Concepts • Non-acrobatic operation includes any maneuver

incident to normal flying,

Prelim Stuff
stalls (except whip stalls), and lazy eights, chandelles,
Examples of an Aircraft
and steep turns, in
• Airplane (Aeroplane): power-driven heavier-than-air
which the angle of bank is not more than 60 degrees
aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed • Occupant weighs 170 lbs
under given conditions of flight (land, sea, amphibian)
• The utility category is limited to airplanes that have a
• Rotorcraft: power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft seating configuration,
supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one or
excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a maximum
more rotors
certificated takeoff weight
▫ Helicopter: heavier-than-air aircraft supported in flight
of 12,500 pounds or less, and intended for limited
chiefly by the reactions of the air on one or more
acrobatic operation
power-driven rotors on substantially vertical axes
• Limited acrobatic operation includes spins (if
▫ Gyroplane: heavier-than-air aircraft supported in
approved for the particular
flight by the reactions of the air on one or more rotors
which rotate freely on substantially vertical axes type of airplane); and lazy eights, chandelles, and steep
turns, or similar
• Ornithopther: heavier-than-air aircraft supported in
flight chiefly by the reactions of the air on planes to maneuvers, in which the angle of bank is more than 60
which a flapping motion is imparted degrees but not
• Glider: non-power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, more than 90 degrees
deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic
reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given • Occupant weighs 190 lbs
conditions of flight • The acrobatic category is limited to airplanes that
• Unmanned free balloon: non-power-driven, have a seating
unmanned, lighter-than-air aircraft in free flight configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a
• Balloon: non-power-driven lighter-than-air aircraft maximum certificated

• Airship: power-driven lighter-than-air aircraft (the takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and intended
internal pressure of the gas keeps maintains the shape for use without
of the envelope without the need of any longitudinal restrictions, other than those shown to be necessary as
a result of required

FAR Part 23 – Airplane Categories flight tests

• The normal category is limited to airplanes that have • Occupant weighs 190 lbs
a seating Heavier-than-Air / Lighter-than-Air
configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a • Aerodynes, (Heavier-than-Air)
maximum certificated
▫ any aircraft deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and intended aerodynamic forces
for non-acrobatic
▫ must produce dynamic upthrust – aerodynamic lift or
operation powered lift

• Aerostats (Lighter-than-Air)
▫ any aircraft supported chiefly by its buoyancy in the air
▫ use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way
that ships float on the water
▫ characterized by one or more large cells or canopies,
filled with a relatively low-density gas (He, H, or hot air)
which is less dense than the surrounding air
▫ Today: mostly utilized for recreational Purposes
Other Methods of Lift
• Heavier-than-Air
• Lighter-than-Air
• Lifting Body
• Powered Lift - VTOL, Tiltrotors
• Flettner Airplane: rotating cylinder (Magnus effect)
• Ornithopter: flapping its wings
PHASES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
Conceptual Design
▫ very beginning of the design process in which rough
sketches are created with respect to the aircraft’s
configurations
▫ designers seek to achieve a design that meets all of
the aircraft’s requirements, including aerodynamics,
propulsion, performance, structural systems, control
systems, etc. (design optimization)
▫ designers must also consider elements such as the
shape of the aircraft’s fuselage, wing location, engine
size and more, etc.
▫ the final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft
configuration on paper or computer screen, to be
reviewed by engineers and other designers
Preliminary Design
▫ the conceptual design is optimized to fit into the
necessary parameters
▫ engineers may use the existing designs to conduct
wind tunnel testing and fluid dynamic calculations
▫ structural and control analyses are performed during
this stage
▫ engineers will also look for structural defects and
flaws, correcting them before proceeding to the third
and final stage of the design process
▫ wind tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamic
calculations of the flow field around the aircraft are
done
▫ major structural and control analysis is also carried out
▫ aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities, if any,
are corrected and the final design is drawn and finalized
▫ at this point, several designs, though perfectly capable
of flight and performance, might have been opted out
of production due to their being economically nonviable
Detail Design
▫ Engineers must use the existing designs to fabricate
the actual aircraft
▫ specifically determines the design, location and
quantity of elements such as rubs, spars, sections and
more
▫ all aerodynamic, structural, control and performance
aspects are achieved and tested in full in the previous
preliminary design stage; only manufacturing remains
▫ used to turn these designs into a working aircraft
▫ may also include flight simulations to test the design
and ensure it functions as intended
▫ deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft to be
manufactured
▫ determines the number, design and location of ribs,
spars, sections and other structural elements.
▫ flight simulators for aircraft are also developed at this
stage
PROPELLER CLEARANCES
 Tricycle 7 inches
 Conventional 9 inches
 Over Water 18 inches
Whip Stall
 The result of a complete stall in which the nose
of the airplane whips violently and suddenly
downward
  In some cases, The airplane slides backward a  The layer of air adjacent to the airfoil surface
short distance before the nose of the plane
drops
Turbulent Flow
 Causes severe strains on the engine mounts and
all surfaces  Defined as a flow characterized by turbulence
that is a flow in which the velocity varies
Lazy Eight Flight
erratically in both magnitude and direction with
 Combines the dive, turn and the climb time
 The nose of the airplane describes a horizontal
Laminar Flow
figure eight lying on its side upon the horizon
 Employs the concept that air is flowing in thin
Chandelle
sheets or layers close to the surface of a wing
 Maneuver of the composite type, combining with no disturbance between the layers of air
climb and turn, approach to a stall and recovery
Leading – Edge Radius
back to normal flight
 The radius of a circle, tangent to the upper and
Midterms
lower surfaces, with its center located on a
Airfoil Selection tangent to the mean camber line drawn
through the leading edge of this line
Camber

