
https://youtu.be/qG2SwE_6uVM
 Reading Task
In your handout, complete the reading. As you go,
add the following terms to your glossaries:
Conditioning
Habituation
Classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning
Unconditioned response
Stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
Response
Conditioned response

Once you have completed this, complete “Learning

Activity 10.2” from the end of the handout
Classical Conditioning
The Big Bang Theory
https://youtu.be/HNsqHtzxY1o
Classical Conditioning –
Real Life Example!
Here is a (highly unethical!) real life example of classical conditioning:
https://youtu.be/OwBQIhg6CvE - please don’t do this!
Real Life Examples!
Describe in 100-200 words an example of classical conditioning in the real life of a human! This is
MUCH more relevant than studies of dogs!
Bonus points (a sticker) if you are able to share a true story!
Key processes in
conditioning
Pavlov and other researchers (Skinner and Watson) have distinguished some key
processes that are involved in conditioning (both classical and operant).
oAcquisition
oExtinction
oSpontaneous Recovery
oStimulus Generalisation
oStimulus Discrimination
Key processes in
conditioning
Read the second handout
Write a description of each key process (there are 5) in your book.
In addition, give a practical example where appropriate.
What makes conditioning work?
Temporal congruity – this means that the CS (conditioned stimulus) and the UCS (unconditioned
stimulus) need to be presented close together in time for this to work.
Predictability – this is the extent to which the CS is an accurate, useful predictor of the arrival of
the UCS. The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response.
It has been most recently suggested that ‘predictability’ is what counts
Applications of
classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is a systematic procedure.
It is where associations between stimuli, or events in the environment, are learned, resulting in
a conditioned response.
Behaviours that have been classically conditioned may occur so automatically that they appear
to be reflexive.
By learning to associate stimuli through everyday experience, we gain information about our
environment, some of which we take for granted by which is nevertheless useful.
Sometimes an emotional reaction such as fear or anger to a specific stimulus is learned through
classical conditioning.
Baby Albert Experiment
https://youtu.be/9hBfnXACsOI
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a systematic procedure through which associations between stimuli,
or events in the environment, are learned, resulting in a conditioned response. It is considered
to be a relatively simple type of learning, but one which accounts for many of our learned
responses and behaviours. Behaviours that have been classically conditioned may occur so
automatically that they appear to be reflexive.
Essentially, classically conditioned responses are conditioned reflexes that are acquired
through associative learning; that is, they are ‘conditional’ upon an organism’s experience.
For example, many people cringe at the sound of the dentist’s drill. This is not a naturally
occurring response to the noise. One reason for the fear of the sound of the dentist’s drill is
the association we make between the sound and potential pain. In this case, the sound of the
dentist’s drill has become a conditioned stimulus, which, through association with the
unconditioned stimulus (the drilling of the tooth), produces a conditioned emotional response
(fear). While it may be beneficial to form a fear of something that could harm you, such as
illegal drugs and poisonous spiders, it may be psychologically harmful to form a fear about
something that does not normally harm you, such as soft, furry animals or a cuddle.
Graduated Exposure
In most cases, a conditioned response acquired through classical conditioning will extinguish if
the UCS is not paired with the CS at least occasionally.
However, the association is sometimes so strong and well-established that it persists over time
and is difficult to extinguish unless there is some kind of intervention. This is most often
necessary when the conditioned response interferes with ‘normal’ functioning in everyday life,
such as with conditioned responses involving fear, especially when severe anxiety reactions
accompany exposure to the feared object or event, or some other object or event of concern to
an individual.
This has led psychologists to apply classical conditioning processes in developing therapies for
treating phobias and other mental health problems in which fear and/or anxiety play a
prominent part. One of these therapeutic techniques is a type of exposure therapy called
graduated exposure.
Graduated Exposure
Graduated exposure involves presenting successive approximations
of the CS until the CS itself does not produce the conditioned
response.
Essentially, the technique involves progressively, or ‘gradually’,
introducing, or ‘exposing’, the client to increasingly similar stimuli
that produce the conditioned response requiring extinction, and
ultimately to the CS itself. In this way, the client is gradually
‘desensitised’ to the fear- or anxiety producing object or event.
Graduated Exposure
Think of something that makes you
anxious. For example it might be
heights, spiders, clowns, etc.
Now develop your own hierarchy
of how you could use graduated
exposure to condition yourself not
to fear it anymore.
