Me Mechanical Project

A
Dissertation on
“ Analysis and Optimization of Multi-Leaf

Spring of Small Segment by Using
Composite Materials ”
By
Miss. Chavan Shraddha Vitthal
Guide
Mr. Y. B. Chaudhary
Department of Mechanical Engineering

[ ME Design Engineering ]
Nashik District Maratha Vidya Prasarak Samajs

Karmaveer Adv. Baburao Ganpatrao Thakare
College of Engineering, Nashik - 422013 (MS)
[ 2017-18 ]
Nashik District Maratha Vidya Prasarak Samajs
Karmaveer Adv. Baburao Ganpatrao Thakare
College of Engineering, Nashik - 422013 (MS)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Miss.Chavan Shraddha Vitthal, has successfully
completed the Dissertation entitled ”Analysis and Optimization of
Multi-Leaf Spring of Small Segment by Using Composite Ma-
terials” under my supervision, in the partial fulfilment of Master of
Engineering (Mechanical)(Design Engineering) of Savitribai Phule Pune
University.
Date:
Place:
Mr.Y.B.Chaudhary Mr. D. V. Kushare Dr. S. P. Mogal

Guide PG Coordinator HOD
(NDMVPS’s KBT COE)
External Examiner Seal Dr. K. S. Holkar

Principal
(NDMVPS’s KBT COE)
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With all respect and gratitude, I would like to thank all people who have helped me
directly or indirectly for this Dissertation.
I express my heartily thankfulness towards Mr. Y. B. Choudhary to complete this

project work on ‘Analysis and Optimization of Multi-Leaf Spring of Small Seg-
ment Vehicle by using Composite Materials’. His ideas, directions gave me moral
boost up to complete this dissertation.
Thanks to PG coordinator Mr. D.V. Kushare, Head of Mechanical Department Dr.

S. P. Mogal, Principal Dr. K. S. Holkar and all the Teaching & Non-teaching staff
members of Mechanical Engineering Department for providing necessary information and
required resources timely.
I intend to conclude this acknowledgement with the deep thanks and sincere to my friends
and parents who have helped me to complete Dissertation.
Ms Chavan Shraddha Vitthal
M.E. Mechanical (Design Engineering)

CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF TABLES vii
NOMENCLATURE viii
ABSTRACT ix
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Suspension System: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Applications of Leaf Spring : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Characteristics of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Material Requirement of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Problem Definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Objectives: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 Scope: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.10 Methodology: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.11 Organisation of Dissertation : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.11.1 Design Parameters: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.11.2 Design Requirements (σb ): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.11.3 Design of Leaf Spring Using Steel: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11.4 Selection of Composite Material: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
ii
1.11.5 Design of Leaf Spring Using Composite Materials: . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11.6 Comparison of Results: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11.7 Simulation : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11.8 Experimental Validation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11.9 Results and Conclusion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 Literature Survey: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Research Gap: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 DESIGN ANALYSIS OF STEEL LEAF SPRING 25
3.1 Design and Strength Equation of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Specifications of Steel Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Stress Analysis of Steel Leaf Spring (Analytical): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 Simulation of Steel Leaf Spring using Creo 2.0: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Stress Distribution : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL LEAF SPRING 33
4.1 Introduction to Composite Material: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.1 Composites with polymer matrices: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.2 Composites with metal matrices: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Properties of Polymer Matrices Composite: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Chemical Composition and Strengths of Composites: . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3.1 S-Glass Epoxy: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3.2 E-Glass Epoxy: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.3 Kevlar: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.4 Carbon Fibre: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 Finite Element Analysis of Composite Leaf Spring for 4.3 KN: . . . . . . 39
4.4.1 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of S-Glass Epoxy Fibre: . . . . . . . . 39
4.4.2 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of E-Glass Epoxy Fibre: . . . . . . . . 39
4.4.3 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Kevlar : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
iii
4.4.4 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Carbon Epoxy: . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.5 Response Analysis of Composite Spring for Different Loading Condition: 41
4.5.1 Comparison of Composite and Steel Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . 43
4.5.2 Material Finalisation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.6 Shape and Size Optimization of E-Glass Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.6.1 Introduction to Shape and Size Optimization: . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.6.2 Optimization of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.6.3 Static Analysis of Optimized Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6.4 Comparison of Response Analysis for Different Loading: . . . . . 54
5 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION & TESTING 49
5.1 Universal Testing Machine: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.2 Main Components of Machine: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.3 Operation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2 Specifications of Universal Testing Machine: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3 Transverse Bending Test of Specimen: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3.1 Beam Deflection in mm: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3.2 Calculation for bending Stress: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6 CONCLUSIONS 56
REFERENCES 57
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Multi-leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Flowchart for achieving Design Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Assembled View of Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Terminology of Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1 Mahindra MM540 Jeep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Assembly of Leaf Spring using Creo 2.0 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 FEA Results for Stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of S-Glass Epoxy Fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of E-Glass Epoxy Fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Kevlar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Carbon Epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.5 Maximum Stress Distribution of Composite Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.6 Maximum Displacement of Composite Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.7 Optimization of Leaf Spring Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.8 Eyelet and Leaves Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.9 FEA of optimized Lead Spring for 2 KN Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.11 FEA of optimized Lead Spring for 4.3 KN Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.14 Plot Analysis for Maximum Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.15 Plot Analysis for Maximum Stress Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
v
5.1 Universal Testing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 Sample Specimen of Steel (Left) and E-glass (Right) . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 Transverse Bending Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.4 Simply Supported Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
vi
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Notations and Description of Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Properties of Material - Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Properties of Material - Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1 Dimensions of spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Stress Results for Leaf Spring for Different Load Set . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 FEA Results for Stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1 Properties of Composites (Copy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Maximum Stress Distribution of Composite Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.5 Optimal Changes in Leaf Spring Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.2 Bending Deflection in mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Experimental Results for Maximum Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4 Experimental Results for Maximum Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . 55
vii
NOMENCLATURE
W Load
L Length of Spring
t Thickness of Leaf
T Thickness of Leaf Spring Assembly
b Width of Leaf
l Distance between u-clips
n No. of Leaf
nf No. of Full length leaves
ng No. of Graduated leaves
δ Deflection in Leaf
σb Bending Stress in Leaf Spring Assembly
σf Bending Stress in Full length leaves
σg Bending Stress in graduated leaves
E Modulus of Elasticity
I Moment of Inertia
mm milimeter
N Newton
KN Kilonewton
MPa Mega Pascal
viii
Abstract
Leaf Spring Suspension System is used in every automobile vehicles. The fuel efficiency
is important factor for running of vehicle. In order to impact the vehicle to be more
economical in terms of Fuel, the weight of Vehicle to be reduced by reducing compo-
nent weight. So, out of many components one of the components of automobile, the
leaf spring which use for carried out the whole weight of the vehicle is best option for
replacement of steel material by composite material. The material select for leaf spring
are E-glass/epoxy, Carbon epoxy and Graphite epoxy composite material which is more
economical with similar mechanical and geometrical properties to the steel leaf spring.
The leaf Spring is design using both the materials of steel and composites for same set of
loads. The Simulation is prepared for both the models and FEA test is done showing the
stress and deflection analysis of Steel and Composite leaf Spring. The springs is tested
experimentally by tension and bending test and validating its results with the simulation
results. A Comparative study is been made for both the materials, showing the difference
in dimensions , stresses and deflections.
Keywords: Leaf Spring, Composite Material, FEA analysis.
ix
Analysis and Optimization of Multi-Leaf Spring of Small Segment Vehicle by using
Composite Materials
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
Now a day the fuel efficiency and emission gas regulation of automobiles are two im-
portant issues. To fulfil this problem the automobile industries are trying to make new
vehicle which can provide high efficiency with low cost. The best way to increase the
fuel efficiency is to reduce the weight of the automobile. The weight reduction can be
achieved primarily by the introduction of better material, design optimization and better
manufacturing processes. The achievement of weight reduction with adequate improve-
ment of mechanical properties has made composite a very good replacement material for
conventional steel.
In automobile car out of many components one of the components of automobile which
can be easily replaced is leaf spring. A leaf spring is a simple form of spring, commonly
used for the suspension in wheeled vehicles. The suspension of leaf spring is the area
which needs to focus to improve the suspensions of the vehicle for comfort ride. The
suspension leaf spring is one of the potential items for weight reduction in automobile as
it accounts for 10 to 20% of unsparing weight.
1.2 Suspension System:
Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages that
connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension
systems must support both road holding/handling and ride quality, which are at odds
with each other. The tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It
is important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface
as much as possible, because all the road or ground forces acting on the vehicle do so
through the contact patches of the tires. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself
and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front and rear suspension
of a car may be different. Suspension system involves use of different springs and Piston
Cylinder arrangement. Some of the common springs are,
1. Helical springs
2. Conical and volute springs
3. Torsion springs
NDMVPS’s KBTCOE, NASHIK, M. E. (Mechanical) (Design) Engineering

1
Composite Materials
4. Disc or Belleville springs
5. Special purpose springs
6. Laminated or leaf springs
1.3 Leaf Spring:

Leaf spring (also known as flat springs) is made out of flat plate. The advantage in leaf
spring over helical spring is that the ends of the spring may be guided along a definite path
as it deflects to act as a structural member in addition the energy absorbing device. Thus
the leaf springs may carry lateral loads, brake torque, driving torque etc., in addition to
shocks.
Fig.1.1: Multi-leaf Spring
A leaf spring commonly used in automobiles is of semi-elliptical form as shown in figure

1.1 It is built up of a number of plates (known as leaves). The leaves are usually given
an initial curvature or cambered so that they will tend to straighten under the load. The
leaves are held together by means of a band shrunk around them at the centre or by
a bolt passing through the centre. Since the band exerts stiffening and strengthening
effect, therefore the effective length of the spring for bending will be overall length of
the spring minus width of band. In case of a centre bolt, two-third distance between
centres of U-bolt should be subtracted from the overall length of the spring in order to
find effective length. The spring is clamped to the axle housing by means of U-bolts.

