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© by PSP Volume 26 – No. 10/2017 pages 5965-5970
INDOOR AIR QUALITY: THE SAMPLES OF
SAFRANBOLU BULAK MENCILIS CAVE
Mehmet Cetin1,*, Hakan Sevik2, Ahmet Saat3
1
Kastamonu University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, 37150, Kastamonu, Turkey
2
Kastamonu University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Environmental Engineering, 37150, Kastamonu, Turkey
3
Kastamonu University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Landscape Architecture, 37150, Kastamonu, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Visiting caves is an increasingly important
tourism activity today. Because of this trend, caves
draw thousands of people every year. However, vis-
iting caves can lead to some serious health problems.
For example, the concentration of harmful gases, in-
cluding carbon dioxide (CO2), may exceed the criti-
cal level during the visit of a group of tourists.
Within the outline of this research, Safranbolu Bulak
Mencilis Cave was chosen, which has a high poten-
tial for visit by cavers and tourists. The purpose of
this research on cave’s air quality is to measure the
amounts of CO2 and particulate matter. The research
was conducted in June 2016 during a visit to the cave
with 25-meter intervals using an average from port-
able air measurement devices in various corners.
Starting at the entrance of the cave, the study con-
cluded that the amount of CO2 increased rapidly:
from 50 meters inside the cave entrance it was 1,200
ppm, and increased to 2500 ppm at150 meters inside.
The amount of particulate matter in the caves was
determined to reduce progressively the deeper into
the cave. These results indicate that when the tour-
ists’ visits occur, the indoor air quality may change
and some health problems may arise, especially from
the effect of rising amounts of CO2. This may cause
headaches, dizziness, throat and nose irritation,
sneezing, coughing, and tears.
KEYWORDS:
Air quality, Safranbolu Bulak Mencilis Cave, Carbon di-
oxide (CO2), Particulate Matter, Indoor air, Sustainability
INTRODUCTION
Caves are natural underground spaces among
the rocks extended in such a way that they allow the
entrance of humans. They are formed throughout
thousands of years and have unique visual richness.
Thus, they have much importance as sites for recre-
ation and tourism activities. They have especially be-
come important elements of tourism in Turkey, and
have been studied in this context [1-10]. Aydoğdu
and Sevik [5], for example, studied Mantar cave in
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Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
Turkey.
Visitors are not checked or prepared for cave
visits in any way. Many of the caves are only pro-
tected to preserve natural formations. However,
there might be factors in caves open to visitors that
may be threatening for human health. One such fac-
tor is poisonous gases that may exist in the indoor air
of caves and have negative influences on human
health. Indoor air quality in caves, which are limited
environments, is shaped by many factors and may
contain dangerous elements.
Many studies have investigated the influence of
indoor air quality in indoor environments other than
caves. Indoor building areas are especially more
CO2dense than outdoor areas [11-14]. These studies
focus on the effects of human air health on the air
quality. Kotzias and Pilidis [11] studied indoor air
quality for building design. They discussed infor-
mation on indoor environmental quality issues at the
European level, taking into account the energy sav-
ing requirements for new and old buildings, and sug-
gest actions to be taken in the years ahead to achieve
healthy and resource efficient buildings. There are
positive signs from science and politics regarding
improvement in indoor air quality; efforts are being
made to adopt the relevant industry regulations that
are required for a proper domestic market and to
raise consumers’ awareness about environmentally
sensitive products. The study shows that air quality
certification of buildings would be very positive,
similar to energy performance certification. Sakel-
laris et al. [12] took ionic PAH compositions and PM
samples. Strong emission sources were found to af-
fect the interior of buildings. Sabaziotis et al.’s [13]
indoor air quality studies were conducted in the win-
ter of 2011 in three housing units in Kozani, Greece.
These studies show that residences in the city center
offered higher concentrations than outside areas near
the city center and the downtown residences. All
mean indoor carbonyl concentrations were higher
than those outdoor, except for hexanal inresidences.
In addition, Cimino-Reale’s study [14] makes it clear
that genomic methodologies are suitable for modu-
lating large biological processes and biochemical ef-
fects by exposing them to complex environmental
conditions. They measured compounds indoors, and
found the highest concentration of CO2 for two of the
© by PSP Volume 26 – No. 10/2017 pages 5965-5970 Fresenius Environmental Bulletin

three tested houses, and formaldehyde for one of the (PM5).

three examined houses.
This study deals with the quantities of CO2 and
particulate matter, which are the primary compo- RESULTS
nents of indoor air quality for caves, in Safranbolu
Bulak Mencilis cave. With the measurements made The external temperature outside the cave was
in the cave within the scope of the study, the change measured to be 20.5°C, while the temperature ranged
in the quantities of CO2 and particulate matter (0.3 from 14.8°C to 15.2°C inside the cave. Therefore, no
µm, 0.5 µm, and 5.0 µm) was monitored and inter- assessments were made regarding the temperature
preted throughout the depths of the cave. values. Table 1 shows CO2 and particulate matter
values.
