energies

Article
Effects of Variable Diffuser Vanes on Performance of
a Centrifugal Compressor with Pressure Ratio of 8.0
Mohsen Ebrahimi, Qiangqiang Huang, Xiao He and Xinqian Zheng *
Turbomachinery Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University,
Beijing 100084, China; ebrahimidoabsa10@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn (M.E.); hqq14@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn (Q.H.);
hex15@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn (X.H.)
* Correspondence: zhengxq@tsinghua.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-10-6279-2333

Academic Editor: Antonio Calvo Hernández

Received: 4 April 2017; Accepted: 9 May 2017; Published: 12 May 2017

Abstract: In numerous applications, centrifugal compressors are required to provide a high pressure
ratio with good efficiency while also working in a wide operating range. This is a challenge because
as pressure ratio increases, efficiency and operating range inevitably decline. This paper studies
the effects of a variable geometry diffuser on the performance and operating range of a centrifugal
compressor with high pressure ratios of up to 8.0. The numerical method employed three-dimensional
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes simulations. An analysis of the matching of the vaned diffuser
with the impeller for different working conditions and diffuser vane angles is presented. The results
show that improved matching of the adjusted diffuser increased efficiency by 4.5%. The range
extension mechanism of the variable diffuser is explained, and it is shown that adjusting the vane
angle by +6◦ to −6◦ extended the operating range of the compressor by up to 30.0% for pressure
ratios between 5.0 and 6.0. The interaction between diffuser and impeller was examined, and the
independent characteristic of the impeller is illustrated. The connection between the incidence angle
at the leading edge of the impeller and flow separation near the tip of the impeller is discussed.

Keywords: centrifugal compressor; gas turbine; turbocharger; variable geometry; diffuser;

high pressure ratio; diffuser impeller interaction; incidence angle; matching

1. Introduction
Centrifugal compressors are extensively used in the industry [1]. Besides gas turbines and
turboshaft engines, unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) are also one of the important applications of
centrifugal compressors. Compression ignition engines are suggested as a suitable choice for the
propulsion system of high altitude unmanned air vehicles [2–4]. Because of the lower air consumption
compared to turbojets, turbocharged compression ignition engines can deliver constant power at
different levels of altitude. However, to maintain constant inlet manifold pressure at high altitudes, a
turbocharger with a high-pressure ratio centrifugal compressor is needed. Furthermore, high-altitude
aircraft need to have long endurance, which requires using propulsion systems with high efficiency [4].
Designing a highly efficient centrifugal compressor with a high pressure ratio needs to use the vaned
diffuser. However, the use of vaned diffusers will narrow the stable operating range of the compressor.
The operation of a high pressure ratio centrifugal compressor with a wide operating range
involves the impeller and/or the diffuser working close to or above their stability margin [5]. As a
result, flow instability is a bottleneck for developing high pressure ratio centrifugal compressors
with wide flow range. At high pressure ratio, the considerable negative pressure gradient in the
flow path of the compressor inevitably causes flow instability, which restricts the operating range
of a compressor. In addition, the matching between the impeller and diffuser plays a crucial role in
designing a high-performance centrifugal compressor. According to Cumpsty [6], poor matching

Energies 2017, 10, 682; doi:10.3390/en10050682 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 682 2 of 15

between the impeller and diffuser is a common reason for low performance of the high pressure
ratio compressors.
Various methods have been proposed and used for extending the operating range and improving
the performance of compressors. Examples of these methods are the application of backswept
blades [7], casing treatment [8], tandem diffusers [9], and shell cooling [10]. The variable geometry
method is an alternative way to improve the performance and operating range of the compressor by
adjusting the geometry of the compressor under different working conditions [11]. Potential locations
for the application of the variable geometry method are upstream and downstream of the impeller.
The variable vaned diffuser is one of the applications of the variable geometry method. In this approach,
the geometrical parameters of the diffuser’s blade, such as blade stagger angle, distance from impeller
blade’s trailing edge and blade’s solidity, are adjustable. In each scenario, the geometry would be
changed in such a way that the performance of the compressor adapts to the operational requirements.
Simon et al. [12] used a vaned diffuser with a different angle in conjunction with variable inlet guide
vanes to improve both the operating range and the efficiency of the compressor. Salvage [13] employed
a variable geometry split-ring pipe diffuser to improve the surge margin of a compressor with an
excess impeller-diffuser gap. Ziegler et al. [14] used a vaned diffuser with adjustable vane angle and
radial gap between diffuser vanes and the impeller to study the interaction between the diffuser and
the impeller. They adjusted the radial gap ratio between 1.04 and 1.18 and found that the total pressure
ratio of the compressor rises with a decrease of radial gap. In a recent work, Huang et al. [15] found
that the variable diffuser method can extend the stable operating range of a centrifugal compressor
from 23.5% to 54.9% at a pressure ratio of 4.8 with changing the diffuser vane angles by 10◦ .
In the recent years, with the rising demand for UAVs, turbocharged engines and gas turbines
with higher performance, research on high-pressure ratio centrifugal compressors with wide operating
ranges is gaining popularity. Zheng et al. [16] showed the potential benefit of the operating range
extension of the centrifugal compressor for a turbocharged engine and its operating line. In order to
meet requirements of future engine generations, compressors with pressure ratios significantly higher
than the current standard are required [17,18]. The application of variable diffuser vanes on the high
pressure ratio compressor has not been reported in the literature, and the validity of the effects on
the performance of such compressor has not been verified. In this paper, effects of variable diffuser
vanes on the performance of a centrifugal compressor with a high pressure ratio of 8.0 are investigated.
The compressor is of a new design that is under development for application in gas turbines and the
future generation of single-stage high pressure ratio turbochargers.
The main body of this work consists of three parts. Firstly, the research methodology is stated.
Secondly, compressors maps with different setups of diffuser vane angles are shown, and the effects of
variable diffuser vanes on range extension and performance are discussed. Thirdly, component
performances, especially the impeller’s characteristics, are analyzed to reveal flow physics and
intention to provide new insights for compressor design.