2
Composite Materials
The Longest leaf is known as main leaf or master leaf has its ends formed in the shape of
an eye through which the bolts are passed to secure the spring to its supports. Usually
the eyes, through which the spring is attached to the hanger or shackle, are provided
with bushings of some antifriction material such as bronze or rubber. The other leaves
of the spring are known as graduated leaves. In order to prevent digging in the adjacent
leaves, the ends of the graduated leaves are trimmed in various forms as shown in figure
1.1. Since the master leaf has to with stand vertical bending loads as well as loads due to
sideways of the vehicle and twisting, therefore due to the presence of stresses caused by
these loads, it is usual to provide two full length leaves and the rest graduated leaves as
shown in figure 1.1. Rebound clips are located at intermediate positions in the length of
the spring, so that the graduated leaves also share the stresses induced in the full length
leaves when the spring rebounds.
1.4 Applications of Leaf Spring :
1. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in car

springs, railway buffers, air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers etc. dampers.
2. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves.
3. To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams.
4. To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.
1.5 Characteristics of Leaf Spring:
1. The leaf spring acts as a linkage for holding the axle in position and thus separate
Linkage are not necessary. It makes the construction of the suspension simple and
Strong.
2. The positioning of the axle is carried out by the leaf springs so it makes it disad-
vantageous to use soft springs i.e. a spring with low spring constant.
3. This type of suspension does not provide good riding comfort. The inter-leaf friction
between the leaf springs affects the riding comfort.
4. Acceleration and braking torque cause wind-up and vibration. Also wind-up causes
rear-end squat and nose-diving.

3
Composite Materials
1.6 Material Requirement of Leaf Spring:
1. The spring material requires greater strength and therefore greater load capacity.
2. It should have greater range of deflection and better fatigue properties.
3. It should have high Fatigue Strength , creep resistant and Bending Strength
4. It should be high ductile and Resilience.
5. It should be lighter in weight.
The material used for leaf springs is usually a plain carbon steel having 0.90 to 1.0%
carbon. The material goes on with process of Forming and Heat Treatment.
1.7 Problem Definition:
“Design Optimization of a multi leaf spring using composite material so as to increase
the strength and reduce weight of vehicle”
The suspension leaf spring is one of the potential items for weight reduction in automobile
as it accounts for 10 to 20% of unsprung weight. As, the composite materials are lighter
in weight, so ultimately the spring weight can be reduced therby reducing the weight of
vehicle.
It is well known that springs are designed to absorb shocks. So the strain energy of the
Material becomes a major factor in designing the springs. Since the composite material
have high strength to weight ratio and have more elastic strain energy storage capacity
as compared with steel.
It can be easily observed that material having lower density and modulus will have a
greater specific strain energy capacity. Thus composite material offer high strength and
light weight.
1.8 Objectives:
1. To replace spring material of steel with composite material.
2. To obtain more fatigue Strength.
3. To reduce the weight of Suspension System thereby reducing weight of vehicle.

4
Composite Materials
1.9 Scope:
1. Composite materials are flexible and complicated shape are easily generated.
2. Reducing the weight of component can thereby reduce the vehicle weight which
increases the fuel economy of vehicle.
3. Manufacturing and processing cost of Steel Spring are comparatively more as that
of composites. Hence we can reduce the cost of Vehicle.
1.10 Methodology:
Fig.1.2: Flowchart for achieving Design Objectives

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Composite Materials
1.11 Organisation of Dissertation : 1.11.1 Design Parameters:
Fig.1.3: Assembled View of Leaf Spring
Fig.1.4: Terminology of Leaf Spring
Leaf Spring consists of the following Parts,
1. Main Leaf
2. Graduated leaves
3. Rebound clip
4. U-Clip

6
Composite Materials
The design parameters include determine the overall dimensions of all the parts of leaf
Spring. The notations of each dimensions are given as -
Table 1.1: Notations and Description of Leaf Spring
No. Notation Name of Part
1 2W Load acting on the spring in N.
2 t Thickness of each leaf in mm
3 b Width of each leaf in mm
4 L Effective Length in mm
5 2L1 Overall Length of Spring in mm
6 l Distance between centres of U-bolts in mm
7 n Total number of leaves
8 nf Number of full length leaves
9 ng Number of graduated leaves
10 δ Deflection in Leaf in mm
11 σb Bending Stress in Leaf Spring Assembly N/mm2
12 σf Bending Stress in Full length leaves N/mm2
13 σg Bending Stress in graduated leaves N/mm2
14 y Camber distance in mm
1.11.2 Design Requirements (σb ):

The master leaf of a laminated spring is hinged to the supports. The support forces in-
duce, stresses due to longitudinal forces and stresses arising due to possible twist. Hence,
the master leaf is more stressed compared to other the graduated leaves. The stress in-
volved in the leaf spring is Bending Stress.

7
Composite Materials
Bending Stress:
Bending stress is the normal stress that is induced at a point in a body subjected to
loads that cause it to bend. When a load is applied perpendicular to the length of a
beam (with two supports on each end), bending moments are induced in the beam.
Bending Stress in Leaf Spring:
When spring is being loaded similar to that in figure one bending stress (or flexure
stress) will result. Bending stress is a more specific type of normal stress. When a spring
experiences load like that shown in figure 2.2 the top leaf of the beam undergo a normal
compressive stress. The stress at the horizontal plane of the neutral is zero. The bottom
leaf of the beam undergo a normal tensile stress.
1.11.3 Design of Leaf Spring Using Steel:
As in previous section, the stress in the leaf is determined. The Leaf of spring should
possess good bending strength, fatigue strength and impact Strength. The material of
Leaf is formed and Heat treated metal which, produces greater strength and therefore
greater load capacity, greater range of deflection and better fatigue properties.
The material used for Leaf Spring differs for point of applications. Some of the materials
are,
For automobiles:
a. 50 Cr 1
b. 50 Cr 1 V 23
c. 55 Si 2 Mn 90
For rail road springs:
a. C 55 (water-hardened)
b. C 75 (oil-hardened)
c. 40 Si 2 Mn 90 (water hardened)
d. 55 Si 2 Mn 90 (oil-hardened).
Some of the Properties of material as given below:

8
Composite Materials
Table 1.2: Properties of Material - Steel
Material and Prop- AISI Ti-6Al-4V 65Si7/SUP9 55Si2Mn90

erties 6150 alloy Steel Mild Steel
Steel
Ultimate Tensile 1015 895 1272 1962

Strength (MPa)
Ultimate Yield 979 895 1158 1472

Strength (MPa)
Young’s Modulus 2e5 1.05e5 2e5 2.1e5

(MPa)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.29 0.31 0.26 0.28
Density (kg/m3 ) 7850 4420 7850 7800
1.11.4 Selection of Composite Material:

Composites meant to be the composition of different material to produce a single compo-
nent. The fibres used in modern composites have strengths and stiffness’s far above those
of traditional bulk materials. The high strengths of the glass fibres are due to processing
that avoids the internal or surface flaws which normally weaken glass, and the strength
and stiffness of the polymeric agamid fibre is a consequence of the nearly perfect.
Composites are being commercialized in three major fields: polymer-matrix composites
(PMCs), metal-matrix composites (MMCs), and ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs).
The recognition of the three basic types of composites (PMCs, MMCs, and CMCs) is
based on the nature of the matrix material. Other classification schemes based on a
matrix/fibre notation. Such as Al/SiC and 6061/SiC/40p-T6 for aluminium reinforced
with silicon carbide and boron- and carbon-fibre reinforced polymers (BFRP or CFRP),
are also being used. The Composites are used mostly as,
a. They are light in weight and cost saving materials.
b. They are flexible and easily manufactured and can give required shape.
c. The Property of polymer is mostly similar to the property of metal

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Composite Materials
The following are the composite Material which can be used for Design of Leaf Spring.
Table 1.3: Properties of Material - Steel
Material and Prop- S-Glass E-Glass Carbon Kevlar CFRP

erties Fibre Epoxy Epoxy
Ultimate Tensile 4587 767 1100 3727 6000

Strength (MPa)
Ultimate Yield 3250 300 900 2820 4000

Strength (MPa)
Young’s Modulus 8.69e5 3.69e5 0.5e5 1.12e5 2e5

(MPa)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.28 0.3 0.25 0.25 0.3
Density (kg/m3 ) 2480 1900 1600 1440 1950
1.11.5 Design of Leaf Spring Using Composite Materials:

Considering the strength of composites material, the allowable stresses are determined.
This stress are in tension, and bending. Using the strength equations of spring, all the
dimensions are determined. In this stage, all the dimensions of Composite Leaf Spring
will be calculated.
1.11.6 Comparison of Results:
There are two designs available with us. The design with Steel and design using composite
material. The dimensions of both the designs are compared. The stress analysis of
tensile and bending will be compared. The comparison of deflection analysis will also be
done. The comparison of stress and deflection results here are done on basis of analytical
equations.
1.11.7 Simulation :
The Simulation software used is Creo 2.0. Using the dimensions and geometry of both
the design, prototype model will be prepared. This model will be for Steel as well as
composite material. The Stress. Strain and deflection analysis will be carried out using
Finite Element Analysis. This analysis will be carried out using different set of loading
conditions.

