4.

12 Thermistors T1

T. G. CLAGGETT, R. W. WORRALL (1969, 1982) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995) Thermistor

P. M. B. SILVA GIRÃO (2003)

Flow Sheet Symbol

Range: Typically, from −58 to 302°F (−50 to 150°C). Bead thermistor probes, hermetically
sealed into shock resistant solid glass rods, are available from −321 to 572°F (−196
to 300°C) and from −40 to 1652°F (−40 to 900°C).

Span: Can be as narrow as 2°F (1°C), which can result in extremely high sensitivity

Differential Temperature By connecting two thermistors to different halves of the Wheatstone bridge,
Same Measurement: thousandths of a degree difference can be measured.

Resistance: From 0.5 to 20,000,000 Ω (usually referenced at 77°F [25°C]). Standard units are about
5,000 Ω. If the resistance of a thermistor element is 5,000 Ω at room temperature, it
will drop to about 20 Ω at 572°F (300°C) and will rise to 200,000 Ω if the temperature
drops to −58°F (−50°C).

Linearity: Nonlinear

Sensitivity: Typically 25 to 250 Ω/°F (50 to 500 Ω/°C), which translates into 0.5 to 5% of sensor
resistance change per degree Fahrenheit temperature (1 to 10%/°C). Most industrial
units have a sensitivity of about 2%/°F (4%/°C).

Inaccuracy: Generally between 0.1 and 1°F (0.006 and 0.6°C). Because spans can be extremely
narrow, the error with this sensor (if calibrated) can be as low as 0.005°F (0.003°C),
but because of long-term stability and self-heating effects, long-range accuracy is
much lower.

Thermal Time Constant: Typically around 10 s in still air and 1 s in oil

Thermal Dissipation Typically around 1 mW/°F (2 mW/°C) in still air and 5 mW/°F (10 mW/°C) in oil
Constant:

Interchangeability: ±0.1°F (±0.05°C) for spans of up to 122°F (50°C); ±1°F (±0.5°C) for spans of up to
392°F (200°C)

Cost: $10 to $100. The unpackaged elements can be obtained for $10 or less; when
packaged for process industry services, their costs are similar to those of resistance
temperature detector-based sensors, handheld monitors or transmitters.

Partial List of Suppliers: Ametherm, Inc. (www.ametherm.com)

BetaTHERM Corp. (www.betatherm.com)
Cera-Mite Corp. (ceramite.com)
Fenwal Electronics (www.fenwal.com/therm.htp)
Hart Scientific (www.hartscientific.com)
JMS Southeast (www.jms-se.com)
Kele and Associates (www.kele.com)
MMC Electronics America Inc. (www.mmea.com)
Murata Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (www.murata.com)
Nichicon America Corp. (www.nichicon-us.com)
NIC Components Corp. (www.niccomp.com)
Omega Engineering, Inc. (www.omega.com)

666
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
 4.12 Thermistors 667

Precision Engineering Ltd. (www.pel-ltd.co.uk/english/homepage.htm)

Precision Measurement Engineering (www.pme.com)
Mitsubishi Int. Corp. (www.mitsubishi.com/index_e.cfm)
Quality Thermistor, Inc. (www.thermistor.com)
Sensor Scientific, Inc. (www.sensorsci.com)
Smith Systems Inc. (www.smith-systems-inc.com)
STOLAB Inc. (www.stolab.com)
Tech Instrument (www.techinstrument.com/probe3.htm)
Therm-O-Disc (www.thermodisc.com/ntcptc.html)
Thermometrics, Inc. (www.thermometrics.com)
Therm-X of California (www.therm-x.com)
Thermalogic Corp. (www.thlogic.com)
U.S. Sensor Corporation (www.ussensor.com)
Wahl Instruments Inc. (www.palmerinstruments.com/wahl)
Western Electronic Components Corp. (www.wecc.com)
Wuntronic GmbH (www.wuntronic.de)
YPco Electronics (www.ypco.com)
YSI-Yellow Springs Instr. Co. (www.ysi.com/index.html)