 Curvature characteristics of most airfoil

4-Digit Airfoils: NACA 4412
Mean Camber Line
4 = Camber 0.04c
 Line equidistant from the upper and lower
4 = Position of Camber at 0.4c at L.E.
surfaces
12 = Maximum Thickness 0.12c
Airfoil Thickness Ratio

 Maximum thickness of the airfoil divided by its

chord 5-Digit Airfoils: NACA 23015

2=camber 0.02c
Aerodynamic Center
Design 𝐶𝑙 = 0.15 x First digit
 Point about which the pitching moment 0.30
remains constant for any angle of attack 30 = Position of camber at 𝑐
2

Reynold’s Number 15 = Maximum Thickness 0.15c

 Ratio between the dynamic and the viscous

forces in a liquid
6-Digit Airfoils: NACA 653-421
Chord Line
6 = Series Designation
 The line joining the end points of the mean
5 = Minimum Pressure at 0.5 c
camber line
3 = 𝐶𝑑 near min. value over a range of 𝐶𝑙 of 0.3
Thickness
above and below the design 𝐶𝑙
 The height of profile measured normal to the
4 = Design Lift Coefficient 0.4
chord line
21 = Maximum Thickness 0.21c
Boundary Layer
 7-Digit Airfoils: NACA 747A315
7 = Series Designation
4 = Favorable pressure gradient on the upper
surface from L.E. to 0.4c at the design 𝐶𝑙
6 = Favorable pressure gradient on the lower
surface from L.E. to 0.7c at the design 𝐶𝑙
A = Serial letter to distinguish different sections
having the same numerical designation but
different mean line or thickness distribution
3 = Design Lift Coefficient 0.3
15 = Maximum Thickness 0.15c
Weight Estimate
PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATE
 Structural Weight is between 30 to 35% of the
total weight
Centroid Calculation
CENTROID
 It is the point at which area (or volume or line)
can be concentrated
 It is the point at which the static moment is zero
 The centroid represents the geometric center of
a body. This point coincides with the center of
mass or the center of gravity only If the material
composing the body is uniform or
homogeneous
 Formulas used to locate the center of gravity or
the centroid simply represent a balance
between the sum of moments of all the parts of
the system and the moment of the “resultant”
for the system
CG Determination
Tractor
 The propeller or inlet plane is forward of the CG
 Tend to be destabilizing with respect to static
longitudinal and directional stability
 The propeller is working in an undisturbed free
stream
 There is a more effective flow of cooling air for
the engine
 The propeller slipstream disturbs the quality of
the airflow over the fuselage and wing root
Pusher
 The propeller or the inlet plane is located
behind the CG
 Tend to be stabilizing
 May save empennage area
 Allows a shorter fuselage, hence smaller wetted
surface area
 Higher-quality (clean) airflow prevails over the
wing and fuselage
 Engine noise in the cabin area is reduced
 The pilot's front field of view is improved
 Propeller is more likely to be damaged by flying
debris at landing
 Engine cooling problems are more severe
Balance
 Refers to the location of the center of
gravity (CG) of an airplane, and is
important to airplane stability and safety
in flight
Effects of an Overloaded Aircraft
 Higher takeoff speed
 Longer takeoff run
 Reduced rate and angle of climb
 Lower maximum altitude