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Composite Materials
1.11.8 Experimental Validation:

The stress results of steel and composites are find previously using the Analytical method
and Simulation approach. In this stage, the results obtained by analytical and simulation
approach are validated using Experimental Investigation. The Experimental Investigation
will be done for bending and Deflection.
1.11.9 Results and Conclusion:
The Results obtained by Analytical, Simulation and Graphical Approach are compared
using graphical Language for both the materials which will clearly show the performance
beneficiary material. Hence on the results basis, conclusions will be made.

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Composite Materials
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literature Survey:
Singh, et al [1] explains the Latest Developments in Composite Materials. The authors
have stated how the composite materials have changed all the material engineering. Com-
posite materials are finding their applications in aerospace industry, automobile sector,
manufacturing industries etc. This paper focuses on the importance of composite mate-
rials in mechanical engineering, terminology used in composite materials, various defini-
tions, classification and the latest developments in composite materials in different parts
of the world. The term composite could mean almost anything if taken at face value,
since all materials are composed of dissimilar subunits if examined at close enough detail.
But in modern materials engineering, the term usually refers to a “matrix” material that
is reinforced with fibres. For instance, the term “FRP” (Fiber Reinforced Plastic) usu-
ally indicates a thermosetting polyester matrix containing glass fibres, and this particular
composite has the lion’s share of today’s commercial market This paper introduces basic
concepts of stiffness and strength underlying the mechanics of fibre-reinforced advanced
composite materials. In this paper the classification of composite is described, namely,
polymer-matrix composites (PMCs), metal-matrix composites (MMCs), and ceramic-
matrix composites (CMCs). In this paper the authors have explained how Composites
have attractive mechanical and physical properties that are now being utilized in indus-
try and aerospace on a grand scale world-wide. New fibres, polymers, and processing
techniques for all classes of composites are constantly being developed. Research is also
ongoing to improve repair techniques, recyclability, and the bonding between fibres and
matrix materials.
Rezaei et al [2] describes Analysis and optimization of a composite leaf spring. A four-leaf
steel spring used in the rear suspension system of light vehicles is analysed using ANSYS
V5.4 software. The finite element results showing stresses and deflections verified the
existing analytical and experimental solutions. Using the results of the steel leaf spring,
a composite one made from fibreglass with epoxy resin is designed and optimized using
ANSYS. The factors of design in this spring are considered as stress and displacement.
The objective was to obtain a spring with minimum weight that is capable of carrying
given static external forces. The authors concluded that the optimum spring width

12
Composite Materials
decreases hyperbolically and the thickness increases linearly from spring eye towards the
axle seat. The stresses in the composite leaf spring are much lower than that of the steel
spring. Compared to the steel leaf spring the optimized composite leaf spring without eye
unit’s weights nearly 80% less than the steel spring. In the present work, a four-leaf steel
spring used in passenger cars is replaced with a composite spring made of glass/epoxy
composites. The main objective was the shape optimization of the spring to give the
minimum weight. Experimental results from testing the steel leaf spring under static
and full bump loading containing the stresses and deflections are listed. A finite element
stress analysis was performed under static and full bump loading. Another analytical
solution was carried out using the SAE standard design formulas for leaf springs. The
results of experimental, analytical and finite element methods are shown and compared.
The leaf spring is analyzed under bending loading condition and the normal stresses are
important, but because of the anisotropic properties of composites, the other components
of the stress tensor must be studied. The longitudinal compression strength of composite
used in this work is less than its longitudinal tensile strength, so failure always occurs at
the lower (compression) surface of spring. Therefore, in the stress analysis this surface is
taken into more consideration.
Mehul Sorathiya et. al. [3] describes Various Numerical Analysis of Composite Leaf
Spring for Light Vehicle Mini Truck. The paper describes a static analysis of steel leaf
spring and laminated composite leaf spring. The dimensions have been taken of an ex-
isting conventional steel leaf spring for Light vehicle mini truck. Static Analysis of a 3-D
model of conventional leaf spring is performed using finite element analysis (FEA). Same
dimensions are used in composite multi leaf spring using carbon/Epoxy and Graphite/E-
poxy unidirectional laminates. For light vehicle mini truck, leaf steel spring dimensions
are: total length (eye to eye) is 1025 mm, arc height of axle seat (camber) is 90.8 mm,
width of leaves is 60 mm, thickness of leaves is 16 mm and full bump loading is 7500
kg. This spring is made of steel and simply supported at the end. Due to the loading
pattern of leaf spring bending stress and deflection are critical parameters. They have
been calculated. For numerical analysis 3D CAD model of leaf spring has been created
using solid modeling software. This CAD model is has been further imported into AN-
SYS for analysis purpose. The material properties for structural steel material have been

13
Composite Materials
specified and boundary conditions have been applied for the same after meshing. The
von-Mises stress and deflection values have been found. For numerical analysis 3D CAD
model of leaf spring has been created using solid modelling software. This CAD model is
has been further imported into ANSYS for analysis purpose. The material properties for
structural steel material have been specified and boundary conditions have been applied
for the same after meshing. The von-Mises stress and deflection values have been found
Both the springs are substituted with same loading conditions as well as the dimensions
are also same. The results are then compared of steel spring and composite spring. The
authors also concluded that the weight reduction of 80% is achieved by using composite
leaf spring. The fatigue life is also calculated using analytically as well as using ANSYS
for leaf spring.
Jamil Anwer [4] has studied on Design and Optimization of automotive multi-leaf spring
by finite element method. In this paper. author describes design and comparative analysis
of multi-leaf spring made of three different materials. The spring is designed using,
the Materials used for the multi-leaf spring is AISI 6150 Steel (Oil Quenched 845 dC
and 650 degree Celcius tempered), Ti-6Al-4V alloy and S-Glass fiber Composite. The
chemical compostion of all the materials are described in this paper. Multi-Leaf Spring
for commercial vehicle needs to be of high strength in order to minimize the vertical
vibrations, impacts and bumps due to road irregularities and to ensure safety of the
passengers and cargo. The main objective of this work are to develop structural modelling
of Multi-Leaf Spring using ANSYS Design 14.0 software, Static structural and Harmonic
response analysis of Multi-Leaf Spring using ANSYS v14.0 and Comparison between
AISI 6150 Steel (Oil Quenched 845 degree Celcius and 650 degree Celcius tempered),
Ti-6Al-4V alloy (Annealed) and S-Glass Fiber Composite Multi-Leaf spring in terms
of deformation, von-Mises stress and Amplitude (mm) versus frequency curves. The
dimensions of all the springs are considerd as same. The materials used in this work
are AISI 6150 Steel, Ti-6Al-4V alloy and S-Glass Fiber Composite. The solid model is
prepared and analysis for all the models in done using Ansys software. he study has
been carried out on a multi-leaf spring consisting of seven leaves used by commercial
vehicle. Multi-leaf spring of given specification is subjected to Static structural and
Harmonic response analysis using ANSYS to find the stresses and deformation. The

14
Composite Materials
main objective of this analysis is to study the multi-leaf steel leaf spring and verification
of the results within the desirable limits. The general process FEA is divided into three
phases, Pre-Processor, Solution and Post-Processor. Virtual modelling of the leaf spring
is done and is imported to ANSYS 14.0 workbench. Same model is used for the static
analysis as well as for harmonic response analysis with three different materials, namely
AISI 6150 Steel, Ti-6Al-4V alloy and S-Glass Fibre Composite. Using ANSYS, Static
analysis is carried out after applying the boundary conditions. The maximum von-mises
stress and maximum deformation in AISI 6150 steel, Ti-6Al-4V alloy and S-Glass fibre
composite. Harmonic response analysis is a technique used to determine the steady-
state response of a linear structure to loads that vary harmonically with time. Main
motive is to calculate the structure’s response at several frequencies and obtain a graph
of displacement versus frequency. Plot of amplitude versus frequency for AISI 6150 steel,
Ti-6Al-4V alloy and S-Glass Fiber Composite is shown. The comparison of all the analysis
test is done considering the stress, strain and deflection factor. Later on the author have
concluded that every composite material spring was better than the steel leaf spring.
Also the weight of each spring comparatively also reduced. The leaf spring based on
S-Glass Fiber Composite and Ti-6Al-4Valloy has a lower mass compared to AISI 6150
Steel. Total mass of S-Glass Fiber Composite, Ti-6Al-4V alloy and AISI 6150 steel based
multi-leaf spring is 10.278 Kg, 18.318 Kg and 32.532 Kg respectively. Reducing the leaf
spring mass in automobiles, we can achieve better riding comfort against hard braking
and acceleration. Under the same static load conditions the stresses in leaf springs are
found with great difference. Stress in S-Glass Fiber Composite is found to be more as
compared to conventional AISI 6150 steel. Titanium alloy based leaf spring, under same
static loading conditions, shows lesser stress than S-Glass Fiber composite and AISI 6150
steel based leaf spring.
Manivannan et. al. [5], design and Parametric Optimization Of Heavy Duty Leaf Spring.
The papers deals with the analysis of a leaf spring, which is employed in heavy duty
vehicle belonging to the medium segment of the Indian automotive market. In the design
of this kind of spring both the elastic characteristics and the fatigue strength have to
be considered as significant aspects. In addition to this particular elastic property, as
a consequence of the research effort in reducing the mass of components typical of the