Like the resistance temperature detector (RTD), the ther-
mistor is a resistive device that changes its resistance pre-
dictably with temperature. It is constructed from ceramic
semiconductor materials. Its benefit is a very large change in
resistance per degree change in temperature, allowing very
sensitive measurements over narrow spans. Due to its very
large resistance, lead wire errors are not significant.
INTRODUCTION
Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors and have either
a negative (NTC) or positive (PTC) resistance/temperature
coefficient.
NTC thermistors, or NTCs for short, are semiconductors
made from specific mixtures of pure oxides of nickel, man-
ganese, copper, cobalt, tin, uranium, zinc, iron, magnesium,
titanium, and other metals sintered at temperatures above
1800°F (982°C). The type and proportion of oxides used, the
sintered atmosphere, and the sintering temperature dictates
the resistance and temperature coefficient of the NTC ther-
mistors. Their distinguishing characteristics are a high tem-
perature coefficient and the fact that their resistance is a
nonlinear function of absolute temperature. This makes them
very good for narrow span measurement, but more difficult
to handle for widespan applications.
PTCs are manufactured from silicon (silistors) or barium,
lead, and strontium titanates with the addition of yttrium,
manganese, tantalum, and silica (switching PTC thermistors).
Silistors have lower sensitivity than NTCs, but their resistance-
temperature characteristic is more linear. Switching PTCs
have extremely high sensitivity in a narrow range of temper-
used outside the laboratory. The credit for the development
of thermistors as we know them today must be given to Bell
Laboratories. They started to manufacture them some 60
years ago, naming them from the term thermally sensitive
resistors. The Bell project resulted in the development of
thermistors stable and reproducible enough to make their
large-scale use worthwhile in telephone work around 1940.
The industry in general did not accept these sensors until
the 1950s. Bad experiences with commercially available ther-
mistors hampered their acceptance. Variances in resistance at
a given temperature and in rate of change of temperature
made individual calibration a requirement. Overcoming this
difficulty, one manufacturer patented a process for inter-
changeable thermistors, resulting in production of probes
interchangeable to 0.05°F (0.03°C). Boosted by aerospace
industry requirements, the 1950s and 1960s witnessed the
improvement in the materials used mainly in the manufac-
ture of bead and disk thermistors and the development of
chip thermistors. Since the 1970s, and particularly during the
1980s, this type of thermistor was increasingly used in low cost
temperature probes for medical applications. Since the 1980s,
the use of thermistors increased with demands coming mainly
from the transport, medical, and food processing industries.
RESISTANCE-TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTIC
The negative exponential function that best describes the
resistance-temperature (R(T)) characteristic of an NTC can
be interpolated using different equations. The Steinhart-Hart
equation:
1,2

ature centered at the Curie temperature of the material.

HISTORICAL NOTE
The first recorded work reporting on a NTC thermistor is
from Michael Faraday in 1833. For more than 100 years, the
sensors were unstable and not reproducible and were seldom
3
1/T = A + B(lnR) + C(lnR) 4.12(1)
where T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin and R the
thermistor resistance at temperature T, describes R(T) with
the accuracy required in many applications. The determina-
tion of coefficients A, B, and C requires calibration at three

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

668 Temperature Measurement

different temperatures and solving a system of three simul- Terminal

taneous equations. The uncertainty associated with the use Washer
of the Steinhart-Hart equation is lower than ±0.005°F Thermistor with
(±0.003°C) for a 90°F (50°C) temperature span in the 32 to Lead Washers
482°F (0 to 250°C) range. The inclusion of a squared term Terminal
reduces that uncertainty, but the calibration must be made at Leads Washer
four different temperatures to obtain the four coefficients of Bend Type Washer Type
the correspondent polynomial.
It is possible to demonstrate that in any range for which
the relationship between lnR and 1/T is a straight line, R may
be expressed as:
Leads Leads
R = R0.exp(β (T0 − T)/TT0) 4.12(2) Disc Type Rod Type

