Q10 what is OSI Model in computer network?

Discuss its
significance and working with the help of a diagram.
ANS OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications

communicate over a network.

A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The

purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and developers so the
digital communication products and software programs they create
can interoperate, and to facilitate a clear framework that describes the functions of
a networking or telecommunication system.

Most vendors involved in telecommunications make an attempt to describe their

products and services in relation to the OSI model. And although it is useful for
guiding discussion and evaluation, OSI is rarely actually implemented as-is. That's
because few network products or standard tools keep related functions together in
well-defined layers, as is the case in the OSI model. The TCP/IP protocol suite,
which defines the internet, does not map cleanly to the OSI model.

 How the OSI model works

IT professionals use OSI to model or trace how data is sent or received over a
network. This model breaks down data transmission over a series of seven layers,
each of which is responsible for performing specific tasks concerning sending and
receiving data.

The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two
endpoints in a network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related
functions, or layers. Each communicating user or program is on a device that can
provide those seven layers of function.

In this architecture, each layer serves the layer above it and, in turn, is served by
the layer below it. So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of
data down through the layers in the source computer, across the network, and then

46
up through the layers in the receiving computer. Only the application layer, at the
top of the stack, doesn’t provide services to a higher-level layer.

The seven layers of function are provided by a combination of

applications, operating systems, network card device drivers and networking
hardware that enable a system to transmit a signal over a network Ethernet or fiber
optic cable or through Wi-Fi or other wireless protocols.

 7 layers of the OSI model

The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are:

47
 Layer 7: The application layer: Enables the user (human or software) to
interact with the application or network whenever the user elects to read
messages, transfer files or perform other network-related activities. Web
browsers and other internet-connected apps, such as Outlook and Skype, use
Layer 7 application protocols.
 Layer 6: The presentation layer: Translates or formats data for the
application layer based on the semantics or syntax that the application
accepts. This layer is also able to handle the encryption and decryption that
the application layer requires.
 Layer 5: The session layer: Sets up, coordinates and terminates
conversations between applications. Its services include authentication and
reconnection after an interruption. This layer determines how long a system
will wait for another application to respond. Examples of session layer
protocols include X.225, AppleTalk and Zone Information Protocol (ZIP).
 Layer 4: The transport layer: Is responsible for transferring data across a
network and provides error-checking mechanisms and data flow controls. It
determines how much data to send, where it gets sent and at what rate. The
Transmission Control Protocol is the best known example of the transport
layer.
 Layer 3: The network layer: Primary function is to move data into and
through other networks. Network layer protocols accomplish this by
packaging data with correct network address information, selecting the
appropriate network routes and forwarding the packaged data up the stack to
the transport layer.
 Layer 2: The data-link layer: The protocol layer in a program that handles
the moving of data into and out of a physical link in a network. This layer
handles problems that occur as a result of bit transmission errors. It ensures
that the pace of the data flow doesn’t overwhelm the sending and receiving
devices. This layer also permits the transmission of data to Layer 3,
the network layer, where it is addressed and routed.
 Layer 1: The physical layer: Transports data using electrical, mechanical
or procedural interfaces. This layer is responsible for sending computer bits
from one device to another along the network. It determines how physical
connections to the network are set up and how bits are represented into

48
 predictable signals as they are transmitted either electrically, optically or via
radio waves.
 Cross layer functions

Cross-layer functions, services that may affect more than one layer, include:

 Security service (telecommunication) as defined by ITU-T X.800

recommendation.

 Management functions -- functions that enable the configuration,

instantiation, monitoring and terminating of the communications of two or
more entities.

 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) -- operates at an OSI-model layer

that lies between layer 2 (data link layer) and layer 3 (network layer). MPLS
can be used to carry a variety of traffic, including Ethernet frames and IP
packets.

 ARP -- translates IPv4 addresses (OSI layer 3) into Ethernet MAC addresses
(OSI layer 2).