15
Composite Materials
automotive industry, these springs have to face very high working stresses. In this spring
is analysed for stresses and deflection and same as plotted. Nine different parameters
have chosen for the analysis. In this project main aim is to improve the fatigue strength
by reducing shear stress of the spring, so each material is analyzed for its displacements
and stresses. The spring is designed using E-glass epoxy material. The design of springs
are done using Catia Software. From all the test of analysis, the authors concluded that
the composite spring is better for all the results. The main objective of this project
is, To optimize the designed leaf, To design the proposed leaf spring, To analysis the
spring. and To carry out creep and fatigue test. Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics (GFRP)
is considered a potential material system offering non-conductive, non-magnetic, good
chemical resistance and good mechanical strength. The modeling of Leaf Spring is done
by using CATIA software. The spring was modeled with element SOLID 95/SOLID
186. This is used for 3-D modeling of solid structures having 20 nodes. It can tolerate
irregular shapes without as much loss of accuracy. SOLID 186 elements have compatible
displacement shapes and are well suited to model curved boundaries. It is defined by
eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node translations in the nodal x,
y and z directions. Through analysis maximum permissible stress and the deformation
results can be achieved for all the eighteen combinations. The deformed and undeformed
shape of the leaf spring is shown. The detailed analysis of Design and Optimization of
Heavy Duty Leaf Spring give the following. This project is to analyze the spring behavior
in static condition for deflection and stresses. Finite element analysis using ANSYS gives
output result. Thus by applying a given load (7 tons) for all the nine combinations of
parameters get a withstand able values for stresses and deformation. With the help of
the graph, it gives 2 best suited leaf springs out of nine combinations.
N. S. Mendhe et.al. [6] does Experimental Study and Optimization of Leaf Spring. In this
paper the authors have designed the composite leaf spring as well as the steel leaf spring.
Considering various factors related with leaf spring, the literature was studied. The data
generated by various researchers was collected and various factors were analyzed. Testing
of leaf spring was done in order to get the practical performance result of leaf spring.
Bending stress, deflection, safety factor, fatigue strength were studied. For this analysis
and finding appropriate results ANSYS 12.0 V workbench was used. A comparative study

16
Composite Materials
was done. The best performing factors were identified. The leaf spring design was finally
optimized. In this paper the important parameters are, Testing of leaf spring was done
in order to get the practical performance result of leaf spring. Bending stress, deflection,
safety factor, fatigue strength were studied. In this study the design was done and the
model was prepared in the PRO-E software. The three dimensional model was exported
in the ANSYS workbench. The spring model is prepared using steel and bse glass fibre.
It was found that stiffness, deformation, equivalent stress, safety factor, area, moment of
inertia, width ,thickness length of leaves and no. of leaves are significantly influencing
factor on developed stress and stiffness of the spring. The leaf spring prepared in the R
and D department is tested under the load condition in ANSYS 12.0 where it is found
unsafe. Then the leaf spring is optimized for the design and a leaf spring having fourteen
leafs is designed for the 6388 kg load. The values of deformation, stress and safety factor
are found safe.
Krishna et. al. [7] describes Design and Optimization of Leaf Spring Using Composites.
The objective of this paper is to compare the load carrying capacity, stiffness and weight
savings of composite leaf spring with that of steel leaf spring. The design constraints
are stresses and deflections. The objective of the present work is to design, analyse,
fabricate and testing of unidirectional Glass Fiber/Epoxy 221 complete mono composite
leaf spring with out end joints and composite leaf spring using bonded end joints using
hand-lay up technique. This is an alternative, efficient and economical method over wet
filament-winding technique In this thesis, the material is replaced with composites since
they are less dense than steel and have good strength. leaf spring used in a heavy vehicle
is designed. While designing leaf spring following four cases are considered: by changing
the thickness, changing no. of leaves, changing camber and changing span. These cases
are also considered: Modelling of Road Irregularity, Variation of Exciting frequency with
vehicle speed. In this thesis, the material is replaced with composites since they are less
dense than steel and have good strength The composites used are S2 – Glass Fibber and
Epoxy Matrix Composite reinforced by 50% Kevlar fibres. The design is done for leaf
spring using Mild Steel, S2 – Glass Fibre and Epoxy Matrix Composite reinforced by 50%
Kevlar fibres and all the models are designed in CATIA. The strength validation is done
using FEA software ANSYS. Analysis is done by layer stacking method for composites by

17
Composite Materials
changing reinforcement angles for 3 layers, 5 layers and 11 layers. By this project, under
the same static load conditions deflection and stresses of steel leaf spring and composite
leaf spring are found with great difference. Deflection of composite leaf spring is less as
compared to steel leaf spring with the same loading condition. Bending stress is also less
in composite leaf spring as compared to steel leaf spring with the same loading condition.
Conventional steel leaf spring is also found to be 3.5 times heavier then E-Glass/Epoxy
leaf spring.
Subhash Chandrabose et. al. [8] computes the Design Optimization and Analysis of a
Parabolic Leaf Spring. The aim of this research work is to present a general study on
the analysis, design and fabrication of parabolic leaf springs. This research work is based
on a complete study and design of leaf spring. The main objectives of this study are
Reduce the weight of the steel leaf spring by introducing composite material to increase
the load carrying capacity. Here Finite element models been deployed to optimize and
improve the material with complete geometry of the parabolic spring based on the spring
rate, long life and shear stress. The leaf spring is designed using all kinds of Composite
materials i.e. Epoxy Resin Matrix, E-glass Fibres and Polymer Matrix Composite. The
design and modelling is done in CATIA and analysis is done in ansys software. The
design is completed considering material with maximum strength and minimum modulus
of elasticity in the longitudinal direction. On the same hand a leaf spring is designed for
steel so as to compare the leaf spring with composite leaf spring.
Kakadia et. al. [9] describes Design Analysis and Optimization of a Composite Leaf
Spring of a Car. Modeling of Suspension System It is a dual-cantilever thermoplastic
spring in the rear. It is very similar to double-wishbone geometry. Front-wheel-drive
car shed more than 45 kg by replacing its all-steel rear suspension with a configuration
featuring of composite leaf springs and upper control arms attached to a steel sub-frame.
he assembly of a different component of suspension is done with the use of CATIA V5 R21.
Leaf spring is connected with hub and wheel mounting with the use of nut and bolt. Solid
map meshing For the structural analysis, the 3D hex mesh of 8 node type is used because
it’s less stiff in compare to linear tetra mesh. In this paper, the leaf spring is designed
using the steel and Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer. The prominence of the project is to

18
Composite Materials
reduce the overall weight of suspension system and improve load carrying capacity of the
leaf spring by using the composite material. The work also gives focus on the application
of FEA concept to compare materials of leaf spring and propose the one having a higher
strength to weight ratio. In the present work, displacement and bending stresses induced
in a steel leaf springs and in CFRP leaf spring are compared which is calculated by
numerical simulation, and experimental testing of leaf spring. The solid modelling of leaf
spring is done in CATIA V5 R21 and analyzed using HYPERWORK 14.0. Topology
design optimization is done with the help of OptiStruct in HYPERWORK 14.0. The
author concluded that nearly about 28% weight reduction of a suspension system is
possible after topology optimization of a suspension system and design is safe under
all conditions. The design, static structural analysis and weight optimization of steel
leaf spring and composite leaf spring has been carried out. Comparison has been made
between composite leaf spring with steel leaf spring having same design and same load
carrying capacity. A steel leaf spring used in the rear suspension of car was analysed by
two analytical and finite element method. The experimental result verified the analytical
and finite element solution.
Kotakadiya [10] describes Analysis and size optimization of Composite leaf spring using
FEA analysis. The paper describes static analysis of Steel and Composite leaf spring. The
spring is designed using Load capacity, Strength, deflection and weight reducing factor.
The composite material used is Carbon Epoxy. The dimensions of steel leaf spring is
taken and using the same dimensions a composite spring is prepare and simulated in
computer software. The stress, Strain and load carrying capacity of both the springs
are compared. Topology optimization of composite leaf spring is done, by varying the
thickness and composite is proved beneficial as compared to that of steel. Using this
topology optimization technique, the wieght of spring can be reduced about 88%.
Ashok Kumar et. al. [11] describes Design and Material Optimization of Heavy Vehicle
Leaf Spring. The paper describes static and dynamic analysis of steel leaf spring and
laminated composite Multi leaf spring. The objective is to compare displacement, fre-
quencies, deflections and weight savings of composite leaf spring with that of steel leaf
spring. The dimensions of an existing conventional steel leaf spring of a Light design cal-

19
Composite Materials
culations. Same dimensions are used in composite multi leaf spring using S2 Glass/Epoxy
and Kevlar/Epoxy unidirectional laminates. 3D Model is prepared for both the model,
and FEA is done for both. The design constraints are stresses and deflection. The weight
of composite leaf spring is compared with that of steel leaf spring A weight reduction of
27.5% is achieved by using composite leaf spring.
Amrute et.al. [12] explains Design and assessment of multi leaf spring. In this paper
the steel leaf spring is replaced with the composite E-glass/Epoxy leaf spring. he objec-
tive of this project are to Compare the load carrying capacity, stresses, deflection and
weight savings of composite leaf spring with that of steel leaf spring.The focused on the
implementation of composite materials by replacing steel in conventional leaf springs of a
suspension system to reduce product weight, improving the safety, comfort and durability
50CrMoCV4 etc. From several studies it is found that the E-glass/Epoxy is better mate-
rial for replacing the conventional steel as per strength and cost factor. The E-glass fiber
is a high quality glass, which is used as standard reinforcement fiber for all the present
systems well complying with mechanical property requirements. The material select is
E-Glass/Epoxy material. Dimensions of both the spring are same and modelling as well
as analysis is done for both spring showing difference in weight, stress , deflection and
load capacity. Solid modeling is the first step for doing any 3D analysis and testing and
it gives 3D physical picture for new products. In the present work, as the leaf spring is of
simple configuration, the modeling has been carried out in ProE-5.0 and the analysis is
carried out in ANSYS-12. For modeling the steel spring, the dimensions of a conventional
leaf spring of a light weight commercial vehicle are chosen. n the present work, a steel
leaf spring was replaced by a composite leaf spring due to high strength to weight ratio
for the same load carrying capacity and stiffness with same dimension as that of steel
leaf spring.
Charde et. al. [13] explains investigation of stresses in master leaf of leaf spring by fem
and its experimental verification. In present work stresses in master leaf are evaluated
by considering two approaches. In first approach the stress analysis is carried out by
considering only the graduated leaves and in other approach the stress on master leaf is
carried out by considering one extra full length leave. The analysis is carried out on only