where R is the resistance at temperature T, R0 the resistance FIG. 4.12b

at a specified reference temperature T0, and β (material con- Variations in thermistor sensor packaging.
stant) is the slope of the R(T) characteristic. At temperatures
above 32°F (0°C), this relationship leads to uncertainties of
0.02°F (0.01°C) for temperature spans of 18°F (10°C) and SENSOR TYPES
of 0.5°F (0.3°C) for temperature spans of 90°F (50°C).
Figure 4.12a illustrates the relative behavior of thermo- A number of configurations are possible (Figure 4.12b). Most
couples (TCs), RTDs and NTC thermistors. On the right familiar is the bead type, which is usually glass-coated. How-
side of the figure the characteristics of a particular ther- ever, thermistors can be made into washes, discs, or rods.
mistor are shown, which illustrates both its sensitivity and They can also be encapsulated in plastic, cemented, soldered
its nonlinearity.
3 in bolts, encased in glass tubes or needles, or a variety of
other forms. These assemblies serve to support the sensor,
Output protect against damage to the wires, direct flow across the
unit uniformly, permit sealing of conduits or flow lines, and
provide for easier handling (Figure 4.12c).
NTCs can be classified in one of two groups according
4
Thermistor to the way electrodes are connected to the thermistor body:
RTD
bead-type thermistors and surface electrode-type thermistors.
Bead-type thermistors have platinum lead wires sintered
Thermocouple
into the sensor body. This group includes bare and ruggedized
beads as well as several glass-encased beads, rods, and probes.
Temperature Surface-type thermistors have metallized surface contacts
1,000
and leads that are radial or axial or nonexisting for surface
mounting. They are cheaper to manufacture than bead-type
NTCs. Chip and surface mounts are probably the types more
100
used, but disks, rods, and washers are also in demand.
PTCs can be divided in two groups: thermally sensitive
silicon resistors (silistors) and switching PTC thermistors.
Resistivity, ohm-cm

10
Silistors are characterized by a fairly constant positive
temperature coefficient of about 0.4%/°F (0.8%/°C) in most
of its operational range.
1

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
0.1
Microammeter Readout

A simple circuit such as that shown in Figure 4.12d consist-

0.01 ing of a battery, a sensor, and a microammeter can be used
1 10 100 1,000
to measure temperature with a thermistor. In such a circuit,
Temperature, K
the sensor will have a very high resistance. As long as the
FIG. 4.12a voltage is constant, the current flow will be determined only
1
NTC thermistors are very sensitive and highly nonlinear. by changes in resistance of the thermistor. The sensor can be

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 4.12 Thermistors 669

Probes are Supplied with 5 Foot Cord

and Plug to Mate with Meter
LN0255 Immersion Probe For liquid and semi-solids. Stainless
steel. For foods, chemical, pharmaceutical and laboratory work.
0.1°C interchangeablility, 6" long stem, .125" diameter for 12"
length option, order, LN0255-12. 1.0 Second response time*. LN0255 Immersion Probe

LN0255 Immersion Probe With .05°C interchangeability, .250"

diameter.
LN0250 Flexible Immersion Probe
LN0250 Flexible Immersion Probe Vinyl sheath and .135"
diameter epoxy tip. Small and flexible. 3.6 Second response time*.

LN0252 Button Surface Probe Solid .375" diameter button can

be attached with pressure sensitive adhesive tape or epoxy. LN0252 Button Surface Probe
Stainless steel contact surface. 1.1 Second response time*.

LN0253 Screw-In Immersion Probe For measurements in

pipes, vessels or reactors. 3.6 Second response time*.
Stainless steel shank with 1/8" NPT fitting, 6" standard stem LN0253 Screw-In Immersion Probe
length, 12" option, order LN0253-12.

*Response time is based on 63% in water moving at 3 feet per second.

FIG. 4.12c
Some thermistor probe designs. (Courtesy of Wahl Instruments Inc.)