Flooding
Flooding is another type of exposure therapy for treating fears,
phobias and other mental health problems in which fear and/or
anxiety play a prominent part. Flooding involves bringing the client
into direct contact with the anxiety- or fear-producing stimulus and
keeping them in contact with it until the conditioned response is
extinguished.

https://youtu.be/p4e0XiJHANk
Aversion Therapy
When people develop behaviours that are habitual and harmful to themselves or to others, such as
substance (drug) dependence, a gambling addiction or socially inappropriate sexual behaviours, it is
often difficult to help them permanently stop the unwanted behaviour.
This is especially so when the behaviour is immediately followed by a sense of pleasure or by relief
from discomfort.
Aversion therapy is a form of behaviour therapy that applies classical conditioning processes to inhibit
(‘block’) or discourage undesirable behaviour by associating (pairing) it with an aversive (unpleasant)
stimulus such as a feeling of disgust, pain or nausea. The aim of aversion therapy is to suppress or
weaken the undesirable behaviour. For example, to stop an unwanted behaviour such as nail biting,
your fingernails could be painted with a foul-tasting substance.
Operant Conditioning
Defined as:
A type of learning in which behaviour is (a) strengthened if it is followed by reinforcement, and
(b) diminished if it is followed by punishment.
(add this to your glossaries if you don’t already have it!)
So in its simplest explanation, operant conditioning is learning which takes place as a result of
consequence.
Operant Conditioning
It is sometimes called instrumental conditioning
Learning occurs consciously through the consequences (so voluntary actions are what occurs –
unlike classical conditioning)
Complex behaviour is happening (unlike classical conditioning which is simple behaviour)
There are the same 5 steps as classical conditioning – Acquisition, Extinction,
Spontaneous Recovery, Generalisation, Discrimination
Operant Conditioning
The Big Bang Theory
https://youtu.be/Mt4N9GSBoMI
Operant Conditioning
Early research:
Thorndike (1890) developed an experiment where there was a cat in a box.
The cat had to push a level to get food. A steady increase in the cat’s efficiency lead to learning.
The law of effect – behaviour which is followed by satisfying consequences is more likely to
occur and a behaviour which is followed by annoying consequences is weakened.
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1930s and 1940s) - Not concerned with hidden complexities from the human mind.
Instead, focused on behaviour – he lead the “Behaviourist” movement in Psychology
All behaviour is a result of environmental or external influences (according to him!)
Operant Conditioning
Review Question
Consider toddler Alex who is being toilet trained by her parents using operant conditioning. Her
parents wait until after Alex has had a drink and her bladder is full, then put her on a potty seat and
wait for nature to take its course. When Alex urinates in the potty, her parents provide verbal praise
(‘What a good girl you are, Alex!’) or even some stickers that she loves. She is also punished when she
has a wetting accident by verbal disapproval (‘Mommy is very disappointed in you, Alex.’).
Gradually, Alex learns enough bladder control to recognise when urination is imminent, and to
withhold the response long enough for a quick trip to the potty seat—thus obtaining a reward and
avoiding punishment. Eventually, the behaviour becomes automatic enough that Alex continues to
use the potty seat.

Explain Alex’s successful toilet training using the three-phase model of conditioning.
Ensure you refer to each component with reference to the relevant aspect(s) of Alex’s toilet training.
Shaping Behaviour
This is the gradual moulding of behaviour to the desired behaviour using positive reinforcement.
The desired behaviour might take some time to develop so you need to positively reinforce
behaviour that gets progressively closer.
Shaping Behaviour
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement – when a stimulus strengths or increases the likelihood of a response that it
follows.
Reinforcer – any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a response that it follows.
(add to glossaries)
This is sometimes called reward, although this isn’t strictly correct.
Reward suggests a positive outcome although this isn’t always the case.
A stimulus is a reinforcer if it strengthens the preceding behaviour.
For example, a person might enjoy attending psych classes and find it pleasurable, but psych
classes cannot be considered to be a reinforcer unless it promotes or strengthens a particular
response.
Reinforcement
When you are training your dog to ‘shake hands’ and you give it a treat, pat it on the head or say
‘good dog’ when it behaves the way you want it to, you are using reinforcement.
Similarly, using an umbrella to prevent yourself from getting wet when it rains is a kind of
reinforcement. So, reinforcement may involve receiving a pleasant stimulus (the dog receiving a
treat) or ‘escaping’ an unpleasant stimulus (avoiding getting wet by using an umbrella).