20
Composite Materials
half span of leaf. A model of half cantilever spring assembly is developed in ANSYS and
finite analysis is carried out in the same software. For the analysis purpose the spring
is bolted at the center and static load is applied at the free end i.e. on eye. The results
of finite element analysis for both approaches are verified experimentally by using strain
gauges. The work is carried out in the rear end leaf spring of a commercial vehicle. The
leaf spring with and without extra full length leave assembly is used for the analysis.
For the analysis the leaves are cut into required length. In experimental analysis, actual
prototype is considered under static loading condition . The stress analysis of leaf spring
is carried out by using the strain gauge technique. The instrumentation is developed for
this work. Instrumentation measures only the change in resistance i.e. 4R. This change
in resistance is very small having a magnitude of few milli volts. So it is necessary to
convert this small resistance into a equivalent voltage with the help of instrumentation
techniques. The instrumentation consist of Strain Gauges ,Wheatstone bridge circuit
and Digital multimeter . The two model of half leaf spring assembly is developed. The
first model is developed only considering the graduated leaves and other by adding one
extra full length leave. Both the model are developed using ANSYS software. From
this study it is conclude that though the analytical equation failed to give the maximum
stress values in a master leaf away from the support but it is useful to know the values
of maximum stress at the support. But to determine the variation in the stresses at the
point away from the support finite element method or experimental technique should be
used. In present case the stresses on master leaf can not fallow cantilever beam theory
but when one extra full length leaves are added to the assembly this theory is valided.
Ghodake et al [14] explains Analysis of Steel and Composite Leaf Spring for Vehicle. The
present study searches the new material for leaf spring. In present study the material
selected was glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) and the polyester resin (NETPOL
1011) is used against conventional steel. A spring with constant width and thickness
was fabricated by hand lay-up technique which was very simple and economical. The
numerical analysis is carried via finite element analysis using ANSYS software. Stresses,
deflection and strain energy results for both steel and composite leaf spring material were
obtained. Result shows that, the composite spring has maximum strain energy than
steel leaf spring and weight of composite spring was nearly reduced up to 85% compared

21
Composite Materials
with steel material. This paper describes design and FEA analysis of composite leaf
spring made of glass fibre reinforced polymer. The dimensions of an existing conventional
steel leaf spring of a light commercial vehicle are taken for evaluation of results. Plain
carbon steel, Chromium vanadium steel, Chromium- Nickel- Molybdenum steel, Silicon
manganese steel, are the typical materials that are used in the design of leaf springs.
The material selected for steel leaf spring is 65Si7. Based on the specific strain energy
of steel spring and some composite materials, the E-glass/epoxy is selected as the spring
material. he leaf spring model is created by modeling software like pro-E , Catia and it is
imported in to the analysis software and the loading, boundary conditions are given to the
imported model and result are evaluated by post processor. FEA tool is the mathematical
idealization of real system. Is a computer based method that breaks geometry into
element and link a series of equation to each, which are then solved simultaneously to
evaluate the behavior of the entire system. It is useful for problem with complicated
geometry, loading, and material properties where exact analytical solution are difficult to
obtain. The different comparative results of steel leaf spring and composite leaf spring
are obtained to predict the advantages of composite leaf spring for a vehicle.
Zhang et. al. [15] explains Analysis on Performance of Leaf Spring of Rotary Engine.
This paper is a simulation study of a novel rotary engine called Leaf Spring Rotary En-
gine, which is a micro-small reed-flexible rotor engine. Flexible characteristics make it a
unique advantage. This engine’s structure is different to others, mainly for rotor struc-
ture. Engine working principle is similar to conventional rotary engine. As a new engine,
creation of numerical models and analysis of impact factor for engine performance are
the focus of this work. In the present work, a leaf spring rotary engine has been built
to investigate the combustion properties. Initial pressure and temperature are controlled
to simulate the engine operating conditions. Heat transfer loss is calculated using basic
parameters and initial boundary conditions. Heat transfer loss accounts for 18.34% of
the input energy. However, theses researches do not consider flexibility of combustion
chamber. Based on this background, this paper presents a novel micro-small reed-flexible
rotor engine and produces a prototype. The engine’s flexible characteristic is a unique
advantage compared to others. Therefore, the research focuses on analyzing the perfor-
mance characteristics under ideal condition and the factors related to the performance of

22
Composite Materials
the engine. The prototype is not mature, so difficulties of making successful experiments
are great This is most likely due to high surface-volume ratio of combustion chamber
to determine large energy loss. The growth rate of leakage mass starts to increase. In
the present work, a leaf spring rotary engine has been built to investigate the combus-
tion properties. Initial pressure and temperature are controlled to simulate the engine
operating conditions. Heat transfer loss is calculated using basic parameters and initial
boundary conditions. Heat transfer loss accounts for 18.34% of the input energy. This is
most likely due to high surface-volume ratio of combustion chamber to determine large
energy loss. The growth rate of leakage mass starts to increase
Ijagbemi et. al. [16] explains Design and simulation of fatigue analysis for a vehicle
suspension system (VSS) and its effect on global warming. Research shows that for every
gallon of gasoline burnt, 12.7kg of CO2 is released. Fuel economy improvement is almost
linear with a reduction in weight of a car. Therefore, reducing vehicle weight results in
less fuel consumption and a decrease in CO2 emission which in turn has an effect on global
warming. Car manufacturers are facing increasingly stringent CO2 emission standard.
In this project, an investigation was carried out on vehicle suspension system (VSS) by
employing Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to analyze the fatigue life, von misses stress,
factor of safety and stability of the suspension system and how the weight and size can be
reduced. Solidworks14
R was employed to analyze different materials used in the design
and development of VSS; comparison amongst the various materials used was carried out
to inform that there can be reduction in the size and weight of the four suspension system
by using Titanium Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al Treated, which will drastically reduce the weight of
the car and give better result of strength and durability. The spring absorbs energy from
an applied force, this energy is stored in the spring until the force is released, then, the
spring will return to its original size, shape and position [8,9]. It is, therefore, essential
for the vehicle suspension system to keep the wheel in contact with the road surface. The
design, modelling and simulation of the front and rear suspension of a car are similar
The study is on modelling a suspension system and the analysis of its factor of safety,
stresses involved and displacement under random loading conditions. CAD models of
the suspension system of a vehicle were developed with a 3D modelling software. The
fatigue and stress analysis of the models were obtained and compared using FEA with

23
Composite Materials
Solidworks14 Simulation Software to optimize for weight reduction. The weight of the
designed suspension system was then compared to the weight of an existing VSS. The
fatigue life and static stress analysis of a VSS adopting finite element analysis technique
provided a reliable design that can be employed in VSS designs. This work presents a
fatigue evaluation for VSS and based on the simulation obtained, it can be said that: the
present VSS that is made up of carbon alloy can be reduced to a lighter weight VSS with
good durability and machinability; with an advantage of a low CO2 emission.
2.2 Research Gap

The leaf spring usually called as laminated spring consists of laminated coils which forms
a spring. The spring are used in automobiles they are usually made of carbon alloyed
steel for their stiffness and strength. The main material used in the leaf spring assembly
constitutes of a heavy weight due to their strength properties, which ultimately increases
the curb weight of vehicle as they are four in numbers. Hence we can reduce the weight
of vehicle to some limit by reducing the weight of leaf spring assembly. Hence the use of
fabric composites are employed. Mostly the springs are made of Plain or medium carbon
steel, here we can introduce the leaf spring made of fabric material. The composites have
tremendous advantages as they are easily cast bale as well as durable. The main reason
of selecting the fabric composite is the weight to strength ratio. Hence the selection of
composites are done.
The leaf spring can be prepared by laminating the whole spring by using single composite
or by using the laminating different composite material for different leaves depending
upon the position. The upper level spring consumes more bending so they can be used
for high strength and weight composites whereas the lower level leaf constitute of low
level bending, so they can be set up low strength composites.
The leaf spring are made of composites but they are set up as single body of same size
as that of the steel leaf spring. So we have the scope of designing and manufacturing
the spring in different leaves. There is also another scope of research for designing the
different leaves with different composite material and later on assembling them to form a
laminated leaf spring. This leaf can be designed depending upon the bending stress and
deflection criteria they are subjected.