To increase the understandability of the values
MATERIALS AND METHODS in the table, we created graphics for each parameter.
Figure 1 shows the changes in CO2 quantity.
This study was conducted in Bulak Mencilis
Cave, which is located within the boundaries of Saf-
ranbolu district. Mencilis cave is situated in Bulak
village of Karabük province in the Western Black
Sea Region of Turkey. It is 10 km northeastofthe
central district of Karabük. Different measurements
were carried out to measure the total length of the
cave. Some sources state that it is 6,052 meters while
others say that it is 2,725 meters. Taking the assump-
tion that total length is over 6 km as a basis, it is pos-
sible to say that it is the 4th largest cave in Turkey
[15].
This study was conducted in the section of the FIGURE 1
Mencilis cave open to visitors. This section starts The changes in the CO2 quantity depending on
with a large gallery and extends horizontally. Meas- the depth inside Mencilis Cave
urements with taken at a rate of one measurement per
25 meters starting from the external section and con- Figure 1 shows that CO2 quantity is lower than
ducted until a depth of 350 meters. 1,000 ppm outside the cave and in the entrance to
cave. However, it rapidly increases depending on the
TABLE 1 depth inside the cave, reaching 1,270 ppm at 50 me-
Changes in CO2 and particulate matter in ters, 1,540 ppm at 75 meters, 1,570 ppm at 100 me-
Mencilis Cave ters, 2,340 ppm at 125 meters, and 2,700 ppm at 150
Location CO2 PM0.3 PM0.5 PM5 meters. At this depth, the cave follows a horizontal
Entrance 980 22498 7148 166 course and CO2 quantity ranges from 2,575 to 2,720
25 m 570 13453 5438 61
ppm. Figure 2 gives the changes in particulate matter
50 m 1270 30380 7759 97
75 m 1540 30615 7896 85 quantity.
100 m 1570 26386 6158 39 Table 1 and Figure 2 show that small size par-
125 m 2340 19919 5693 83 ticulate matter quantity inside the cave decreases, es-
150 m 2700 13625 5150 104 pecially after 100 meters. There are 22,498 particu-
175 m 2650 10036 3614 114 lates at a size of 0.3 m outside the cave, while this
200 m 2600 5818 2173 80
225 m 2585 5638 1916 58
number is 26,386 at 100 meters and decreases de-
250 m 2575 5522 1815 26 crease afterwards. However, the number remains sta-
275 m 2590 5615 1516 35 ble at 5,600 after 200 meters. The quantity of partic-
300 m 2620 5622 1026 41 ulate matter with a size of 0.5 m follows a similar
325 m 2650 5465 1578 56 course. There are 7,148 particulates outside the cave.
350 m 2720 5326 1507 76 The number reaches 6,158 at 100 meters and de-
creases afterwards, reaching below 2,000 after 200
Analyses of temperature and CO2 measure- meters. However, though the quantity of particulate
ments were performed using “Extech EA80 Indoor matter with a size of 5.0 m is lower inside the cave
Air Quality Meter”, and particulate matter measure- than outside, it does not show a significant change.
ments were performed using the 3-channel “Light- The number is 166 outside the cave and ranges from
house 3013” particulate counter. Particulate matter 26 to 114 throughout the cave.
concentrations were measured for three different
sizes: 0.3 µm (PM0.3), 0.5 µm (PM0.5), and 5 µm

5966
© by PSP Volume 26 – No. 10/2017 pages 5965-5970
FIGURE 2
The change in the quantity of particulate matter in Mencilis Cave depending on the depth
DISCUSSION
In Turkey, caves are particularly associated
with cave tourism, and the studies dwelling on caves
mostly concentrate on tourism potential [4, 16-21].
There are almost no studies focusing on indoor air
quality in Turkish caves, and only a limited number
of studies dealing with determination of indoor air
quality in caves around the world [22-30].
Sanna et al. [26] studied temperature, relative
humidity, and carbon dioxide in caves; and Aydogdu
and Sevik [5] conducted studies to determine tem-
perature, CO2, and relative humidity in caves. James
[31] studied Lava Tubes and Bayliss caves in Aus-
tralia in terms of temperature, relative humidity, and
carbon dioxide and radon gases; Osborne [32] stud-
ied indoor air quality and carbon dioxide quantity in
the air of the caves in Australia.
Previous studies heavily dwelled on indoor air
quality of caves are open to touristic activities in
terms of temperature, relative humidity, and carbon
dioxide values. Kim et al. [33] report in their study
titled “A Study on the Changes of Air Quality the
Baekryong Cave in Pyeonchang” that the most im-
portant elements determining the indoor air quality
for humans and microbiological sustainability inside
the caves are temperature, relative humidity, and car-
bon dioxide.