 Domain name service – an application layer service used to look up the IP

address of a domain name.

49
Q 11 Explain the working of TCP/IP model with the help of diagrams.

ANS TCP/IP, or the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of

communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet.
TCP/IP can also be used as a communications protocol in a private network
(an intranet or an extranet).

The entire internet protocol suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is commonly
referred to as TCP/IP, though others are included in the suite.

TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end
communications that identify how it should be broken into packets, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. TCP/IP requires little central
management, and it is designed to make networks reliable, with the ability to
recover automatically from the failure of any device on the network.

The two main protocols in the internet protocol suite serve specific
functions. TCP defines how applications can create channels of communication
across a network. It also manages how a message is assembled into
smaller packets before they are then transmitted over the internet and reassembled
in the right order at the destination address.

IP defines how to address and route each packet to make sure it reaches the right
destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address to
determine where to forward the message.

 How TCP/IP works

TCP/IP uses the client/server model of communication in which a user or machine

(a client) is provided a service (like sending a webpage) by another computer (a
server) in the network.

Collectively, the TCP/IP suite of protocols is classified as stateless, which means

each client request is considered new because it is unrelated to previous requests.
Being stateless frees up network paths so they can be used continuously.

The transport layer itself, however, is stateful. It transmits a single message, and its
connection remains in place until all the packets in a message have been received
and reassembled at the destination.
50
  Importance of TCP/IP

TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company.

Therefore, the internet protocol suite can be modified easily. It is compatible with
all operating systems, so it can communicate with any other system. The internet
protocol suite is also compatible with all types of computer hardware and
networks.

The TCP/IP model differs slightly from the seven-layer Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) networking model designed after it, which defines how
applications can communicate over a network.

 TCP/IP model layers

TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which include specific
protocols.

 The application layer provides applications with standardized data

exchange. Its protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail

51
 Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP).

 The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end

communications across the network. TCP handles communications between
hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport
protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is
sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.

 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and
connects independent networks to transport the packets across network
boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.

 The physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the
network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The
protocols in this layer include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and
the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

52
Q12 what are network protocols? How are they classified? Discuss in
detail.
ANS Network protocols are formal standards and policies comprised of rules,
procedures and formats that define communication between two or more devices
over a network. Network protocols govern the end-to-end processes of timely,
secure and managed data or network communication.

Network protocols incorporate all the processes, requirements and constraints of

initiating and accomplishing communication between computers, servers, routers
and other network-enabled devices. Network protocols must be confirmed and
installed by the sender and receiver to ensure network/data communication and
apply to software and hardware nodes that communicate on a network.

There are several broad types of networking protocols, including:

 Network communication protocols: Basic data communication protocols,

such as TCP/IP and HTTP.

 Network security protocols: Implement security over network

communications and include HTTPS, SSL and SFTP.

 Network management protocols: Provide network governance and

maintenance and include SNMP and ICMP.

 TYPES OF NETWORK PROTOCOLS :-

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10.Gopher

53
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication
protocol which is used for communicating over a network. It divides any message
into series of packets that are sent from source to destination and there it gets
reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is
mostly used with TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through
different nodes in a network until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the
most popular protocol connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to
Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating
and low-latency linking between different applications.

4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.

5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and

distribute outgoing E-Mail.

54
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one
machine to another. Types of files may include program files, multimedia files,
text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a
hypertext among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links.
These links may be in any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-
server principles which allow a client system for establishing a connection with
the server machine for making a request. The server acknowledges the request
initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the
communication among two computers one using the browser and other fetching
data from web server. HTTP is used for transferring data between the client
browser (request) and the web server (response) in the hypertext format, same in
case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in an encrypted format.
So it can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or modification of
data throughout the transfer of packets.

9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another.
The connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which
requests for connection is the local computer, and the system which accepts the
connection is the remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as
well as displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the
client/server principle.

55