2. Methodology
In this study, CFD simulations were conducted based on three-dimensional, steady-state,
compressible, finite volume layout. Numeca FINE/Turbo 10.1 EURANUS solver was used for
the computations to solve Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations. The central scheme with
Jameson type dissipation [19] and fourth-order Runge-Kutta scheme were used for spatial and
temporal discretization respectively. The Spalart-Allmaras one-equation model [20] was selected
as turbulence model.
We used a high pressure ratio centrifugal compressor. The compressor has 24 impeller blades,
19 diffuser vanes and can achieve peak pressure ratio of 8.0 and peak isentropic efficiency of 79.9%;
Other details are presented in Table 1. We meshed passage of impeller and diffuser together and applied
periodic matching on the side faces of the passage to make the computational domain. We employed a
multi-block structured mesh with O4H topology scheme. The final grid of a single passage consisted of
Energies 2017, 10, 682 3 of 15

applied periodic matching on the side faces of the passage to make the computational domain. We
Energies 2017, 10, 682 3 of 15
employed a multi-block structured mesh with O4H topology scheme. The final grid of a single
passage consisted of 1 million nodes which 56% of them were allocated to the impeller. The tip
1clearance was set
million nodes to constant
which 56% of 5.6%
themof exitallocated
were blade height.
to theThe minimum
impeller. skewness
The tip angles
clearance was insetthe
to impeller
constant
and diffuser
5.6% were
of exit blade 16° and
height. The37° respectively,
minimum skewness andangles
maximum expansion
in the impeller andratios were
diffuser 16◦ and
below
were 37◦
3. The
average y+ of and
respectively, the mesh
maximumwas around 1.6 with
expansion ratiosthe highest
were below value lower
3. The average y+ of
than 10, which is suitable
the mesh for the
was around
Spalart-Allmaras
1.6 with the highest turbulence model
value lower thanto10,
appropriately resolve
which is suitable forthe
theviscous sublayer. Aturbulence
Spalart-Allmaras schematicmodelof the
impeller
to blade and
appropriately diffuser
resolve thevane passages
viscous is shown
sublayer. in Figureof1.the impeller blade and diffuser vane
A schematic
passages is shown in Figure 1.
Table 1. Compressor specifications.
Table 1. Compressor specifications.
Impeller
Number of blades Impeller ZI 24
Maximum rotational
Number of bladesspeed ZI Nmax (r/min)24 52,440
Maximum rotational speed DiffuserNmax (r/min) 52,440

Number of Vanes Diffuser ZD 19

Area Number
ratio of Vanes ZD A5/AThroat 19 2.0
Area ratio A5 /AThroat 2.0
Normalized leading
Normalized edge
leading radius
edge radius r4 /r2 r4/r2 1.10 1.10
Normalized
Normalized trailing
trailing edgeedge radius
radius r5 /r2 r5/r2 1.48 1.48

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Impeller
Impeller and
and diffuser
diffuser grid.
grid.

Boundary conditions at the inlet consisted of the absolute total temperature of 288.15 K, the
Boundary conditions at the inlet consisted of the absolute total temperature of 288.15 K,
absolute total pressure of 101.325 kPa and the normal velocity. Likewise, an averaged static pressure
the absolute total pressure of 101.325 kPa and the normal velocity. Likewise, an averaged static
with backflow control was imposed at the outlet. The casing surface and blades were defined as static
pressure with backflow control was imposed at the outlet. The casing surface and blades were
non-slip solid boundary and rotational non-slip solid boundary, respectively. The non-reflecting 2D
defined as static non-slip solid boundary and rotational non-slip solid boundary, respectively. The
method was used to model the rotor-stator interface. The same compressor prototype with the same
non-reflecting 2D method was used to model the rotor-stator interface. The same compressor prototype
numerical setup was used in a previous study by present co-authors, and the mesh quality, grid
with the same numerical setup was used in a previous study by present co-authors, and the mesh
independency, and reliability of the turbulence model were validated [21]. The simulations were
quality, grid independency, and reliability of the turbulence model were validated [21]. The simulations
performed at 1.0Nmax, 0.9Nmax, 0.8Nmax and 0.6Nmax rotational speeds. The peak of each pressure ratio
were performed at 1.0Nmax , 0.9Nmax , 0.8Nmax and 0.6Nmax rotational speeds. The peak of each pressure
speed line was determined to be the surge point as it provides a good approximation for the flow
ratio speed line was determined to be the surge point as it provides a good approximation for the
instability [6]. Diffuser vanes were rotated in the range of [–6°, 6°] to investigate the effects of diffuser
flow instability [6]. Diffuser vanes were rotated in the range of [–6◦ , 6◦ ] to investigate the effects of
vane angles on the performance of the compressor. The leading edge of the diffuser vanes was used
diffuser vane angles on the performance of the compressor. The leading edge of the diffuser vanes
as a pivot point for the rotation, to maintain the width of the vaneless region and the gap ratio
was used as a pivot point for the rotation, to maintain the width of the vaneless region and the gap
between impeller blade’s trailing edge and diffuser vane’s leading edge. A schematic of the impeller
ratio between impeller blade’s trailing edge and diffuser vane’s leading edge. A schematic of the
and diffuser vanes with different stagger angles is shown in Figure 2. The angles are relative to the
impeller and diffuser vanes with different stagger angles is shown in Figure 2. The angles are relative
to the stagger angle of the datum diffuser. For the closed diffuser, the diffuser vanes were rotated
 Energies
Energies 2017,
2017, 10,10,
682682 4 of415
of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 682 4 of 15
stagger angle of the datum diffuser. For the closed diffuser, the diffuser vanes were rotated clockwise,
stagger
and the angle
clockwise, of the
diffuser
and the datum
throat area
diffuser diffuser. Fordecreased,
decreased,
throat area the closed
while diffuser,
for the
while forthe
open thediffuser
diffuser,
openthe vanes
vaneswere
diffuser, the rotated
were rotated
vanes clockwise,
counter-
were rotated
and the diffuser throat
clockwise and theand
counter-clockwise area
diffuser decreased,
throat area
the diffuser while for
increased.
throat the open
area increased. diffuser, the vanes were rotated counter-
clockwise and the diffuser throat area increased.

Figure 2. The compressor impeller together with the diffuser vanes at different angles.
Figure 2. The compressor impeller together with the diffuser vanes at different angles.
Figure 2. The compressor impeller together with the diffuser vanes at different angles.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results
3. Resultsandand Discussion
Discussion
3.1. Discussion on Extension of Stable Operating Range
3.1.3.1.
Discussion
Discussiononon
Extension
ExtensionofofStable
StableOperating
Operating Range
Range
The compressor pressure ratio characteristic curves for various stagger angles of diffuser vanes
The compressor
The compressor pressure ratio characteristic curves for various stagger angles of diffuser vanes
are shown in Figure 3.pressure ratio characteristic curves for various stagger angles of diffuser vanes
areare
shown in Figure 3.
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Compressor map for different diffuser vane angles and rotational speeds. Extended range
Figure
of 3. Compressor
the3.compressor map for different diffuser vane angles and rotational speeds. Extended range
is highlighted.
Figure Compressor map for different diffuser vane angles and rotational speeds. Extended range of
of the compressor is highlighted.
the compressor is highlighted.
The datum compressor reaches a pressure ratio of 8.0 at the maximum rotational speed. The
The datum
extended part of compressor reaches
the operating range ais pressure ratio
highlighted of can
and 8.0 at
be the maximum
compared withrotational speed.
the operating The
range
The datum
extended part ofcompressor reaches
the operating range isa highlighted
pressure ratio of 8.0
and can at the maximum
be compared rotationalrange
with the operating speed.
The extended part of the operating range is highlighted and can be compared with the operating
Energies 2017, 10, 682 5 of 15