Micro Ammeter

Power Readout
Battery Supply
Thermistor
Power
(100,000 ohms)
Supply
Thermistor
Sensor

FIG. 4.12d
Microammeter readout. FIG. 4.12e
Wheatstone bridge.

mounted fairly far from the meter and ordinary copper wire can
be used for transmission. With a sensor resistance on the
5
order of 10 Ω, meter temperature changes and lead wire
Power Readout
resistance can be neglected.
Supply
Assuming that the thermistor changes its resistance by
2% (2000 Ω) for each degree Fahrenheit of temperature Thermistors
change (4%/°C) and assuming that the total lead wire used
was 500 ft of 20-gauge copper wire having a resistance of
10 Ω, the lead wire error would amount to only 0.0045°F
(0.0025°C) of temperature error. Even if the thermistor has
a total resistance of only 5000 Ω and its 2% temperature FIG. 4.12f
Differential measurement.
coefficient were only 100 Ω/°F, the lead-wire error would
still only be 10/100 = 0.1°F. For this reason lead-wire com-
pensation is not a serious problem, and three- or four-wire the thermistor in one leg of a bridge circuit (Figure 4.12e)
bridges are not used with thermistors. with a center zero galvanometer enables very narrow temper-
ature spans to be displayed relatively inexpensively. Range
Wheatstone Bridge depends upon galvanometer sensitivity and can be as low as
2°F (1°C).
A DC Wheatstone bridge (Figure 4.12e) is probably the con- Very accurate temperature measurement can be made
ditioning circuit more widely used with thermistors. Locating with a differential circuit (Figure 4.12f). With two thermistors

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

670 Temperature Measurement
in different halves in a bridge, the unbalance will be determined
by resistance difference caused by temperature difference of
−3
the sensors. With a high gain amplifier, differentials of 10 °C
or °F can be measured.
Digital Instrumentation
In recent years, the display of temperature values in numer-
ical format has significantly increased. Low-cost handheld
digital thermometers based on an interchangeable thermistor
still utilize a Wheatstone bridge to produce a voltage that
after amplification (and eventually linearisation) is fed to an
analog-to-digital converter. Once in the digital domain, not
only can the temperature signal be numerically displayed but
it can also be processed using a microprocessor. Interchange-
ability of thermistors is made possible by storing the R(T)
characteristic of the thermistor in a read only memory. This
type of solution leads to an accuracy around ±0.2°F (±0.1°C)
for temperature spans of some 212°F (100°C).
When higher accuracy is required, calibration of the ther-
mistor at selected temperatures included in the operating
range is required to obtain the parameters of the function
used to approximate the R(T) characteristic in that range. The
instrument can then work with different thermistors, and the
accuracy depends on the exactness of the approximation
function and on the stability of the thermistor.
THERMISTORS COMBINED WITH RESISTORS
Combinations of thermistors and wire-wound resistors can
be connected in networks (Figure 4.12g and 4.12h) to pro-
duce either a varying voltage or resistance that is linear with
temperature (analog linearization). The basic equation for a
divider network of R1 and R2 in series is Eout = Ein R1/(R1 + R2),
where Eout is the voltage drop across R1. When R1 is a ther-
mistor and Eout is plotted against temperature, the total curve
is nonlinear and S-shaped. If R1 is modified by the addition
of another thermistor and resistor of proper values, linearity
of the center section of the S curve can be extended to cover
a relatively wide temperature range. This section then is
considered to follow the general equation of a straight line.
For the resistance mode, this would be R1 = MT + b, where
M is the slope in ohms per degree, T is the temperature in
degrees F, and b is the value of R1 when T = 0°F. The
advantages of such a system are obvious.
SELF-HEATING EFFECT
Even if some applications use the current-time and voltage-
current characteristics of a thermistor (thermistor self-heated,
i.e., heated above room temperature), the resistance-temper-
ature is the characteristic that accounts for most of tempera-
ture measurement applications. In this case, self-heating is
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
R1
R2
Ei Ei = Voltage Input
Eo = Voltage Output
R = Resistors
Eo T = Thermistors
T2 T1
FIG. 4.12g
Two-thermistor network.
R1
R3 R2 Ei = Voltage Input
Ei Eo = Voltage Output
R = Resistors
T = Thermistors
Eo
T3 T2 T1
FIG. 4.12h
Three-thermistor network.
generally undesirable and operation is aimed as close as pos-
sible to zero power operation.
The electric circuits associated to a thermistor for condi-
tioning purposes originate a current flow in the thermistor. If
a small current flows through the thermistor, there is a negli-
gible increase in its temperature due to this flow. The resistance
can thus be measured and, since resistance is proportional to
absolute temperature, the temperature can be inferred.
If the current flow is slowly increased, the heat generated
within the sensor will gradually begin to raise its temperature
above that of its environment. This in turn lowers its resis-
tance and more current will flow. Eventually, the current input
would reach a level where it is balanced by the heat output
of the thermistor. At this point, sensor temperature would be
300 or 500°F (149 or 260°C) above ambient, and sensor
−3
resistance would have dropped to a value approximately 10
times its value at the original low current.
For most temperature measuring applications, self-heating
is not a problem, since thermistor currents used are relatively
low. If a current of higher magnitude is used, under fixed
conditions, an offset allowance may be made for the self-
heating effect. However, anything that affects the dissipation
constant will change the offset. This could be the result of a
number of things, including flow changes in the measured
medium, changes in fluid composition, and the like.
The power dissipation constant of a thermistor element
can vary from a few microwatts to several watts per degree
of resultant temperature rise. In industrial units, a few degrees
of self-heating can be expected for each milliwatt of resistive
heating. As thermistors are made smaller and smaller in order