In either case, the outcome is one that is desired by the organism performing the behaviour.
Reinforcement is said to occur when a stimulus (object or event) strengthens or increases the
frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows. This may involve using a positive stimulus
or removing a negative stimulus to subsequently strengthen or increase the frequency or
likelihood of a preceding response or operant. An essential feature of reinforcement is that it is
only used after the desired or correct response is made.
 Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
– these are inborn and not learned.
- such as food, water, warmth, physical activity.
- they satisfy immediate physical needs
- lose reinforcing value
Secondary reinforcers
- learned by classical conditioning
- such as money, praise, approval, success, high marks
-Social reinforcers are a powerful influence on behaviour
Tokens
Secondary reinforcers exchanged for primary reinforcers. Such as money is exchanged for food, clothing, shelter, privilege
These don’t lose reinforcing value as quickly as primary reinforcers.
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Schedule of reinforcement: the way the reinforcement is delivered in experimental settings (and
in everyday life)
This is a program for giving reinforcement, specifically the frequency and manner in which a
desired response is reinforced. The schedule that is used will influence the speed of learning
(the response acquisition rate) and the strength of the learned response.
Reinforcement may be provided on a continuous schedule (that is, after every correct response)
or on a partial schedule (that is, only on some occasions for performing the correct response).
Negative Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement vs
Positive Reinforcement
 Negative Reinforcement vs
Positive Reinforcement
Real Life Example: A parent (me) and child (Sarah, aged 3) are grocery shopping. When they pass the lolly section Sarah
grabs a big bag of lollies and throws them into the trolley. I take them out and said no to Sarah. Sarah flops on the ground
and starts screaming because she wants the lollies. I notice people staring at us and to stop Sarah’s tantrum I give in and
allow her to have the lollies. Is this positive or negative reinforcement?
Sarah’s behaviour could be termed “negative” and therefore it may seem like the tantrum (her behaviour) was negatively
reinforced with sweets. However, her behaviour was actually positively reinforced because she was given the lollies!
Something was added which then strengthened the behaviour.
Remember that positive reinforcement is when your behaviour gets you something that you wanted but that was not
already present. Sarah didn’t have lollies so she threw a tantrum (behaviour) and this tantrum got her lollies. Negative
reinforcement is when something that is already present is taken away as a result of behaviour and it’s removal was
something that you wanted.
In this example it was actually MY behaviour that was negatively reinforced. I didn’t like the tantrum or the attention it
was bringing (creating an aversive situation for me). This aversive situation was present before I allowed Sarah to have the
lollies. After my behaviour (giving him the sweets) Sarah stopped tantruming and so the aversive situation was gone
(removed). Therefore MY behaviour was negatively reinforced because something was taken away which then
strengthened the behaviour.
Negative Reinforcement vs
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
In which the response is to stop discomfort or to remove the negative state of affairs.
This is about the TAKING AWAY of something bad. (Negative = - )
Example: you have a headache, you take an aspirin, and your headache goes away. If this works,
we repeat it next headache.
Less ethical example: you give an electric shock to a rat, the rat presses a bar and the shock goes
away. Note: no food here.
Escape conditioning: operant conditioning which stops something negative
Avoidance conditioning: operant conditioning which helps to prevent or avoid something
happening.
This is a powerful learning tool but it sometimes leads to “opting out” rather than dealing with
the problem.
 Escape learning
avoidance learning
Escape learning: learning
to perform a behaviour
because it terminates an
aversive event.
Avoidance learning:
learning to avoid events
or conditions associated
with dreaded or aversive
outcomes. This involves
classical conditioning and
operant conditioning.
Using reinforcement to
change behaviour
A toddler cries in the middle of the night. A parent wakes and
responds by bringing the toddler into their bed. The parent would
prefer the toddler to sleep in her own bedroom but the toddler
continues crying unless moved to the parent’s room.
1 Explain, with reference to reinforcement, how this situation may
have developed.
2 Describe a reinforcement strategy the parent could use to change
the unwanted behaviour of their toddler.
Punishment
Punishment: the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus
which tends to suppress a response. (You already have this in your glossaries!)
As you probably already know, punishment can be a powerful controller of behaviour!
Example: being fined for not reporting taxes properly, or a traffic offense – this is an unpleasant
consequence which reduces the likelihood of repeating the behaviour.