Energies 2017, 10, 682 5 of 15

range of the datum compressor. It can be seen that the compressor with variable diffuser vanes
has aofsignificantly wider range
the datum compressor. compared
It can be seentothat
thethe
datum compressor.
compressor In orderdiffuser
with variable to evaluate
vanesthehasrange
a
extension potential
significantly of the
wider variable
range diffuser,
compared the stable
to the datumoperating range
compressor. (SOR) to
In order of evaluate
compressorthe isrange
defined
. .
extension(1).
by Equation potential of the variable
In Equation diffuser,
(1), mchoke and the stable
msurge operating
represent range
the (SOR)
lowest of compressor
and highest massis defined
flow rates
by Equation
within (1). Inrange
the operating Equation (1), pressure
at each andratio, respectively.
represent the lowest and highest mass flow rates
within the operating range at each pressure ratio, respectively.
. . !
mchoke − msurge
SOR = m choke  m  surge  × 100% (1)
SOR =  m. choke  π =constant  100% (1)
 m choke π = constant
The The
stable operating
stable operatingranges
rangesofofthe
thedatum
datumcompressor andthe
compressor and thecompressor
compressor with
with variable
variable diffuser
diffuser
vanevane
angles
angles are shown in Figure 4. The difference between the two is the extended range value thatthat
are shown in Figure 4. The difference between the two is the extended range value
is achieved by employing
is achieved by employing thethe
variable
variablegeometry
geometry method. Thehighest
method. The higheststable
stable operating
operating range
range of the
of the
datum compressor
datum compressoris 40.5%,
is 40.5%,which
whichisisatataalow
lowpressure ratio of
pressure ratio of3.0.
3.0.By
Byusing
using a variable
a variable angle
angle vaned
vaned
diffuser,
diffuser, operating
operating rangerange increases
increases greatly
greatly and reaches
and reaches the maximum
the maximum of 63.3%
of 63.3% at theatmedium
the medium
pressure
ratiopressure
of 4.9. ratio of 4.9.

Figure 4. Comparison between the SOR of the datum compressor and variable diffuser compressor
Figure 4. Comparison between the SOR of the datum compressor and variable diffuser compressor for
for different pressure ratios.
different pressure ratios.
Because of the various effects of the variable diffuser on the compressor performance and the
Because of the
mechanisms variousthe
governing effects
rangeof the variable
extension diffuser
at different on the
speeds andcompressor performance
pressure ratios, the amount and
of the
range extension
mechanisms governing of the
the compressor
range extensionis notatconstant
differentand varies
speeds andwith different
pressure rotation
ratios, speeds of
the amount and
range
pressure
extension of ratio levels. Wheniswe
the compressor notclose the diffuser,
constant the operating
and varies range of rotation
with different the compressor
speedsshifts
and to the
pressure
left on the map because of the decrease of the surge mass flow rate. On the other
ratio levels. When we close the diffuser, the operating range of the compressor shifts to the left on hand, when we open
the diffuser,
the map becausethe ofchoke mass flow
the decrease ofrate
the increase
surge mass and the
flowoperating
rate. Onrange shifts to
the other the right
hand, when onwetheopen
map. the
At maximum pressure ratio and rotational speed (Nmax), the shift of the surge line to the lower mass
diffuser, the choke mass flow rate increase and the operating range shifts to the right on the map.
flow rates because of the closing of the diffuser is the main factor for the operating range extension.
At maximum pressure ratio and rotational speed (Nmax ), the shift of the surge line to the lower mass
Although at this rotation speed the opening of the diffuser increases the throat area of the diffuser, it
flowdoes
ratesnot
because of the closing of the diffuser is the main factor for the operating range extension.
have any effects on the choke mass flow rate of the compressor. This indicates that at Nmax
Although
choking atdoes
this not
rotation
happen speed
at thethe opening
diffuser, andofchoke
the diffuser
mass flowincreases
rate of thethecompressor
throat area is of the diffuser,
dominantly
it does not have any effects on the choke mass flow rate of the compressor.
controlled by the choking in the impeller. Since at high pressure ratios of above 7.0 the This indicates that at Nmax
range
choking does not happen at the diffuser, and choke mass flow rate of the compressor
extension is only due to the shift of the surge line, the amount of range extension is below 20%. is dominantly
controlled Atby the choking
medium in the
pressure impeller.
ratio (4 to 6) Since at high pressure
and rotational ratios
speed (0.9N max,of above
0.8N max), 7.0 the range
closing extension
the diffuser
shifts
is only duethetosurge line significantly
the shift of the surgetoline,
the left
the on the map
amount of and widen
range the stable
extension operating
is below 20%.range. Besides,
opening
At medium the diffuser
pressure moves
ratiothe
(4 choke line to
to 6) and the right,speed
rotational toward the higher
(0.9N max , 0.8Nmass
maxflow rates. the
), closing At these
diffuser
shifts the surge line significantly to the left on the map and widen the stable operating range. Besides,
Energies 2017, 10, 682 6 of 15

Energies 2017, 10, 682 6 of 15

opening the diffuser moves the choke line to the right, toward the higher mass flow rates. At these
rotational speeds, the choking of the datum compressor no longer happens at the impeller and the
choke mass flow rate of the the compressor
compressor is determined
determined by the the diffuser.
diffuser. Because the choking of the
diffuser happens at the throat of the diffuser, the higher throat area of the open diffuser increases the
choke mass flow of the diffuser, which in turn increases the choke choke mass
mass flow
flow rate
rate of
of the
the compressor.
compressor.
Since atatmedium
mediumpressure
pressure ratios
ratios both
both surgesurge
andandchokechoke
lines lines shift
shift by by changing
changing the anglesthe ofangles of the
the diffuser
diffuser
vanes, thevanes,
amount theofamount of rangeincreases
range extension extension andincreases
reaches and reaches
the peak thefor
of 30% peak of 30%
pressure for pressure
ratios between
ratios
5.0 andbetween
6.0. 5.0 and 6.0.
pressure ratio
At a low pressure ratio and
and rotational
rotational speed
speed (0.6N
(0.6Nmax
max),
), opening the diffuser increases the choke
mass flow rate rate of
ofthe
thecompressor
compressorand andexpands
expandsthe theoperating
operating range
range of the compressor
of the compressor by shifting the
by shifting
choke
the line.line.
choke However,
However,the surge massmass
the surge flowflow
rate of the
rate ofcompressor
the compressor has very little little
has very change. At low
change. Atmass
low
flow rates,
mass the tipthe
flow rates, region of the of
tip region leading edge of
the leading the impeller
edge is highly
of the impeller unstable.
is highly This is This
unstable. the main
is thereason
main
for instability
reason and stall
for instability andinstall
the compressor at lowatrotation
in the compressor speeds
low rotation and pressure
speeds ratios.
and pressure Because
ratios. of this,
Because of
closing
this, the diffuser
closing vanesvanes
the diffuser does does
not improve the stability
not improve of theofcompressor,
the stability and the
the compressor, andsurge massmass
the surge flow
rate of
flow ratetheof compressor
the compressor doesdoesnotnot
change.
change. Therefore,
Therefore, thethe
amount
amountofofrangerangeextension
extensionof of the
the datum
compressor decreases
decreases to to about
about 15%15% at
at aa low
low pressure
pressure ratio
ratio of
of 2.5.
2.5.

