The Cell Cycle

Why the cell must divide:

• Reason 1:
– The cell only contains one copy of DNA to serve
as the instructions for everything that occurs in
the cell. If the cell were too large it would not
be capable of providing instruction for all
necessary functions.
• Reason 2:
– The volume of an object will increase faster
than the surface area as the object increases in
size. The cell’s needs are based on how large
the cell is (volume) but everything the cell
needs, such as food, oxygen, water, and getting
rid of waste, must enter or leave through the
cell membrane (surface area). Therefore the
cell’s needs will increase faster than the cell’s
ability to provide for the needs.
 – The diagram shows what would happen to the volume to surface area ratio
if a cube were to double in size
– A cube that is 1 mm by 1 mm by 1 mm has a volume of 1 mm3 and a
surface are of 6 mm2. The ratio is _______
– A cube that is 2 mm by 2 mm by 2 mm has a volume of 8 mm3 and a
surface are of 24 mm2. The ratio is _______
– This demonstrates that a cell’s needs increase faster than the cell can
provide for its needs.

4 mm 4 mm
1 mm 1 mm 2 mm 2 mm

1 mm
2 mm

Surface area = 6 mm2

Volume = 1 mm3
Surface area = 24 mm2
Volume = 8 mm3

4 mm
 Steps of the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle is the events that occur in the cell from creation to
division into new cells. This process has several steps.
• Interphase: the period in between cell divisions. This will take up the
majority of the cell’s life. This phase is divided into three parts:
– G1 phase (growth phase one): the cell will increase in size and carry
out its specific function. Some cells will remain in this stage for their
entire life.
– S phase (synthesis phase): creates a copy of the cell’s DNA through a
processes called replication. This allows the cells that are going to
be created in division to receive identical copies of the DNA creating
identical cells.
– G2 phase: the creation of other materials needed for division occurs
in this phase.
• M phase (mitosis): series of steps used to organize and divide the DNA
in the nucleus to ensure each cell gets an identical and complete copy.
Mitosis has four steps:
 Steps of the Cell Cycle
– Prophase:
• Normally the longest step of mitosis.
• DNA will coil into individual
chromosomes in order to be sorted
and divided easily. The chromosomes
are the two copies of the same
section of DNA held together by a
protein which gives them and X
shape. Before this the DNA was
uncoiled in a mass of strings.
• The nucleus disappears.
• In animal cells centrioles will move to
the poles.
• Spindle fibers are created from the
poles that will be used to move and
divide the DNA.
 Steps of the Cell Cycle
– Metaphase:
• Normally the shortest phase of mitosis.
• The chromosomes line up single file in the
center of the cell.
– Anaphase:
• The spindle fibers separate the
centromeres that hold the two copies of
each piece of DNA together and pull one
half of each chromosome (one copy of the
DNA) to each side of the cell.
– Telophase:
• The DNA uncoils.
• The spindle fibers break down and the
cetrioles move back to their original
location.
• Two nuclei form.
 Steps of the Cell Cycle
• C Phase (cytokinesis):
– This phase will divide the cell into two
identical cells.
– Animal cells: the cell membrane pinches in
until it completely divides the cell.
– Plant cells: the cell wall is not flexible so
the cell will construct a new cell wall down
the center by using a cell plate that has
appeared as a starting point.
Interphase
S: DNA synthesis and replication

G2: Centrioles replicate;

G1: Rapid growth and cell prepares for division
metabolic activity

M: Divides the
DNA

C: Divides the
cell
 Warm Up
“Whatever we believe about ourselves and our ability comes
true for us.”
- -Susan L. Taylor an American editor, writer and journalist
Warm Up