24
Composite Materials
3. DESIGN & ANALYSIS OF STEEL LEAF SPRING

3.1 Design and Strength Equation of Leaf Spring:
1. Bending Stress Induced Leaf Spring (σb ):
Bending Stress is defined as the stress produced due to resistance of bending load which
tends to bend the component applied at distance called ‘eccentricity’.
From Bending Equation i.e. Flexural Formula of beam, we can say that,
(σb /y)=(E/R)=(M/I) ∴(σb /y)= (M/I) ∴ (σb /y)=(My/I)and I/y = Z
∴Bending Stress = Moment of Resistance / Section Modulus ∴ σb =M/Z
M = W * L and Z= (bt2 )/6
∴ σb = [W ∗ L]/[(bT 2 )/6] (1)
Hence, bending stress induced in the leaf spring assembly can be calculated by the equa-
tion as,
σb = [W ∗ L]/[n ∗ (bT 2 )/6] (2)
n = Total Number of Leaves

2L = Effective length of Spring = 2L1 - l (when central band is used)
2L = Effective length of Spring = 2L1 - (2/3)l (when U-Bolt is used)
2. Deflection in Spring (δ):
The deflection can be given as,
δ = [W ∗ L3 ]/[3 ∗ E ∗ I] (3)
E = Modulus of Elasticity in N/mm2

I = Moment of Inertia in mm4 = (bT 3 )/12 Hence, deflection produced in the leaf spring
assembly can be calculated by the equation as,
δ = [W ∗ L3 ]/[n ∗ 3 ∗ E ∗ I] (4)

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Composite Materials
3. Bending Stress Induced in Full Length Leaves (σf ):

The master leaf are the leaves which are bounded on top of leaf spring assembly. The
length of master leaf is the largest of all leaves. As the leaf spring is assembly of various
leaves. Hence the stress developed will be in cumulative for all the leaves.. The stress
developed in full length or Master leaf can be calculated from,
σf = [18 ∗ W ∗ L]/[bt2 (2ng + 3nf )] (5)
4. Bending Stress Induced in Graduated Leaves (σg ):

Graduated leaves are the leaves which are bounded beneath the leaf spring assembly. The
length of this leaves are less than that of master leaf and are arranged in decreasing order
of their lengths. The stress developed in Graduated leaves vary as that of master leaf
due to variation in sizes. Hence the stress induced in graduated leaves can be calculated
from,
σg = [12 ∗ W ∗ L]/[bt2 (2ng + 3nf )] (6)
ng & nf are number of graduated and full length leaves respectively.

5. Deflection Induced in Full and Graduated Leaves (δ1):
The deflection in total leaf spring assembly will not be same as that of individual leaf
separately. Hence it is necessary to determine the deflection in each leaves separately.
Hence the deflection in full length and graduated leaves can be calculated as,
δ1 = [12 ∗ W ∗ L3 ]/[Ebt3 (2ng + 3nf )] (7)
6. Radius of Curvature (R):

Radius of curvature is the curve which is produced on leaf while bending,
R = L1 2 /2y (8)

26
Composite Materials
3.2 Specifications of Steel Leaf Spring:
Material : The Spring is made of material AISI 6150 Steel

Application : Mahindra MM540 Jeep
Type : Passenger Vehicle
Kerb Weight : 1330 kg.
Max. Weight : 1770 kg.
Suspension : 4 Leaf Spring (2 Front and 2 Rear)
Load on spring : 1770/4 = 442.5 Kg = 4340.9 N
Fig.3.1: Mahindra MM540 Jeep

27
Composite Materials
Table 3.1: Dimensions of spring
No. Notation Value
1 W 4.3 KN
2 t 3.7 mm
3 T 37 mm
4 b 47 mm
5 L(U-bolt) 670 mm
6 2L1 850 mm
7 l 270 mm
8 n 10
9 nf 2
10 ng 8
11 y 128 mm
3. Length of other Leaf :

Lf = Full Length Leaf = 850 mm
Lg1 = Length of Graduated Leaf 1 = 720 mm

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Composite Materials
3.3 Stress Analysis of Steel Leaf Spring (Analytical):

1. Bending Stress Induced Leaf Spring Assembly (σb ):
From Eqn. (2) the bending stress induced in the leaf spring assembly can be given as,
σb = [W ∗ L]/[n ∗ (bT 2 )/6] ∴ σb = [4.3 x 103 x 670] / [10 x 47 x 302 /6]
∴ σb =40.86 N/mm2
2. Deflection in Leaf Spring Assembly (δ):
From Eqn. (4) ) the overall deflection in the leaf spring assembly can be given as,
δ = [W ∗ L3 ]/[n ∗ 3 ∗ E ∗ I] where I = Inertia = (bT 3 )/12 = 105750 mm4
δ = [4.3 ∗ 103 ∗ 6703 ]/[10 ∗ 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 105 ∗ 198.39]
∴ δ = 4.5 ∗ 10−6 mm
3. Bending Stress Induced in Full Length Leaves (σf ):
From Eqn (5) σf = [18 ∗ W ∗ L]/[bt2 (2ng + 3nf )]
σf = [18 ∗ 4.3 ∗ 103 x670]/[47 ∗ 3.72 ((2 ∗ 8) + (3 ∗ 2))]
∴ σf =3.6 KN/mm2
4. Bending Stress Induced in Graduated Leaves (σg ):
Table 3.2: Stress Results for Leaf Spring for Different Load Set
No. Load KN Stress (N/mm2 ) Deflection (mm)
1 3 28.509 3.16 ∗ 10−6
2 4 38.012 4.22 ∗ 10−6
3 4.3 40.86 4.53 ∗ 10−6
4 5 47.51 5.27 ∗ 10−6
5 6 57.01 6.33 ∗ 10−6
σg = [12 ∗ W ∗ L]/[bt2 (2ng + 3nf )]

∴ σg = [12 ∗ 4.3 ∗ 103 ∗ 670]/[47 ∗ 3.72 ((2 ∗ 8) + (3 ∗ 2))]
∴ σg =2.4 KN/mm2
5. Deflection Induced in Full and Graduated Leaves (δ1):
δ1 = [12 ∗ W ∗ L3 ]/[Ebt3 (2ng + 3nf )]
δ1 = [12 ∗ 4.3 ∗ 103 ∗ 6703 ]/[2 ∗ 105 ∗ 47 ∗ 3.73 ((2 ∗ 8) + (3 ∗ 2))] = 1481mm

29
Composite Materials
3.4 Simulation of Steel Leaf Spring using Creo 2.0:

CREO 2.0 software is used for simulation purpose. The Finite Element analysis test for
different stress is been carried out using the same software.
By the same dimensions on which the stress are calculated using analytical method,
referring to table 4.1 and Length of all the leaves, the prototype models for Spring ,
U-Clip and bolt is prepared
Fig.3.2: Assembly of Leaf Spring using Creo 2.0 Simulation
The separate leaves are prepared and separate models are assembled and by selecting
appropriate materials, the FEA test is been carried using the same set of loads as that
done previously using the analytical method.

30
Composite Materials
3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Stress Distribution :
Fig.3.3: FEA Results for Stress analysis

31
Composite Materials
Table 3.3: FEA Results for Stress analysis
Load (KN) Analytical Results(N/mm2 ) FEA Results (N/mm2 )
3 28.509 29.05
4 38.012 39.67
4.3 40.86 42.64
5 47.51 49.59
6 57.01 59.50

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Composite Materials
4. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL LEAF SPRING

4.1 Introduction to Composite Material:
The importance of materials in modern world can be realized from the fact that much
of the research is being done to apply new materials to different components. However
it is natural for a design engineer to rely on trusted and tested materials, but now the
world is changing .Today composite materials have changed all the material engineering.
The evolution of composite materials has given an opportunity to various designers to
use new and better materials resulting in cost reduction, increase in efficiency and better
utilization of available resources. Composite materials are finding their applications in
aerospace industry, automobile sector, manufacturing industries etc.
Composites are being commercialized in three major fields: polymer-matrix composites

(PMCs), metal-matrix composites (MMCs), and ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs).Other
classification schemes based on a matrix/fibre notation., such as Al/Sic and 6061/Sic/40p-
T6 for aluminium reinforced with silicon carbide and boron- and carbon-fibre reinforced
polymers (BFRP or CFRP),are also being used. The recognition of the three basic types
of composites (PMCs, MMCs, and CMCs) is based on the nature of the matrix material.
Each of these types may make use of particle or either discontinuous (short fibre) or con-
tinuous fibre reinforcement for property enhancement. It must be realized that systems
reinforced with particulate, discontinuous, and continuous fibres give rise to different
physical and mechanical properties, and that they must be utilized accordingly
4.1.1 Composites with polymer matrices:
Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) have matrices of thermoplastic or thermosetting
polymers traditionally glass fibre available in the form of roving’s or woven material
embedded in polyester. These materials are utilized at temperatures of not more than
200 degree celcius in commercial, industrial, and transportation applications, including
chemically resistant piping, valves, pressure vessels, and reactors.
4.1.2 Composites with metal matrices:
Metal-matrix composites are currently the focus of intense world-wide research and de-
velopment. These materials are fabricated by liquid-infiltration techniques, such as high
pressure infiltration casting, squeeze casting, vacuum infiltration casting, compo cast-
ing, and pressure less metal infiltration. Other methods of fabrication include powder

33
Composite Materials
metallurgical techniques, plasma spraying of matrix material over properly laid fibres,
physical-vapour deposition, hot pressing, and self-propagating high-temperature synthe-
sis or reactive synthesis. In addition to improved strength, stiffness, and abrasion resis-
tance, and reduced density, MMCs are capable of providing increased oxidation resistance
at high temperature operating limits. Although not precisely termed MMCs, reinforced
ordered intermetallic composites, such as titanium and nickel aluminised, are becoming
important because the aluminised exhibit the unusual characteristic of increased yield
strength with temperature.
4.2 Properties of Polymer Matrices Composite:
The different Polymer matrices composites are selected on the basis of shearing strength
and some bit of tensile strength. The materials selected are,
Table 4.1: Properties of Composites (Copy)
Material and Prop- S-Glass E-Glass Carbon Kevlar CFRP

erties Fibre Epoxy Epoxy
Ultimate Tensile 4587 767 1100 3727 6000

Strength (MPa)
Ultimate Yield 3250 300 900 2820 4000

Strength (MPa)
Shear Strength 3250 300 900 2820 4000

(MPa)
Young’s Modulus 8.69e5 3.69e5 0.5e5 1.12e5 2e5

(MPa)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.28 0.3 0.25 0.25 0.3
Density (kg/m3 ) 2480 1900 1600 1440 1950

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Composite Materials
4.3 Chemical Composition and Strengths of Composites:

4.3.1 S-Glass Epoxy: Chemical Composition:
Silicon dioxide SiO2 = 65wt%
Aluminium Oxide Al2 O3 = 25wt%
Magnesium oxide MgO = 10wt%
Advantages:
The advantageous properties of S-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which in-
clude:
• High production rates.
• Improved mechanical properties compared to E-glass.
• High strength, High stiffness.
• Relatively low density.
• Non-flammable.
• Resistant to heat.
• Good chemical resistance.
• Relatively insensitive to moisture.
• Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions
Applications:
S-Glass is generally used for polymer matrix composites that require improved mechanical
properties compared to E-glass based composites. This is often the case when the material
is operated under more extreme conditions.