3.2. Discussion on Efficiency Performance

The compressor
compressor efficiency
efficiency for fordifferent
differentdiffuser
diffuservane
vaneangles
anglesand
androtational
rotational speeds
speeds areare shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 5. As5. shown
As shown in Figure
in Figure 5a, at5a, at high
high rotational
rotational speedspeed and pressure
and pressure ratio despite
ratio despite significant
significant range
range extension,
extension, the efficiency
the efficiency of theof compressor
the compressor decreases
decreases by by closing
closing thediffuser
the diffuservanes.
vanes. At
At maximum
rotational speed
rotational speed (Nmax (N ), the datum compressor reaches
max), the datum compressor reaches the peak the peak efficiency of 79.9%, while the “closed
◦
66°”” case reaches a peak efficiency of only 69.1%. We can see the same trend at the rotational speed of
0.9Nmax forclosing
max for closingthe the diffuser.
diffuser. By
By contrast,
contrast, at at this
this speed,
speed, thethe efficiency
efficiency of the diffuser increases by
opening the diffuser vanes ◦
vanes and the “open 44°” ” case has the highest efficiency of 81.7%. This is because
the impeller and diffuser of the datum compressor were designed and matched for the best efficiency
at the Nmax as itit is
max as is the
the design
design speed.
speed. However,
However, as as the
the rotational
rotational speed
speed of the compressor decreases,
the impeller and diffuser become unmatched since the diffuser throat area needed for the appropriate
matching
matching increases
increases [22].
[22]. AsAs aa result,
result,at atlower
lowerrotational
rotationalspeeds
speedsofof0.8N max and
0.8Nmax and 0.6N
0.6Nmax the compressor
max the

with the largest diffuser throat area, which is the “open 6 ◦ ” case, has the highest efficiency.
largest diffuser throat area, which is the “open 6°” case, has the highest efficiency.

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Cont.
Energies 2017, 10, 682 7 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 682 7 of 15

(c) (d)
Figure 5. Compressor efficiency performance for various diffuser vane angles and rotational speeds.
Figure 5. Compressor efficiency performance for various diffuser vane angles and rotational speeds.
(a) Nmax; (b) 0.9Nmax; (c) 0.8Nmax; (d) 0.6Nmax.
(a) Nmax ; (b) 0.9Nmax ; (c) 0.8Nmax ; (d) 0.6Nmax .

For further discussion of the efficiency performance of the compressor at different speeds for
For further
different diffuserdiscussion
vane angles, of the
it isefficiency
necessaryperformance
to evaluate of thethe compressor
matching at different
between speedsand
the impeller for
differentAs
diffuser. diffuser
shownvane angles,etital.
by Tamaki is [23],
necessary to evaluate
if the flow capacity the
of matching
the impellerbetween
and thattheofimpeller and
the diffuser
diffuser. As shown by Tamaki et al. [23], if the flow capacity of the impeller
match closely; the compressor will have the best performance at the design speed. This assumption and that of the diffuser
match
also closely;
applies thespeeds
to the compressor
higherwill have the
or lower thanbesttheperformance
design speed.atAs the design speed.
demonstrated byThis assumption
Dixon and Hall
also applies to the speeds higher or lower than the design speed. As demonstrated
[24], the choke mass flows of the impeller and vaned diffuser are dependent on the impeller blade by Dixon and
Hall [24], the choke mass flows of the impeller and vaned diffuser are dependent
speed and stagnation conditions at the diffuser inlet, respectively, besides their respective throat area. on the impeller blade
speed circumstances
These and stagnationvary conditions at the
at different diffuser inlet,
rotational speeds respectively,
so the componentbesidesthat
their respective
chokes throat area.
and determines
These
the circumstances
choke mass flow rate varyofatthe
different
compressor rotational speeds
for each speed so line
the component that chokes
may be different. and determines
To analyze the choke
the choke mass flow rate of the compressor for each speed line may
mass flow of the impeller and diffuser and the matching between them, we study the componentbe different. To analyze the choke
mass flow ofof
performance the
theimpeller
impellerand anddiffuser
diffuser.and the matching between them, we study the component
performance of the impeller and
The diffuser loss coefficient and diffuser.
adiabatic efficiency of the impeller for different cases are shown
The diffuser loss coefficient
in Figure 6. The impeller efficiency calculatedand adiabatic efficiency
by using of the parameters
the gas-state impeller for of different cases
the inlet, the are
rotor-
showninterface
stator in Figureand6. the
Theoutlet
impeller efficiency
of the compressor calculated by using(2).
and Equation the gas-state parameters of the inlet,
the rotor-stator interface and the outlet of the compressor and Equation (2).
  1 
 
 pt 3  γ−1
 pt3  ( γ ) 1
p
 impeller =  ptt11  
−1 (2)
ηimpeller  TTt 3t3 (2)
 Tt1 − 1 1
 Tt1 
The diffuser
The diffuser loss
loss coefficient
coefficient is
is computed
computed by
by using
using Equation
Equation (3).
(3).

ptp3 t3 −
pt 7pt7
ωdifdiffuser
f user = (3)(3)
−
pt 3 t3 ps 3ps3
p

As stated
As statedbefore,
before,atatmaximum
maximumrotational
rotationalspeed,
speed,the
thedatum
datumcompressor
compressorhas hasthe
thehighest
highestefficiency.
efficiency.
The reason
The reasonisisthat
thatasaswe
wesee
seeininFigure
Figure6a,6a, the
the choke
choke massmass flow
flow raterate of the
of the impeller
impeller (2.69
(2.69 kg/s)kg/s)
is in is in
line
line with
with the choke
the choke mass mass flowofrate
flow rate theof the diffuser.
diffuser. Thematching
The close close matching of the mass
of the choke chokeflowmass flow
rates rates
makes
makes
the the impeller
impeller and diffuser
and diffuser work at work at their performance
their highest highest performance
at a massatflow
a mass
rateflow ratekg/s,
of 2.57 of 2.57
whichkg/s,
is
which is the peak efficiency point of the stage. In other diffuser vane configurations,
the peak efficiency point of the stage. In other diffuser vane configurations, due to the alteration of due to the
alteration
the diffuserofthroat
the diffuser throat
area, the area,mass
choke the choke massofflow
flow rate the rate of the
diffuser diffuserand
changes changes and mismatches
mismatches with the
impeller. This mismatching results in the significant drop in the stage efficiency, and as this
mismatching increases by closing the diffuser vanes, the stage efficiency decreases further.
Energies 2017, 10, 682 8 of 15

with the impeller. This mismatching results in the significant drop in the stage efficiency, and as this
mismatching increases by closing the diffuser vanes, the stage efficiency decreases further. 8 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 682