“Whatever you want in life,

other people are going to want
it too. Believe in yourself
enough to accept the idea that
you have an equal right to it.”
-Diane Sawyer is an
American television journalist
Purpose of Mitosis
• This process is used to create two new
identical cells. This can be done to replace
dead or damaged cells or increase the size
of an organism (growth).
• Mitosis can also be used as a form of
reproduction. Since the new cells only had
one parent this is called asexual
reproduction.
– Benefits: asexual reproduction can
occur very quickly and is relatively
simple to accomplish.
– Negatives: all of the organisms are
genetically identical so this does not
allow for diversity or evolution.
 Alternative to Asexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction uses cells that
contain only half the DNA founds in
normal body cells from two different
individuals to create the next generation.
This way the next generation does not
have double the DNA which would be too
much for the cell to go through.
– Benefits: This produces genetic
variations among organisms of the
same species. Genetic variation
allows a species to have options so
that they can select the best version
of a trait for the environment to pass
on to the next generation.
– Negatives: This process takes much
longer than mitosis and requires two
parents.
The Cells of Sexual Reproduction
• The cells used in sexual reproduction only
contain half of the DNA from the parent.
However, this is still one copy of every trait
that the species creates.
• Each parent has two chromosomes to code
for the production of each trait. The two
copies may be the same or they may be
different. The two chromosomes that code
for the same traits are called homologous
chromosomes.
• Typically only one copy of the DNA is
expressed. This explains why a parent with
brown eyes can have a baby with blue eyes.
The parent has both DNA sequences, but
only expresses the brown eye sequence.
• When the cells from both parents fuse
during fertilization the offspring will have
two DNA sequences for every trait.
 The Cells of Sexual Reproduction
• Human traits are carried on 23
chromosomes. The typical human
body cell contains 46 chromosomes
(23 that were inherited from each
parent). These cells are called diploid
because they have two of each
chromosome.
• The cells used in sexual reproduction
contain 23 of the 46 chromosomes
which means they are haploid. These
cells are called gametes and can be
either eggs or sperm.
• Since the cells used in sexual
reproduction contain ½ the amount of
DNA as the parent they cannot be
created using mitosis. The process
that makes these cells is called
meiosis.
 • Interphase: this occurs the same as the interphase
Steps of Meiosis before mitosis which means the cell will grow,
make a copy of each piece of DNA so that each
chromosome will have two copies of the same
DNA, and prepare to divide.
• Prophase I:
– DNA coils into chromosomes where the two
copies of each piece of DNA are held together
by a protein giving them the X shape.
– Nucleus disappears.
– Spindle fibers form and centrioles move to the
poles.
– The two chromosomes that code for the same
trait (homologous chromosomes) will pair
together. Pieces of the chromosomes can
become tangled, break and switch places in a
process called crossing over. This increases the
number of different cells the parent can create
so that all offspring are different.
 Steps of Meiosis
• Metaphase I:
– Chromosomes are moved to the center of
the cell and lined up.
– Chromosomes are lined up in homologous
pairs.
• Anaphase I:
– One whole chromosome from each pair is
pulled to each pole.
• Telophase I:
– Chromosomes are uncoiled, nuclei form,
spindles break down, and centrioles move
back to their original location.
• Cytokinises I:
– The cell divides into two cells that have two
copies of DNA for each trait (diploid).
Steps of Meiosis
• Interphase:
– DOES NOT OCCUR AGAIN
SO THIS HALF OF
MEIOSIS STARTS WITH
46 PIECES OF DNA NOT
WITH 2 COPIES OF 46
PIECES OF DNA.
• Prophase II:
– DNA coils, the nucleus
disappears, centrioles
move to poles and
spindle fibers form.
• Metaphase II:
– Chromosomes line up at
the center of the cell
single file.
 Steps of Meiosis
• Anaphase II:
– Half of each chromosome
is pulled to each pole.
• Telophase II:
– DNA uncoils, nuclei form,
the centrioles move back
to their original location,
and spindle fibers break
down.
• Cytokinises II:
– Both cells divide creating
four genetically different
cells that each contain half
the amount of DNA
(haploid).
“Without hard work, nothing
grows but weeds.”
-Gordon B. Hinkley was a
religious leader and author
who served as the 15th
President of The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints

At my favorite fruit stand in Puzzleland, an orange costs 18

cents, a pineapple costs 27 cents, and a grape costs 15
cents. Using the same logic, can you tell how much a
mango costs?
Ways that Meiosis Creates Genetic Variation
• Crossing over:
– When DNA from homologous chromosomes break
and switch places during prophase I this creates
different combinations of DNA for the eggs to
contain and the offspring to inherit.
• Independent assortment of chromosomes:
– When chromosomes line up in pairs during
metaphase I each pair of chromosomes can line two
ways. This means that there are 223 different sex cells
each parent can create based on which one of each of
the 23 chromosomes is inherited.
• Fertilization:
– When the one out of 8,388,608 sex cells from the
mom combines with the one out of 8,388,608 cells
from the dad the likelihood that those two cells would
combine becomes 1 in 70 trillion. And that is just
because of independent assortment, crossing over
ensures an infinite number of possibilities for each
offspring.
 Ways that Meiosis Creates Genetic Variation
• Nondisjunction:
– When the chromosomes line up in
pairs during metaphase I one
chromosomes is suppose to go to one
side and one to the other. If that does
not occur for one of the pairs of
chromosomes and they are both pulled
to one side then that cell will have one
extra chromosome and the other will
be missing one. This is
nondisjunction.
• Polyploidy:
– If nondisjunction occurred in all of the
chromosomes resulted in a complete
extra set of DNA. In animals this
organism would not survive to birth.
In plants they become more
productive and stronger.
Ways that Meiosis Creates Genetic Variation
• Mutations: any change in the
sequence of DNA. This normally
occurs while DNA is being replicated
and divided.
• Results of mutations
– Changes in the DNA sequence
could result in no change to the
protein that is created.
– Mutations could result in a
negative change in the protein
created causing genetic
disorders.
– They could also create a positive
change in the protein that is
created resulting in evolution of
the species.
 Ways that Meiosis Creates Genetic Variation
• Gene Mutations: gene mutations
only change one section of DNA
that codes for a trait. This may
also be called a point mutation.
– Substitution: when DNA is
copied, the wrong base is
placed in the sequence. This
could result in a change in the
protein the DNA codes for.
– Frame shift mutation: adding
an extra base or removing a
base changes how the DNA
strand is read from that point
on. This could cause a lot of
changes in the protein that is
created.
Ways that Meiosis Creates Genetic Variation
• Chromosomal mutations: changes
in large sections of the entire
chromosome
– Deletion: loss of all or part of a
chromosome
– Duplication: produces an extra
copy of a chromosome or part of
the chromosome
– Inversion: rearranges the genes
of parts of chromosomes
– Translocation: parts of one
chromosome break off and
attach to another chromosome
that is not homologous
 Controlling the Cell Cycle
• The initial experiment performed to observe cell
division showed that when cells come in contact
with other cells they stop dividing. Then, when
some cells are removed to create space the cells
divide until the space is filled and then stop. This
means cell division can be turned on and off.
• In the 1980s scientists discovered a protein in
cells that were dividing. The protein was removed
and placed into cells that were not dividing. These
cells started to divide. The protein was named
cyclin and now there is an entire group of
proteins known as cyclins that control some part
of cell division.
• Some cyclins are used during cell division to
ensure all tasks are done completely and in
proper order.
• Other cyclins are attached to the cell membrane
to receive messages from other cells.
When the Cell is not Controlled
• The cell cycle has to be controlled
because the results of uncontrolled cell
cycles are very severe. Cancer is a
disorder in which some of the body's
own cells loss the ability to control
growth and division.
– Cause: Anything that could mutate
the DNA could cause cancer.
Examples: tobacco smoke, radiation
exposure, viral infection, genetics...
– Effects: Cancer cells form masses
called tumors that can damage the
surrounding cells. Pieces of the tumor
can also break off and be spread
throughout the body damaging other
parts of the cell. The tumor deprives
other cells of blood, nutrients,
oxygen, and space.