Punishment is different from negative reinforcement!
Distinction between the two:
Negative reinforcement STRENGTHENS behaviour by REMOVING something.
Negative punishment WEAKENS behaviour by REMOVING something.
 Is punishment effective
For punishment to be effective it must:
- be swift – delay won’t work as well
- be sufficient without being cruel
- be consistent – punishment can be effective where behaviour is dangerous
Drawbacks include:
- it can only suppress undesired behaviour. It doesn’t prompt a person to unlearn and doesn’t teach a
more desirable behaviour. If the threat of punishment is removed, the negative behaviour can return
(example: speeding drivers will speed again if no more speed cameras).
- punishment can stir up negative feelings.
- harsh behaviour may increase aggressive behaviour. Anger, hostility etc.
Punishment needs to be given very carefully.
 Punishment
Remember: reinforcers INCREASE frequency of behaviour; punishment DECREASES frequency of
behaviour.
The effects of punishment are temporary (take away punishment, and the behaviour returns)
Example: if you no longer were punished for improper uniform, how do you think the school would start
to dress?
It is better to positively reinforce alternative behaviour than to punish undesired behaviour.
Punishment must be immediate to be more effective. The time delay of punishment makes the
punishment less effective.
Punishment must be used consistently to be more effective.
Punishment must be directed towards the behaviour and NOT the person!
How do you decide to be too gentle or too strong?
Learned Helplessness
Learned helplessness: learned response of resigning oneself passively to aversive conditions
rather than taking action to change, escape, or avoid them; learned through repeated exposure
to inescapable or unavoidable averse events.
When avoidance of punishment is not possible, some give up.
Seligman studied learned helplessness is dogs.
He placed dogs in chambers that delivered random shocks. Dogs in the control group could
escape this by punishing a panel. But the experimental group were helpless.
Then he put both groups in a different situation where the shocks could be escaped by jumping
a hurdle.
A warning light also came on before each shock – the dogs in control quickly learned to avoid
but the experimental group of dogs just lay there listless and depressed.
Learned Helplessness
You will end up with both a NUMBER and a LETTER.
First you will be in a group where you all have the same NUMBER. You will work together to
answer that question on the worksheet.
You will then report in a new group where you all have the same LETTER. You will work together
as a group to complete all 5 questions.
Summary
Copy the below table into your books and complete it with relevant examples:
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Behaviour modification is where learning principles are applied to change behaviour.
Involves using the principles of conditioning to treat problem behaviours such as over-eating,
smoking and disruptive behaviour among school students.
Many parents use behaviour modification techniques when dealing with their children.
For example: A gold star chart to assist with toilet training
People with the eating disorder anorexia nervosa have been helped to gain weight, and animals
such as primates have been trained to assist physically disabled individuals by feeding and caring
for them. It has been successfully used in child rearing, in school systems, and in mental
institutions.
It involves well defined steps to change behaviour, but it does not always change the underlying
causes of the behaviour in the first place.
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
One example of a therapeutic use of behaviour modification is the token economy method.
Token economies are where tokens are given when there is appropriate behaviour. This technique
aims to encourage residents to participate in the life of an institution. Tokens are awarded for certain
behaviours that are identified as being therapeutic or socially desirable. These tokens can then be
exchanges for privileges or goods.
A classic study was conducted in a mental hospital with psychiatric patients who had difficulty
performing expected behaviours (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). The researchers chose a number of simple
grooming behaviours, including face washing, hair combing, teeth brushing, bed making, and dressing
properly.
The researchers first recorded baseline, or normally occurring, frequencies of the behaviours. Then
they gave the patients a token every time the proper behaviour was performed. The tokens could be
exchanged for food and personal items at the hospital drugstore. The patients significantly increased
the frequency of the desired behaviours when they were reinforced with tokens.
There are concerns as to whether or not this will result in a permanent change in behaviour, its
important to note that the most important factor in this approach is the staff implementing it.
Conditioning
Taste aversion: a conditioned response that results from a person or animal establishing an
association between a particular food and being or feeling ill after having consumed it at some
time in the past.
The association is usually the result of a single experience, and the particular food will be
avoided in the future.
Taste aversion arises form a learning experience that is similar to classical conditioning.
However, it tends to happen with just one experience.
One-trial learning: a type of learning involving a relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of one experience only. It is like classical conditioning but it is NOT classical
conditioning. That’s because there is no repeated associations or pairings taking place.