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 6. Diffuser loss coefficient and adiabatic efficiency of the impeller at different rotational speeds.
Figure 6. Diffuser loss coefficient and adiabatic efficiency of the impeller at different rotational speeds.
(a) Nmax; (b) 0.9Nmax; (c) 0.8Nmax; (d) 0.6Nmax
(a) Nmax ; (b) 0.9Nmax ; (c) 0.8Nmax ; (d) 0.6Nmax
The choke mass flow rates of both impeller and diffuser decrease as the rotational speed of the
impeller
The choke decreases
mass flow [24],rates
but theof rate
bothofimpeller
decline of thediffuser
and choke mass flow rate
decrease of the
as the diffuser is
rotational largerof the
speed
than that of the impeller. This difference leads to the off-design matching
impeller decreases [24], but the rate of decline of the choke mass flow rate of the diffuser is larger problem between the than
impeller and diffuser at lower speeds, which result in lower efficiency of the datum compressor,
that of the impeller. This difference leads to the off-design matching problem between the impeller
compared to cases with open diffuser vanes. As shown in Figure 6b, at 0.9Nmax opening the diffuser
and diffuser at lower speeds, which result in lower efficiency of the datum compressor, compared to
vanes increases the choke mass flow rate of the diffuser and makes it closer to the impeller choke
cases mass
withflow
openrate.
diffuser vanes. As shown
The improvement in Figure
in matching 6b, atimpeller
between 0.9Nmaxand opening
diffuserthe diffuser
increases thevanes increases
efficiency
the choke
of the mass flow rate
compressor of the
by 4.5% diffuser
in the “open 6°”and makes
case at 0.8Nitmax
closer to speed,
. At this the impeller
the peakchoke mass flow
stage efficiency of rate.
The improvement
the open casesin is matching
even higherbetween
than theimpeller
peak stage and diffuser
efficiency ofincreases
the datumthe efficiencyatof
compressor thebecause,
Nmax compressor
by 4.5% in the “open
in addition 6◦ ” case
to the higher at 0.8N
impeller max . At this
efficiency, speed,
the open the peak
diffusers are stage efficiency of the open cases is
more efficient.
even higher As than
shown thein peak
Figures 6 and
stage 7 in Casey
efficiency ofand
the Rusch
datum[22], the off-design
compressor at Nmatching
max because,problem betweento the
in addition
highertheimpeller
impellerefficiency,
and diffuser is more
the open severe in high
diffusers are pressure ratio compressors, which have high design
more efficient.
tip shown
As speed. This effect elevates
in Figures 6 and 7 the compressor
in Casey efficiency
and Rusch [22],deterioration
the off-design due to the mismatching
matching problem betweenat
speeds other than the design speed. Implementing the variable geometry method to improve the
the impeller and diffuser is more severe in high pressure ratio compressors, which have high design
matching by changing the diffuser vane angle at different speeds is a feasible solution for improving
tip speed. This effect elevates the compressor efficiency deterioration due to the mismatching at
the performance of modern high pressure ratio compressors. A demonstration of the potential
speeds otherofthan
benefits the design of
implementation speed. Implementing
this method for a superthehigh variable
pressuregeometry method
ratio compressor to improve
is provided in the
matching by
this paper.changing the diffuser vane angle at different speeds is a feasible solution for improving
the performance
Figure 7of modernthe
illustrates high pressure
degree ratio compressors.
of reaction A demonstration
for different diffuser vane angles at ofathe potential
rotational benefits
speed
of implementation of this of
of 0.9Nmax. The degree method
reactionforofaasuper high pressure
centrifugal compressor ratio compressor
is the ratio of theisrotor
provided in this paper.
static enthalpy
rise to the
Figure stage stagnation
7 illustrates enthalpy
the degree rise. The degree
of reaction of reaction
for different for a stage
diffuser vane without
angles at inlet swirl can bespeed
a rotational
calculated using the following equation:
of 0.9Nmax . The degree of reaction of a centrifugal compressor is the ratio of the rotor static enthalpy
Energies 2017, 10, 682 9 of 15

rise to the stage stagnation enthalpy rise. The degree of reaction for a stage without inlet swirl can be
calculated using the following equation:

hs2 − ht1 c2 2
rk = = 1− (4)
ht2 − ht1 2(ht2 − ht1 )
Energies 2017, 10, 682 9 of 15
As the diffuser vane angle decreases, the mass flow rate of the air passing through the impeller
and so the velocity of the flow at the impeller outlet decrease. Also because of the backswept blade,
the work input of the impeller increases ℎ −ℎ
= with the decrease
= 1 − of the mass flow rate. As a result, the degree
(4)
ℎ − the
of reaction of the compressor increases with ℎ decrease2(ℎin the
− ℎ variable
) diffuser vane angle.

Figure
7. 7. Degree
Degree ofofreaction
reactionfor
fordifferent
differentdiffuser
diffuser vane
vane angles
angles at
at 0.9N
0.9Nmax.
Figure max .

As the diffuser vane angle decreases, the mass flow rate of the air passing through the impeller
3.3. Discussion on Effects of the Variable Diffuser on the Impeller
and so the velocity of the flow at the impeller outlet decrease. Also because of the backswept blade,
Tamaki
the et al. of
work input [23]theassumed
impellerin their work
increases withon thematching
decrease between
of the mass theflow
impeller
rate. and
As adiffuser that
result, the
degree
using of reaction
different of the
diffuser compressor
types does notincreases with
affect the the decreaseofinthe
performance theimpeller
variable and
diffuser vane working
it keeps angle.
with the same performance characteristic. Ziegler et al. [14] reported that the impact of vaned diffusers
with3.3. Discussion
different on Effects
radial gaps andof thediffuser
Variableangles
Diffuser
onon theperformance
the Impeller of the impeller is insignificant. These
previousTamaki
studiesethave been
al. [23] done onincompressors
assumed their work on with medium
matching pressure
between theratio levels.and
impeller Wediffuser
are not aware
that
of any
using studies done
different on high
diffuser pressure
types does notratio compressors
affect to investigate
the performance the effect
of the impeller andof it
a variable diffuser
keeps working
on with
impellerthe performance.
same performance characteristic. Ziegler et al. [14] reported that the impact of vaned
diffusers
As can be with different
seen in Figure radial
6, atgaps
everyand diffuser
speed, angles on the
the performance performancecurves
characteristic of theofimpeller is
the impeller
for insignificant. These
different diffuser previous
vane anglesstudies
over the have been
broad done onrange
operating compressors with medium
form a uniform pressure ratio
and continuous curve.
Thislevels.
uniformWe are notimplies
trend aware of theany studies done
performance of on
thehigh pressure
impeller ratio compressors
is independent of theto investigate the
downstream vane
effect of a variable diffuser on impeller performance.
diffuser system. To evaluate this, the average static pressure at impeller exit for different diffuser vane
angles isAsstudied.
can be seen in Figure 6, at every speed, the performance characteristic curves of the impeller
forFigure
different diffuser
8 shows the vane
averageangles over
static the broad
pressure operating range
at rotor–stator formata0.9N
interface uniform. Figure
and continuous
8 indicates
max
curve. This uniform trend implies the performance of the impeller is independent
that the impeller performance is the same over the operating range, for different diffuser of the downstream
vane angles.
vane diffuser system. To evaluate this, the average static pressure at impeller exit for different diffuser
In order to investigate the flow condition at the impeller, various flow parameters at impeller exit for
vane angles is studied.
cases with different diffuser angles but the same mass flow rate are shown in Figures 9–11. At this mass
Figure 8 shows the average static pressure at rotor–stator interface at 0.9Nmax. Figure 8 indicates
flow rate, the stage has different performance and operating conditions with various diffuser settings,
that the impeller performance is the same over the operating range, for different diffuser vane angles.
but we can see that the flow conditions at impeller exit are the same. This confirms the independence
In order to investigate the flow condition at the impeller, various flow parameters at impeller exit for
of the
casesimpeller performance
with different diffuser from the but
angles diffuser vane’s
the same configuration.
mass flow rate are shown in Figures 9–11. At this
mass flow rate, the stage has different performance and operating conditions with various diffuser
settings, but we can see that the flow conditions at impeller exit are the same. This confirms the
independence of the impeller performance from the diffuser vane’s configuration.
Energies 2017, 10, 682 10 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 682 10 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 682 10 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 682 10 of 15