to increase their response times and to lower their thermal
2
shunting, the effect of self-heating also rises. The I R tem-
perature increase is a direct function of the dissipation constant
in its mounting environment. Unlike resistance thermometers
or TCs, thermistor resistance values are varied by varying
their composition to suit the temperature span, range, and
sensitivity desired for a given application.
APPLICATIONS
Other than temperature measurement, thermistors can be
used in a number of applications where physical phenomena
produce a temperature change. Such applications may recur
to the current-time, voltage-current, or resistance-temperature
characteristic of a thermistor. NTC thermistor applications
based on current-time characteristic include surge protection
and inrush current limiting. The voltage-current characteristic
of a NTC is used namely in voltage regulation, anemometers,
manometers, gas analyzers and fluid velocity, liquid level, and
microwave power measurement. Utilization of the resistance-
temperature characteristic of an NTC can be found in many
domains from industry to medicine most of them related with
temperature measurement.
PTC applications make general use of either the voltage-
current characteristic (resettable fuses, heater and thermostat,
liquid and flow sensing) or the current-time characteristic
(motor starting, time delaying).
Today it is possible to look for a thermistor that better
suits a specific application using the search capabilities avail-
able in some sites (e.g., www.globalspec.com/SpecSearch/
SearchForm?Comp=16).
Thermistors can be connected to a microprocessor-based
memory element and packaged as a portable element. These
small micropacks can memorize the temperature history of
batch reactor products or can travel with the process material
through several steps in processing. When the temperature
memory-pack unit is retracted from the process, it can be
plugged into a computer for interrogation. This allows the plant
to store the temperature history of each batch. The micropack
weighs less than 100 g, has a battery life of about 500 hours,
and has a temperature range of −40 to 302°F (−40 to 150°C).
CALIBRATION AND TESTING
In some applications, the accuracy requirements are not com-
patible with the interchangeable capabilities of thermistors.
4
In such cases, thermistors must be calibrated. Calibration is
also required whenever an accurate resistance-temperature
characteristic of a thermistor is needed.
The National Bureau of Standards has offered a limited
calibration service for thermistors over an approximate tem-
perature range of −150 to 200°F (−101 to 93°C). Calibration
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
4.12 Thermistors 671
on the order of ±0.02°F (±0.01°C) is the rule. Users have
claimed better than ±0.002°F (±0.001°C) stability over a 2-year
period.
The following should be checked to test the operating
parameters of thermistors:
1. Zero power resistance. This test is done under condi-
tions that produce negligible heating of the sensor by
test current. Most common sources of error are mea-
surement of ambient temperature, self-heating error,
thermocouple effects at junctions of dissimilar metals,
and accuracy of test equipment.
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance. This is the rate
of change of thermistor resistance vs. temperature at
the desired temperature.
3. Voltage developed across the thermistor under condi-
tions of thermal equilibrium with a constant current.
A current-limiting resistor should be used. Maximum
current should not be exceeded, even for short periods.
The sensor should not be moved to a medium of lower
thermal conductivity during a test. The problem is
similar to that of measuring voltage across ordinary
resistors; the difference is that stabilization times are
longer and small currents are used.
4. Time required for a thermistor to pass a certain current
after the voltage is applied.
5. Dissipation constant measurements. This is the ratio
at a certain temperature of a change in power dissipa-
tion in a thermistor to the resultant body temperature
change.
6. Thermal time constant. This is the time for a 63.2%