35
Composite Materials
4.3.2 E-Glass Epoxy:

Chemical Composition:
Silicon Oxide SiO2 = 54wt%,
Aluminium Oxide Al2 O3 = 14wt%
Calcium Oxide CaO + Magnesium Oxide MgO = 22wt%
Boron Oxide B2 ZO3 = 10wt%
Sodium Oxide N a2 O + Potassium Oxide K2 O =2wt%
Advantages:
The advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which in-
clude.
• High production rates.
• High strength, High stiffness.
• Relatively low density.
• Non-flammable.
• Resistant to heat.
• Good chemical resistance.
Applications:
The use of E-Glass as the reinforcement material in polymer matrix composites is ex-
tremely common. Optimal strength properties are gained when straight, continuous fibres
are aligned parallel in a single direction. To promote strength in other directions, lam-
inate structures can be constructed, with continuous fibres aligned in other directions.
Such structures are used in storage tanks and the like. Random direction Matts and
woven fabrics are also commonly used for the production of composite panels, surfboards
and other similar devices.

36
Composite Materials
4.3.3 Kevlar:
Composition:
Carbon C = 50%
Hydrogen H = 35%
Nitrogen N = 7.5%
Oxygen O = 7.5%
Advantages:
• The Synthetic is Stronger than steel.
• This material is extremely versatile in terms of its weight and flexibility.
• It is also fire retardant and does not rust or corrode.
• Kevlar is Five time stronger than steel.
Applications:
Kevlar, was originally invented to replace steel that lines the inside of radial racing tires;
however now it is used in a variety of applications. The applications Kevlar is used for
ranges from police and military bullet resistant body armour such as vests and helmets
as well as ropes, and fabric sheets. It is also used in aerospace applications such as engine
wraps for blade containment and it is also utilized as a component to make up certain
lightweight composite materials. As a military and law enforcement tool this synthetic
fibre has been extremely effective in saving lives.

37
Composite Materials
4.3.4 Carbon Fibre:

Advantages:
• High Strength to weight ratio
• Rigidity
• Corrosion resistance
• Electrical Conductivity
• Fatigue Resistance
• Good tensile strength but Brittle
• Fire Resistance/Not flammable
• High Thermal Conductivity in some forms
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion
• Non poisonous
• Biologically inert
• X-Ray Permeable
• Relatively Expensive
• Requires specialized experience and equipment to use.
Applications:
Carbon fibres are used where low weight, high stiffness, high conductivity, or where
the look of the carbon fibre weave desired. Modulus of carbon fibre makes it suitable
structurally to replace alloys such as aluminium and titanium. Tennis rackets, golf clubs,
softball bats, hockey sticks, and archery arrows and bows are all products commonly
manufactured with carbon fibre reinforced composites. Carbon fibre is used for majority
of a wind turbine blade. Many other components of the car are also made from carbon
fibre, from the suspension to the gearbox and even the brakes, where carbon fibre has

38
Composite Materials
taken over from more traditional materials such as steel, again because it is light weight
and that the latest carbon fibre brakes can produce phenomenal stopping power.
4.4 Finite Element Analysis of Composite Leaf Spring for 4.3 KN:
4.4.1 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of S-Glass Epoxy Fibre:
Fig.4.1: FEA of Leaf Spring Made of S-Glass Epoxy Fibre
4.4.2 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of E-Glass Epoxy Fibre:
Fig.4.2: FEA of Leaf Spring Made of E-Glass Epoxy Fibre

39
Composite Materials
4.4.3 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Kevlar :
Fig.4.3: FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Kevlar
4.4.4 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Carbon Epoxy:
Fig.4.4: FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Carbon Epoxy

40
Composite Materials
4.5 Response Analysis of Composite Spring for Different Loading Condition:

Table 4.2: Maximum Stress Distribution of Composite Leaf Spring
Material Load S-Glass E-Glass Kevlar Carbon Steel

Epoxy
2 KN 28.74 28.02 29.71 29.71 28.06
3 KN 43.11 42.02 44.56 44.56 42.02
4.3 KN 61.80 60.24 63.87 63.87 60.24
5 KN 71.86 70.04 74.27 74.27 70.41
6 KN 86.23 84.05 89.12 89.12 84.05
Fig.4.5: Maximum Stress Distribution of Composite Leaf Spring

41
Composite Materials
Table 4.3: Maximum Displacement of Composite Leaf Spring
Material Load S-Glass E-Glass Kevlar Carbon Steel

Epoxy
2 KN 0.01735 0.0406 0.1359 0.303 0.0932
3 KN 0.026 0.061 0.2032 0.455 0.1126
4.3 KN 0.0372 0.0874 0.2913 0.6524 0.1614

hline 5 KN 0.0433 0.1017 0.3387 0.7587 0.1876
6 KN 0.052 0.12207 0.4064 0.9105 0.2252
Fig.4.6: Maximum Displacement of Composite Leaf Spring

42
Composite Materials
4.5.1 Comparison of Composite and Steel Leaf Spring:

Table 4.4: Maximum Displacement of Composite Leaf Spring
Material Max. Stress Max. Mass of

(MPa) Disp.(mm) Spring(Kg)
S-Glass 86.23 0.052 2.58
E-Glass 84.05 0.122 1.98
Kevlar 89.12 0.4064 1.5
Carbon Epoxy 89.12 0.9105 1.66
ANSI Steel 84.05 0.2252 8.16
4.5.2 Material Finalisation:

From Table 4.4, it can be observed that all the leaf spring made of composite can be
easily used as replacement of leaf spring made of steel.
Hence considering the suitability for minimum deflection and minimum stress produced,
composite material of E-Glass Epoxy is used.
Advantages of Using E-Glass Epoxy:
• The spring weight can be reduced to 75
• The spring provides more stiffness than that of steel with comparatively low weight.
• With same dimensions, the maximum stress produced will be approximately equal
to that of steel
• The maximum displacement is reduced up to 50% as that of steel

43
Composite Materials
4.6 Shape and Size Optimization of E-Glass Spring:

4.6.1 Introduction to Shape and Size Optimization:
Shape optimization is part of the field of optimal control theory. The typical problem is
to find the shape which is optimal in that it minimizes a certain cost functional while
satisfying given constraints. In many cases, the functional being solved depends on the
solution of a given partial differential equation defined on the variable domain.
Size optimization defines ideal component parameters, such as material values, cross-
section dimensions and thicknesses. Shape optimization is different from freeform (topol-
ogy) optimization in that it is used once the component’s topology has already been
defined. Topology optimization is used to generate material layout concepts whereas
shape optimization refines and improves the topology within the concept.
In shape optimization, the outer boundary of the structure is modified to solve the op-
timization problem. Using finite element models, the shape is defined by the grid point
locations. Hence, shape modifications change those locations.
Purpose of Optimization:
• To alter the material position where the stress are minimum generated with the
position of maximum stress produced.
• Obtain the same result of stress and displacement by reducing the mass or volume
of component.
• Modify the appearance of component without disturbing the failure criterias of

stress and strain.
Techniques of Optimization:
• Numerical technique
• Iterative Technique
In this case, the iterative technique of optimization is followed.

44
Composite Materials
4.6.2 Optimization of Leaf Spring:

Table 4.5: Optimal Changes in Leaf Spring Dimensions
No. Parameter Pre-Optimized Post-Optimized
1. Eyelet Diameter 30 mm 30 mm
(Inner)
2. Eyelet Diameter 40 mm 50 mm
(Outer)
3. No. of Leaves 10 01
4. Cross Length of 850 mm 850 mm

Mater Leaf
5. Cross Length of 720 mm 720 mm

Leaf 2 & 3
6. Cross Length of 470 mm & 650 mm 560 mm

Leaf 4 & 5
7. Cross Length of 320 mm & 435 mm 378 mm

Leaf 6 & 7
8. Cross Length of 320, 255 & 215 mm 225 mm

Leaf 8,9 & 10
9. Weight of Spring 1.98 Kg 1.92Kg

Assembly
Fig.4.7: Optimization of Leaf Spring Assembly

45
Composite Materials
Fig.4.8: Eyelet and Leaves Optimization
4.6.3 Static Analysis of Optimized Spring:
Fig.4.9: FEA of optimized Lead Spring for 2 KN Load

46
Composite Materials
Fig.4.11: FEA of optimized Lead Spring for 4.3 KN Load

47
Composite Materials
Material Max. Stress Max. Total Mass Remark

(MPa) Disp.(mm) (Kg)
ANSI Steel 84.05 0.2252 8.16 Ok
E-Glass 84.05 0.122 1.98 Reduced Displace-

ment and weight
E-Glass Optimal 36.8 0.018 1.92 Reduction in

Stress, Displace-
ment and weight
4.6.4 Comparison of Response Analysis for Different Loading:
Fig.4.14: Plot Analysis for Maximum Displacement
Fig.4.15: Plot Analysis for Maximum Stress Distribution

48
Composite Materials
5. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION & TESTING

5.1 Universal Testing Machine:
5.1.1 Introduction:
Fig.5.1: Universal Testing Machine
A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, materials testing
machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive
strength of materials.
5.1.2 Main Components of Machine:
1. Load frame - Usually consisting of two strong supports for the machine. Some small
machines have a single support.
2. Load cell - A force transducer or other means of measuring the load is required.
Periodic calibration is usually required by governing regulations or quality system.
3. Cross head - A movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up or down.