Figure Average
8. Average static pressureatatthe
therotor–stator
rotor–statorinterface
interface for
for different
different diffuser vane angles.
Figure
Figure8.8.
Figure Averagestatic
8. Average staticpressure
static pressure at
pressure at the rotor–stator
rotor–stator interface
interface for
for different diffuser
different diffuser
diffuser vane
vane
vane
angles.
angles.
angles.

Figure 9. Static pressure contours at the rotor–stator interface for different diffuser vanes angles at
Figure
Figure
Figure 9.Static
9. 9. Staticpressure
Static pressurecontours
contours at
at the
the rotor–stator
rotor–stator interface
interfacefor
fordifferent
differentdiffuser vanes
diffuser angles
vanes at at
angles
2.25 kg/s mass pressure
flow rate.contours at the rotor–stator interface for different diffuser vanes angles at
2.25
2.25 kg/s
kg/s
2.25 mass
kg/smass flow
massflow rate.
flow rate.
rate.

Figure 10. Absolute Mach number contours at the rotor–stator interface for different diffuser vanes
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Absolute
Absolute Mach
Mach number
number contours
contours at the
the rotor–stator interface
interface for different
different diffuser
diffuser vanes
vanes
Figure 10.atAbsolute
angles 2.25 kg/sMach rate.contours at
number
mass flow at the rotor–stator
rotor–stator interfaceforfor different diffuser vanes
angles
angles at 2.25 kg/s mass flow rate.
angles atat2.25
2.25kg/s
kg/smass
mass flow
flow rate.
rate.
Energies 2017, 10, 682 11 of 15
Energies 2017, 10, 682 11 of 15

Energies 2017, 10, 682 11 of 15

Figure
Figure 11.11.Swirl
Swirlangle
angle contours
contours at
at the
the rotor-stator
rotor-stator interface
interfacefor
fordifferent
differentdiffuser
diffuservanes angles
vanes at at
angles
2.25
2.25 kg/smass
kg/s massflow
flowrate.
rate.
Figure 11. Swirl angle contours at the rotor-stator interface for different diffuser vanes angles at
2.25 kg/s mass
Applying flow rate.
variable geometry diffuser technique significantly increases the operating range of the
ApplyingThis
compressor. variable
makes geometry
the impellerdiffuser
to worktechnique
stably in significantly
a much wider increases
mass flowtherange
operating range of the
than operating
Applying
compressor. This variable
makes geometry
the impeller diffuser
to worktechnique
stably significantly
in a much increases
wider
range of a conventional fixed geometry compressor with the same impeller. Since the performance mass the
flowoperating
range range
than of the
operating
of
compressor.
range This makes the impeller to work stably in a much wider mass
the impeller is independent of the diffuser, this technique can be used to study the performance of a of
of a conventional fixed geometry compressor with the same impeller.flow range
Since thethan operating
performance
range
thenew of a conventional
impeller
impeller is independent
at the design fixedof geometryandcompressor
the diffuser,
process thewith
this technique
improve thecan
accuracy same impeller.
bethe
of used Since
to study
matching the performance
the
between performance
the impeller ofof a
newtheimpeller
and impeller
diffuser at is independent
in the
the design
operating ofconditions
the diffuser,
process and improve this technique
in question. the accuracy can be ofused to study the
the matching performance
between of a
the impeller
new impeller
and diffuser
Although at
in the the design
operating
closing process
conditions
the diffuser and improve
in question.
significantly the accuracy of the matching between
extends the stable operating range of the compressor the impeller
and
by diffuserthe
shifting
Although in the operating
surge
closing line to the
the diffuserconditions
lower in question.
mass
significantly flowextends
rates, but theworking at low mass
stable operating flowofrates
range increases
the compressor
Although angle closingatthe diffuser
bythe incidence
shifting the surge line tothethe lowersignificantly
impeller leading
mass flowedge.extends
rates, butthe
Figure stable
12 shows
working operating
at lowthemassrange of the compressor
pitch-averaged spanwisethe
flow rates increases
by shifting the
distribution surgeincidence
line to theangleloweratmass flow rates, but working at low mass operating
flow rates points
increases
incidence angleofatthe the impeller leading the impeller
edge. Figure 12leading
shows the edge six different
pitch-averaged spanwise distribution at
the incidence angle at the impeller leading edge. Figure 12 shows the pitch-averaged spanwise
of 0.9N max. As shown
the incidence angleinatTable 2, operating
the impeller leadingpointsedge of six
1 todifferent
5 are foroperating
the “Closed 2°” at
points case from
0.9N choke to
max . As shown
distribution
surge, of the incidence
respectively, and the angle atpoint
operating the impeller
6 is the leading
choke edge
point
◦ of six “Closed
the different4°” operating
case. As points
the massat
in Table 2, operating points of 1 to 5 are for the “Closed 2 ” case from choke to surge, respectively,
0.9N
flow max. As shown in Table 2, operating points of 1 to 5 are for the “Closed 2°” case from choke to
and thedecreases,
operatingthe incidence
point 6 is theangle
chokemid-span
point ofincreases.
the “Closed This4rise of theAs
◦ ” case. incidence
the mass angle
flowdecreases
decreases, thethe
surge, respectively,
stability of the tip and the
region of operating
the impellerpoint 6 is the
leading choke
edge to point
the of the
point that “Closed
flow 4°” case. will
separation As the mass
happen
incidence
flow angle mid-span increases. This rise increases.
of the incidence riseangle
of thedecreases the stability of the tip
in thedecreases,
tip region, theand
incidence
a sudden angledrop
mid-span
of the incidenceThis angle happens incidence
at spans angle decreases
of above 90%thein
region of the
stability of impeller
the tip leading
region of edge
the to the point
impeller leading that flow
edge to separation
the point willflow
that happen in the tip
separation willregion,
happen and
operating point 2, which is at 1.82 kg/s mass flow rate.
a sudden
in the tip region, and a sudden drop of the incidence angle happens at spans of above 90% in at
drop of the incidence angle happens at spans of above 90% in operating point 2, which is
1.82 kg/s mass
operating pointflow rate. is at 1.82 kg/s mass flow rate.
2, which

Figure 12. Pitch averaged spanwise distribution of incidence angle at leading edge of the impeller.