change from initial to final temperatures when, sub-
jected to a step change.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Thermistors have the desirable characteristics of small size,
narrow spans, fast response (their time constant can be under
1 s), and a very high sensitivity (about 2%/°F [4%/°C]),
which usually increases as the measured temperature drops.
Thermistors do not need cold junction compensation
because their resistance is a function of absolute temperature,
and errors due to contact or lead-wire resistance are insig-
nificant because of their relatively small values. Unlike
RTDs and TCs, they are well suited for remote temperature
sensing.
Thermistors are available in a great variety of configura-
tions, are inexpensive, are not affected by polarity, and their
stability increases with age. At present, they are typically
more rugged and better able to support mechanical and thermal
shock and vibration than other temperature sensors.
They are the most sensitive differential temperature
detectors available.
672 Temperature Measurement
Thermistors also have some disadvantages. Their inter-
changeability is moderate and they are not linear, although
in modern data acquisition systems linearisation is no problem.
They are also fragile and are not suited for wide spans. Their
high resistance necessitates the use of shielded power lines,
filters, or DC voltage.
One of the most serious limitations of thermistors is
their lack of stability (drift and de-calibration) at higher
temperatures. This is because semiconductors in general
change their composition and develop migration, diffusion,
or other decomposition properties at high temperatures.
Therefore their use is limited to temperatures up to 600°F
(316°C), and even at such temperatures extended exposure
can cause drifts. (It should be noted that if a thermistor is
operated at temperatures far below its maximum, it can be
a very stable device.) Thermistors also have a low temperature
limit, because as the temperature drops, their resistances
rise to such levels that measuring it becomes difficult.
References
1. Steinhart, J.S. and Hart, S.R., “Calibration Curves for Thermistors,”
Deep Sea Research, 15:497, 1968.
2. Sapoff, M. et al., “The Exactness of Fit of Resistance-Temperature
Data of Thermistors with Third-Degree Polynomials,” Temperature:
Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 5, Schooley,
J.F., Ed., New York: American Institute of Physics, 1982.
3. Nussbaum, A., “Semiconductor Thermometers,” Measurement,
September 1961.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
4. NTC Thermistors, Thermometrics Application Note, www.thermometrics.
com/assets/images/ntcnotes.pdf, Thermometrics, Edison, NJ.
Bibliography
Droma, C.R., “Thermistors for Temperature Measurements,” in Tempera-
ture: Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 3,
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1962.
Fraden, J., Handbook of Modern Sensors, 2nd ed., Heidelberg: Springer-
Verlag, 1997.
German Standards Committee (DNA), Standard DIN 43760, “Fundamental
Values of Measuring Resistors and Resistance Thermometers,” Berlin,
1980.
Green, C.B., “Thermistors as Primary Temperature Elements,” in Process
Instruments and Controls Handbook, Consodine, D.M., Ed., New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1957.
Handbook of Thermistor Applications, Springfield, NJ: Victory Engineering
Corp., 1968.
Hashemian, H.M. and Peterson, K.M., “Assuring Accurate Temperature
Measurement,” InTech, October 1989.
Hormuth, G.A., “Ways to Measure Temperature,” Control Engineering,
Reprint No. 948, 1971.
Instrumentation and Control Systems Engineering Handbook, Blude Ridge
Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1978.
Kerin, T.W. and Katz, E.M., “Temperature Measurement in the 1990s,”
InTech, August 1990.
Leewis, W., “The International Temperature Scale of 1990,” Paper
#91–0302, Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society Confer-
ence, Toronto, 1991.
McGee, T.D., Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement, 1st ed.,
New York: Wiley Interscience, 1988.
Michalski, L., et al., Temperature Measurement, 2nd ed., London: John
Wiley & Sons, 2001.