Usually this is at a constant speed: sometimes called a constant rate of exten-
sion (CRE) machine. Some machines can program the crosshead speed or conduct

49
Composite Materials
cyclical testing, testing at constant force, testing at constant deformation, etc. Elec-
tromechanical, servo-hydraulic, linear drive, and resonance drive are used.
4. Means of measuring extension or deformation - Many tests require a measure of the

response of the test specimen to the movement of the cross head. Extensometers
are sometimes used.
5. Output device - A means of providing the test result is needed. Some older machines
have dial or digital displays and chart recorders. Many newer machines have a
computer interface for analysis and printing.
6. Conditioning - Many tests require controlled conditioning (temperature, humidity,

pressure, etc.). The machine can be in a controlled room or a special environmental
chamber can be placed around the test specimen for the test.
7. Test fixtures, specimen holding jaws, and related sample making equipment are
called for in many test methods.
5.1.3 Operation:
The set-up and usage are detailed in a test method, often published by a standards
organization. This specifies the sample preparation, featuring, gauge length (the length
which is under study or observation), analysis, etc.
The specimen is placed in the machine between the grips and an extensometer if required
can automatically record the change in gauge length during the test. If an extensometer
is not fitted, the machine itself can record the displacement between its cross heads on
which the specimen is held. However, this method not only records the change in length
of the specimen but also all other extending / elastic components of the testing machine
and its drive systems including any slipping of the specimen in the grips.
Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing load on specimen. Through-
out the tests the control system and its associated software record the load and extension
or compression of the specimen.

50
Composite Materials
5.2 Specifications of Universal Testing Machine:
Capacity : Up to 100 KN
Test Speed :
1. Minimum test Speed : 0.01 mm/min
2. Maximum test Speed : 500 mm /min
Dimensions and Features :
1. Width : 1000 - 1200 mm
2. Depth : 500 - 600 mm
3. Height : 1600 – 2000mm
4. Total Crosshead Travel : 1200 – 1400mm
5. Total Vertical Test Space : 1200 – 1400mm
Test Performed : Tensile Test
Compressive Test
Adhesion Test
Flexure / Bending
Shear / Torsion Test
Measurement System :
1. Accuracy : 0.01% of capacity
2. Repeatability : 0.005% of capacity
3. Industry standards : ASTM E4
Material can be Tested :Stainless Steel,Modified
Stainless Steel Such
as SS316, SS316 LN,
Polymers such FRP,
Polyamides,Epoxy esters,
Copper, Aluminium alloys
etc.

51
Composite Materials
5.3 Transverse Bending Test of Specimen:

5.3.1 Beam Deflection in mm:
Fig.5.2: Sample Specimen of Steel (Left) and E-glass (Right)
Material Size (l*b*h) mm m Cost
Steel 400 * 100 * 5 1.57 190 Rs.
E-Glass 400 * 100 * 5 0.38 80 Rs.
Fig.5.3: Transverse Bending Test

52
Composite Materials
Table 5.2: Bending Deflection in mm
Load KN Steel (mm) E-Glass (mm) Remark of Benefits
2 1.55 0.008 The deflection produced in

3 2.33 0.011 E-Glass specimen is
4 3.11 0.016 comparatively low about
5 3.88 0.021 much greater extent
6 4.66 0.025
5.3.2 Calculation for bending Stress:

Considering the specimen as simply supported rectangular beam as shown in figure,
Fig.5.4: Simply Supported Beam
The bending stress can be calculated using the Flexural Equation, which states that,
(σb /y) = (E/R) = (M/I) (9)
Where,
σb = Bending Stress in N/mm2
y = Distance between load line and Neutral Axis = h/2 = 2.5mm
E = Modulus of Elasticity of Material in N/mm2 (3.69e5 and 2e5)
R = Radius of Curvature in mm
M = Moment of Resistance in mm3
I = Moment of Inertia in mm4 = (bh3 /12) = 1041.66 mm4

53
Composite Materials
Hence using the above equation as,
(σb /y) = (M/I) (10)
σb = (M y/I) (11)
Relation between bending Moment and Maximum deflection at the centre can be given as,
δ = (M l2)/(16EI) (12)
M = (δ ∗ 16EI)/(12) (13)
Hence modifying the equation 5.4 into Eqn 5.5, maximum bending moment can be de-
termined using the deflection result by UTM, the results are,
Table 5.3: Experimental Results for Maximum Bending Moment
Load Bending Moment (M)

(KN) Steel E-glass
2 32291.46 166.6656
3 48541.36 229.1652
4 64791.25 333.3312
5 80832.82 437.4972
6 97082.71 520.83

54
Composite Materials
Hence after determining the bending moment for each load set and corresponding deflec-
tion, using Equation 5.2, the bending stress can be determined.
Table 5.4: Experimental Results for Maximum Bending Moment
Load (KN) Bending Stress Remark of Benefits

Steel E-glass
2 77.5 0.4 With respect to deflection

3 116.5 0.55 test, the bending stress
4 155.5 0.8 produced is far better than
5 194 1.05 that of Steel.
6 233 1.25

55
Composite Materials
6. CONCLUSIONS
The Leaf Spring has been selected which is used in Mahindra Jeep. The material of
spring is AISI 6150 Steel .The properties of this material have been collected and sorted
in tabulated form. All the Design Equations and Strength equations of spring have been
formulated using the reference books and research papers.
The dimensions of Leafs have been carefully measured from some corners to sections and
the Solid Model is prepared using Creo software and FEA is done in the same software.
The FEA is done for ANSI Steel as well the composites materials for E-Glass, S-Glass,
Kevlar and Carbon Fibre. Amongst these material, E-glass has been selected for exper-
imental approach considering the criteria’s for, stress, deformation, Strength to weight,
costing and availability of material.E-glass shows similarity in stress distribution but a
comparative better performance with respect to deformation as that of steel.
With respect to the weight criteria, the weight of E-glass is approx. 2 kg and as that of
steel is 8kg. Hence usage of E-glass fibre can reduce the weight of spring by 75%.
By using the shape optimization technique, the optimal E-glass leaf, shows better per-
formance than that of Multi-leaf E-glass and Steel Spring. Optimizing the shape of leaf
spring increases the stress performance and deformation thereby decreasing the weight of
spring.
For conductance of experimentation, the specimen of steel as well as E-glass has been
undergone through transverse bending test using Universal Testing machine.
The deflection and stress found in E-glass specimen is found to be very low as that of
steel specimen. Hence material satisfies the strength criteria and can be used Hence the
objective of reducing the weight of spring and increasing the strength is achieved using
Shape and Material Optimization.
Using low weighing spring can decrease the weight of vehicle upto some extent thereby
increasing the fuel economy.

56
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A

“ Analysis and Optimization of Multi-Leaf

Miss. Chavan Shraddha Vitthal

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Nashik District Maratha Vidya Prasarak Samajs

Mr.Y.B.Chaudhary Mr. D. V. Kushare Dr. S. P. Mogal

External Examiner Seal Dr. K. S. Holkar

I express my heartily thankfulness towards Mr. Y. B. Choudhary to complete this

Thanks to PG coordinator Mr. D.V. Kushare, Head of Mechanical Department Dr.

Ms Chavan Shraddha Vitthal

M.E. Mechanical (Design Engineering)

LIST OF TABLES vii

1.3 Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.4 Applications of Leaf Spring : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.5 Characteristics of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.6 Material Requirement of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.7 Problem Definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.11 Organisation of Dissertation : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.11.1 Design Parameters: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.11.3 Design of Leaf Spring Using Steel: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.11.4 Selection of Composite Material: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.11.6 Comparison of Results: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.11.8 Experimental Validation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.11.9 Results and Conclusion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1 Literature Survey: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 Research Gap: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 DESIGN ANALYSIS OF STEEL LEAF SPRING 25

3.1 Design and Strength Equation of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.2 Specifications of Steel Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.3 Stress Analysis of Steel Leaf Spring (Analytical): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.4 Simulation of Steel Leaf Spring using Creo 2.0: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Stress Distribution : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL LEAF SPRING 33

4.1 Introduction to Composite Material: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.1.1 Composites with polymer matrices: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.1.2 Composites with metal matrices: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.2 Properties of Polymer Matrices Composite: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.3 Chemical Composition and Strengths of Composites: . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.3.1 S-Glass Epoxy: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.3.2 E-Glass Epoxy: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.3.4 Carbon Fibre: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.4.1 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of S-Glass Epoxy Fibre: . . . . . . . . 39

4.4.2 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of E-Glass Epoxy Fibre: . . . . . . . . 39

4.4.3 FEA of Leaf Spring Made of Kevlar : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.5 Response Analysis of Composite Spring for Different Loading Condition: 41

4.5.1 Comparison of Composite and Steel Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . 43

4.5.2 Material Finalisation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4.6 Shape and Size Optimization of E-Glass Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.6.1 Introduction to Shape and Size Optimization: . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.6.2 Optimization of Leaf Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.6.3 Static Analysis of Optimized Spring: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.6.4 Comparison of Response Analysis for Different Loading: . . . . . 54

5 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION & TESTING 49

5.1 Universal Testing Machine: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.1.2 Main Components of Machine: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.2 Specifications of Universal Testing Machine: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.3 Transverse Bending Test of Specimen: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.3.1 Beam Deflection in mm: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.3.2 Calculation for bending Stress: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1.1 Multi-leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Flowchart for achieving Design Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Assembled View of Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 Terminology of Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6