 Shorter range
 Reduced cruising speed
 Reduced maneuverability
 Higher stalling speed
 Higher approach and landing speed
 Longer landing roll
 Excessive weight on the nosewheel or
 tailwheel
Basic Empty Weight
 Includes the standard empty weight plus
optional and special equipment that has
been installed
 Licensed Empty Weight
 The empty weight that consists of the
airframe, engine(s), unusable fuel, and
undrainable oil plus standard and optional
equipment as specified in the equipment
list
Standard Empty Weight
 Consists of the airframe, engines, and all
items of operating equipment that have
fixed locations and are permanently
installed in the airplane; including fixed
ballast, hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and
full engine oil
Standard Weights
 Have been established for numerous items
involved in weight and balance
computations
 Gasoline 6 lb/US gal
 Jet A, Jet A-1 6.8 lb/US gal
 Jet B 6.5 lb/US gal
 Oil 7.5 lb/US gal
 Water 8.35 lb/US galAdult (Summer) 170 lb
 Adults (Winter) 175 lb
 Flight Crew (Male) 170 lb
 Flight Crew (Female) 150 lb
 Female Flight Attendant 130 lb
 Male Flight Attendant 150 lb
 Check-In Baggage 150 lb
 Carry-On Baggage 10 lb
Sample Questions
W&B
6) The actual 'Zero Fuel Mass' is equal to the:
A Basic Empty Mass plus the fuel loaded.
B Actual Landing Mass plus trip fuel.
C Dry Operating Mass plus the traffic load.
D Operating Mass plus all the traffic load.
4) The stalling speed of an aeroplane will be highest
when
it is loaded with a:
A low gross mass and forward centre of gravity.
B low gross mass and aft centre of gravity.
C high gross mass and aft centre of gravity.
D high gross mass and forward centre of gravity
9) The actual 'Take-off Mass' is equivalent to:
A Actual Zero Fuel Mass plus the traffic load
B Dry Operating Mass plus the take-off fuel
C Actual Landing Mass plus the take-off fuel
D Dry Operating Mass plus take-off fuel and the traffic
load
10) Given that the total mass of an aeroplane is 112 000
kg
with a centre of gravity position at 22.62m aft of the
datum. The centre of gravity limits are between 18m
and
22m. How much mass must be removed from the rear
hold (30 m aft of the datum) to move the centre of
gravity to the middle of the limits:
A 8 680 kg
B 43 120 kg
C 29 344 kg
D 16 529 kg
11) Which of the following is unlikely to have any effect
on
the position of the centre of gravity on an aeroplane in
flight?
A Lowering the landing gear.
B Movement of cabin attendants going about their decrease.
normal
B remain constant, drag will increase and endurance will
duties.
increase.
C Normal consumption of fuel for a swept wing
C be greater, drag will increase and endurance will
aeroplane.
decrease.
D Changing the tailplane (horizontal stabiliser) incidence
D be decreased, drag will decrease and endurance will
angle.
increase.

12) The distance from the datum to the Centre of

Gravity of 50) What determines the longitudinal stability of an
a mass is known as aeroplane?
A the lever. A The location of the centre of gravity with respect to
the
B the moment.
neutral point.
C the index.
B The effectiveness of the horizontal stabilizer, rudder
D the moment arm or balance arm
and

rudder trim tab.