Figure
Figure 12.12.Pitch
Pitchaveraged
averagedspanwise
spanwise distribution
distribution of
of incidence
incidenceangle
angleatatleading edge
leading ofof
edge thethe
impeller.
impeller.
 Energies 2017, 10, 682 12 of 15

Table 2. Different operating points shown in Figures 12 and 13.

Operating Point OP1 OP2 OP3 OP4 OP5 OP6

Energies 2017, 10, 682 12 of 15
Mass flow rate 2.03 1.96 1.90 1.82 1.77 1.74
Diffuser setting Closed 2° Closed 2° Closed 2° Closed 2° Closed 2° Closed 4°
Figure 13 shows the pitch-averaged spanwise distribution of the relative Mach number at the
tip region ofFigure 13 shows the pitch-averaged spanwise distribution of the relative Mach number at the tip
the impeller leading edge superimposed by the streamlines for the mentioned operating
region of the impeller leading edge superimposed by the streamlines for the mentioned operating
points. As we can see, by an increase of the incidence angle due to the decline of the mass flow,
points. As we can see, by an increase of the incidence angle due to the decline of the mass flow, the
the tip region becomes
tip region becomessignificantly
significantly unstable andflow
unstable and flow recirculation
recirculation vortex
vortex emerges.
emerges. As theAs theflow
mass mass flow
decreases further, the vortex grows and impinges the lower spans.
decreases further, the vortex grows and impinges the lower spans.

Figure Figure 13. Pitch-averaged spanwise contour of the relative Mach number at tip of the impeller leading
13. Pitch-averaged spanwise contour of the relative Mach number at tip of the impeller leading
edge superimposed with streamlines.
edge superimposed with streamlines.
As the performance of the impeller is independent of the diffuser, at each speed there is a critical
Table 2.
mass flow rate below Different
which operating
the impeller tippoints
region shown in Figures
will become 12 andand
unstable 13. flow separation
emerges, regardless of the diffuser setting or the stage-wide working condition (such as choke or
Operating
surge). Point at operating
Although OP1 points below
OP2 the critical
OP3mass flowOP4 OP5might be working
rate, the stage OP6
stably
Massby closing
flow rate the diffuser,
2.03 the flow separation
1.96 at the
1.90impeller tip region may1.77
1.82 damage the impeller
1.74
Diffuser
due setting bladeClosed
to increasing fatigue.2◦ Closed 2◦ Closed 2◦ Closed 2◦ Closed 2◦ Closed 4◦

4. Conclusions
As the performance of the impeller is independent of the diffuser, at each speed there is a
critical massInflow
this rate
work,below
a variable
which diffuser vane was
the impeller tipemployed
region willto become
improve unstable
the operating
and range and
flow separation
performance of a high pressure ratio centrifugal compressor. This study employed steady-state
emerges, regardless of the diffuser setting or the stage-wide working condition (such as choke or
numerical simulations using Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations. Different diffuser vane
surge). rotation
Although at operating points below the critical mass flow rate, the stage might be working
angles in a range from −6 to +6 were used to examine the effects on the performance of the
stably bycompressor. Thediffuser,
closing the the flowcan
main conclusions separation at theasimpeller
be summarized follows. tip region may damage the impeller
due to increasing blade fatigue.
1.A variable vaned diffuser can significantly improve the operating range of centrifugal compressors.
The effects of a variable vaned diffuser on high pressure ratio centrifugal compressors are
4. Conclusions
verified. The stable operating range extended at different pressure ratio levels. There is an
In this work, a variable diffuser vane was employed to improve the operating range and performance
of a high pressure ratio centrifugal compressor. This study employed steady-state numerical
simulations using Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations. Different diffuser vane rotation angles
in a range from −6 to +6 were used to examine the effects on the performance of the compressor.
The main conclusions can be summarized as follows.

1. A variable vaned diffuser can significantly improve the operating range of centrifugal compressors.
The effects of a variable vaned diffuser on high pressure ratio centrifugal compressors are verified.
The stable operating range extended at different pressure ratio levels. There is an increase of
30.0% in the operating range of the current case for pressure ratios between 5.0 and 6.0. At higher
Energies 2017, 10, 682 13 of 15

rotational speeds, the main contributor to range extension is the shifting of the surge line to lower
mass flow rates, which is due to the closing of the diffuser. At lower rotational speeds, changing
the angle of diffuser vanes has minimal impact on the surge mass flow rate while it significantly
shifts the choke line. At medium rotational speeds, both surge and choke lines shift by changing
the diffuser vane angle. Thus, both contribute to extending the operating range.
2. A variable vaned diffuser has a significant impact on the compressor’s efficiency. At higher
rotational speeds, the choke mass flow of the diffuser is matched by that of the impeller. Thus,
opening the diffuser at these speed neither shifts the choke line nor improves the efficiency.
At lower rotation speeds, however, the impeller and diffuser are not matched and choking
happens at the diffuser. Because of this, opening the diffuser extends the operating range by
shifting the choke line to higher mass flows and increases the efficiency of the stage by up to 4.5%
at 0.8Nmax by improving the matching between impeller and diffuser.
3. The impeller performance is independent of the modification in diffuser vane angle. For every
rotation speed, the component performance of the impeller is a consistent curve even for diffusers
with different vane angles. A change in the diffuser settings did not change the flow conditions
at the impeller exit.
4. Centrifugal impellers coupled with variable diffusers are able to operate in a wide range of mass
flow rates. This is proposed as a general method to study the behavior of the impeller over a
wide range of mass flow rates. By applying this approach, a critical point in the operating range
of the impeller from stability was found.
5. At each rotation speed, there is a certain mass flow rate for the impeller where the incidence
angle at the impeller leading edge reaches a critical point. Because of the high incidence angle,
instability and separation vortexes will arise in the near-tip region of the impeller as the mass
flow rate decreases. This critical point is independent of diffuser settings and stage-wide working
conditions such as choke or surge, which means even when the stage is in a stable condition there
might be large separation vortexes at the near-tip region of the impeller. The instability in the
impeller will grow larger with a further decrease in the mass flow rate.

Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 51176087) for supporting this research.
Author Contributions: Mohsen Ebrahimi acquired the data and wrote the paper; Qiangqiang Huang, Xiao He
and Xinqian Zheng revised the paper and offered useful suggestions to write the paper; in addition, Qiangqiang
Huang assisted in analyzing the data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
A passage area
h enthalpy
.
m mass flow rate
.
mc choke mass flow rate
.
ms surge mass flow rate
Ma Mach number
Nmax maximum rotational speed of the impeller
P pressure
T temperature
r distance in the radial direction
rk degree of reaction
y+ normalized wall distance
Z number of blades
γ specific heat ratio = 1.4 (constant) for air in this paper
η total-to-total isentropic efficiency
π total-to-total pressure ratio
ω loss coefficient
Energies 2017, 10, 682 14 of 15

Subscripts
1 impeller inlet
2 impeller exit
3 rotor-stator interface
4 diffuser inlet
5 diffuser outlet
7 outlet
I impeller
D diffuser
S stage
s static
t total

References
1. Krain, H. Review of Centrifugal Compressor’s Application and Development. J. Turbomach. 2005, 127, 25–34.
[CrossRef]
2. Bents, D.J.; Mockler, T.; Maldonado, J.; Harp, J.L., Jr.; King, J.F.; Schmitz, P.C. Propulsion System for Very
High Altitude Subsonic Unmanned Aircraft; NASA Technical Briefs DRC-98-61; NASA Lewis Research Center:
Cleveland, UT, USA, 1998.
3. Bettner, J.L.; Blandford, C.S.; Rezy, B.J. Propulsion System Assessment for Very High UAV under ERAST;
NASA CR-195469; NASA: Cleveland, UT, USA, 1995.
4. Rodgers, C. Turbocharging a high altitude UAV C.I. engine. In Proceedings of the 37th Joint Propulsion
Conference and Exhibit, Salt Lake City, UT, USA, 8–11 July 2001; American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics: Reston, VA, USA, 2001.
5. Rodgers, C. Flow Ranges of 8.0:1 Pressure Ratio Centrifugal Compressors for Aviation Applications.
In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2005 Parts A and B, Reno, NV, USA, 6–9 June 2005; Volume 6,
pp. 801–811.
6. Cumpsty, N.A. Compressor Aerodynamics, 2nd ed.; Krieger: Malabar, FL, USA, 2004.
7. Rodgers, C.; Brown, D. A Performance Autopsy of Three Centrifugal Compressors for a Small Gas Turbine.
In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2010: Power for Land, Sea, and Air (Volume 5: Industrial
and Cogeneration; Microturbines and Small Turbomachinery; Oil and Gas Applications; Wind Turbine
Technology), Glasgow, UK, 14–18 June 2010; pp. 239–247.
8. Zheng, X.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, M.; Bamba, T.; Tamaki, H. Stability Improvement of High-Pressure-Ratio
Turbocharger Centrifugal Compressor by Asymmetrical Flow Control—Part II: Nonaxisymmetrical
Self-Recirculation Casing Treatment. J. Turbomach. 2012, 135, 21007. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Li, P.-Y.; Gu, C.-W.; Song, Y. A New Optimization Method for Centrifugal Compressors Based on 1D
Calculations and Analyses. Energies 2015, 8, 4317–4334. [CrossRef]
10. Moosania, S.; Zheng, X. Comparison of Cooling Different Parts in a High Pressure Ratio Centrifugal
Compressor. Appl. Sci. 2016, 7, 16–28. [CrossRef]
11. Whitfield, A. Review of Variable Geometry Techniques Applied to Enhance the Performance of Centrifugal
Compressors. In Proceedings of the International Compressor Engineering Conference, West Lafayette, IN,
USA, 25–28 July 2000; pp. 63–70.
12. Simon, H.; Wallmann, T.; Mönk, T. Improvements in Performance Characteristics of Single-Stage and
Multistage Centrifugal Compressors by Simultaneous Adjustments of Inlet Guide Vanes and Diffuser Vanes.
J. Turbomach. 1987, 109, 41–47. [CrossRef]
13. Salvage, J.W. Development of a Centrifugal Compressor With a Variable Geometry Split-Ring Pipe Diffuser.
J. Turbomach. 1999, 121, 295–304. [CrossRef]
14. Ziegler, K.U.; Gallus, H.E.; Niehuis, R. A Study on Impeller-Diffuser Interaction—Part I: Influence on the
Performance. J. Turbomach. 2003, 125, 173–182. [CrossRef]
15. Huang, Q.; Zheng, X. Potential of variable diffuser vanes for extending the operating range of compressors
and for improving the torque performance of turbocharged engines. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J.
Automob. Eng. 2017, 231, 555–566. [CrossRef]
Energies 2017, 10, 682 15 of 15

16. Zheng, X.; Huang, Q. Potential of the range extension of compressors with a variable inlet prewhirl for
automotive turbocharged engines with an ultra-high-power density. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J.
Automob. Eng. 2015, 229, 1959–1968. [CrossRef]
17. Zsiga, N.; Voser, C.; Onder, C.; Guzzella, L. Intake Manifold Boosting of Turbocharged Spark-Ignited Engines.
Energies 2013, 6, 1746–1763. [CrossRef]
18. Gwehenberger, T.; Thiele, M.; Seiler, M.; Robinson, D. Single-Stage High-Pressure Turbocharging.
In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power for Land, Sea, and Air (Volume 5: Microturbines and
Small Turbomachinery; Oil and Gas Applications), Orlando, FL, USA, 8–12 June 2009; pp. 103–113.
19. Jameson, A. Time Dependent Calculations Using Multigrid, with Applications to Unsteady Flows Past
Airfoils and Wings. In Proceedings of the AIAA 10th Computational Fluid Dynamics Conference, Honolulu,
HI, USA, 24–26 June 1991; p. 14.
20. Spalart, P.R.; Allmaras, S.R. A one-equation turbulence model for aerodynamic flows. La Rech. Aerosp. 1994,
1, 5–21.
21. He, X.; Zheng, X.; Wei, J.; Zeng, H. Investigation of Vaned Diffuser Splitters on the Performance and Flow
Control of High Pressure Ratio Centrifugal Compressors. In Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2016:
Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition (Volume 2D: Turbomachinery), Seoul, Korea, 13–17
June 2016; p. V02DT42A008.
22. Casey, M.; Rusch, D. The Matching of a Vaned Diffuser With a Radial Compressor Impeller and Its Effect on
the Stage Performance. J. Turbomach. 2014, 136, 121004. [CrossRef]
23. Tamaki, H.; Nakao, H.; Saito, M. The Experimental Study of Matching Between Centrifugal Compressor
Impeller and Diffuser. J. Turbomach. 1999, 121, 113–118. [CrossRef]
24. Dixon, S.L.; Hall, C.A. Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, and Compressors. In Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of
Turbomachinery; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014; pp. 265–317.

© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).