The present study shows that CO2 quantity in
Mencilis cave exceeds the 1500 ppm limit from 75
meters on. High CO2 quantities in closed areas is one
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Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
of the parameters having much influence on human
health. CO2 is one of the gases rapidly changing in
concentrations as a result of human metabolic activ-
ities in indoor environments. Of the air inhaled from
the normal atmosphere, 21% is O2 and 0.033% is
CO2. However, of the air exhaled from the lungs, 16-
17% is O2 and 4% is CO2. This change leads to a
rapid increase in CO2quantities, particularly closed
areas where there are collective activities [34,35].
As a result of the increase in carbon dioxide in
the environment, people may experience fatigue, dif-
ficulty in perception, and sleepiness [36]. A quantity
of CO2in an environment over 1000 ppm can cause
headaches, vertigo, fatigue, concentration disrup-
tions, and smelling disorders; sores in the throat and
nose, sneezing, coughing, and lacrimation occur
when it is over 1500 ppm [37,38]. According to the
EPA, the maximum acceptable carbon dioxide rate
for indoor environments is 800 ppm, and 1000 ppm
at most in environments with large numbers of peo-
ple [39].
Recently, it has been found that the indoor air
quality of the closed areas in the studies is almost the
same as that of the cave [11-14,40]. As the influence
of CO2 in closed areas on human health is well-
known, many studies dealing with CO2quantity in
closed areas have been conducted [41,42]. However,
there are only a limited number of studies dwelling
on the determination of CO2quantity in caves. These
limited number of studies report that CO2 quantity in
caves is far above the threshold value, and thus
© by PSP Volume 26 – No. 10/2017 pages 5965-5970
threatens human health. The present study found out
that CO2quantities in Mencilis cave reach up to 2,720
ppm. Aydoğdu and Sevik [5] reported that CO2
quantities in Mantar cave exceed 1,100 ppm from the
entrance and do not fall below this rate inside the
cave. Previous studies also indicate that CO2 quanti-
ties in caves may reach fatal levels. Fraser initiated
the measurement of carbon dioxide in Wellington
caves in 1958. Fraser’s measurements detected car-
bon dioxide at a rate of 13.5% inside the cave [32].
The present study also focused on the quantity
of particulate matter. The quantity of particulate mat-
ter is one of the most important parameters constitut-
ing indoor air quality. An excess in the quantity of
particulate matter leads to disorders and it may cause
serious problems for persons with upper respiratory
disorders, elderly people, and children [43,44]. Par-
ticulate matter is defined as a suspension consisting
of fine solid or liquid matter inside a gas that emerge
as a result of activities such as wind, sea, volcanoes,
and anthropogenic activities. The sources and com-
position of particulate matter in nature are rather
complicated. A considerable amount of particulate
matters in the troposphere is anthropogenic, consist-
ing of sulfate, ammonium, nitrate, sodium, chlorine,
trace metals, matters with carbon, soil elements, and
water [45].
The threshold values of particulate matter con-
centration have been specified by regulations in
many parts of the world, including but not limited to
the European Union, due to its potential health and
environmental impacts. Responding to these threat-
ening impacts of particulate matter on human health
and the environment, including the climate and many
ecosystems, there is an increase in the number of
studies dwelling on particulate matter [46-50].
The present study showed that the quantity of
particulate matter inside the cave is less than in the
external environment. We believe that this result is
associated with the relative humidity inside the cave.
As a matter of fact, Aydogdu and Sevik [5] report
that relative humidity inside caves may reach 100%.
Such an increase in the rate of humidity in the air
may lead to a reduction in the quantity of particulate
matter.
CONCLUSIONS
In the present study, the most remarkable val-
ues were obtained from measuring CO2 in Mencilis
cave. The CO2 quantity inside the cave is 4 to 5 times
more than that of the external environment and
reaches up to 2,720 ppm. Previous studies report that
CO2 levels rapidly increase, particularly in crowded
environments [51-55]. This situation may cause
problems, particularly during group visits. Long-
time visits may reduce indoor air quality inside
caves, leading to headaches, vertigo, sore in throats
and nose, sneeze, cough, and lacrimation. This is
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Fresenius Environmental Bulletin
particularly problematic for people with upper
respiratory disorders, asthma, and so on. Hence, vis-
itors should be warned in this matter.
Similar studies should be conducted, particu-
larly for caves with long galleries. The measure-
ments should be varied to include gases that are im-
portant for health. These prospective results should
be compiled to be presented in cave introduction bro-
chures. The results should be given on warning
plates before entrance to caves to prevent possible
health problems.
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