17) Length of the mean aerodynamic chord = 1 m
C The relationship of thrust and lift to weight and drag.
Moment arm of the forward cargo: -0,50 m
D The dihedral, angle of sweepback and the keel effect.
Moment arm of the aft cargo: + 2,50 m

The aircraft mass is 2 200 kg and its centre of gravity is

54) Which is true of the aeroplane empty mass?
at 25% MAC
A It is a component of dry operating mass.
To move the centre of gravity to 40%, which mass has
B It is dry operating mass minus fuel load.
to
C It is dry operating mass minus traffic load.
be transferred from the forward to the aft cargo hold?
D It is the actual take-off mass, less traffic load
A 183 kg

B 165 kg
56) The mass displacement caused by landing gear
C 104 kg
extension:
D 110 kg
A creates a pitch-up longitudinal moment

B does not create a longitudinal moment

27) If an aeroplane is at a higher mass than anticipated,
for a
given airspeed the angle of attack will
A remain constant, drag will decrease and endurance
will
C creates a pitch-down longitudinal moment
D creates a longitudinal moment in the direction (pitch-
up or
pitch-down) determined by the type of landing gear
 (balance) arms are measured. Its precise position is

63) Given: given in the control and loading manual and it is located

Total mass: 7500 kg A at or near the focal point of the aeroplane axis
system.
Centre of gravity (cg) location station: 80.5
B at or near the natural balance point of the empty
Aft cg limit station: 79.5
aeroplane.
How much cargo must be shifted from the aft cargo
C at a convenient point which may not physically be on
compartment at station 150 to the forward cargo the

compartment at station 30 in order to move the cg aeroplane.

location to the aft limit? D at or near the forward limit of the centre of gravity

A 65.8 kg.

B 68.9 kg. 73) At a given mass the CG position is at 15% MAC. If

the
C 73.5 kg.
leading edge of MAC is at a position 625.6 inches aft of
D 62.5 kg.
the datum and the MAC is given as 134.5 inches

determine the position of the CG in relation to to the

68) An aeroplane is said to be 'neutrally stable'. This is
likely datum.

to: A 228.34 inches aft of datum

A be caused by a centre of gravity which is towards the B 645.78 inches aft of datum

rearward limit. C 20.18 inches aft of datum

B be caused by a centre of gravity which is towards the D 605.43 inches aft of datum

forward limit.

C be totally unrelated to the position of the centre of
gravity.
D cause the centre of gravity to move forwards.
90) The Zero Fuel Mass and the Dry Operating Mass
A differ by the mass of usable fuel.
B differ by the value of the traffic load mass.

C are the same value.

70) Assuming gross mass, altitude and airspeed remain
D differ by the sum of the mass of usable fuel plus
unchanged, movement of the centre of gravity from the traffic load

forward to the aft limit will cause mass.

A higher stall speed.

B lower optimum cruising speed.
C reduced maximum cruise range.
D increased cruise range
91) If the centre of gravity of an aeroplane moves
forward
during flight the elevator control will :

72) The datum is a reference from which all moment

A become heavier making the aeroplane more difficult A at right angles to the flight path.
to
B governed by the distribution of the mass within the
manouevre in pitch
aeroplane.
B become lighter making the aeroplane more difficult to
C parallel to the gravity vector.
manouevre in pitch.
D always parallel to the aeroplane's vertical axis.
C become heavier making the aeroplane more easy to

manouevre in pitch.

D become lighter making the aeroplane more easy to

manouevre in pitch.

92) A location in the aeroplane which is identified by a

number designating its distance from the datum is

known as:

A Station.

B Moment.

C MAC.

D Index

101) The centre of gravity is the

A centre of thrust along the longitudinal axis, in relation

to a

datum line

B focus along the longitudinal axis, in relation to a

datum line

C neutral point along the longitudinal axis, in relation to

a

datum line

D point where all the aircraft mass is considered to be

Concentrated

103) The centre of gravity of an aeroplane is that point

through which the total mass of the aeroplane is said to

act. The weight acts in a direction