CaIcuIus With CompIex Numbers by John B.reade

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C alculus w ith C om plex N um bers
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C aIc u Iu s w ith
C o m p Iex N u m b e rs
John B.Reade
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C o nte nts
Preface
1 Complexnum bers 1
Complex ftmctions
3 Derivatives 24
4 lntegrals
Evaluation ofliniterealintegrals 49
6 Evaluation ofinliniterealintegrals 53
Sttm m ation ofseries
8 Ftmdam entaltheorem ofalgebra
Solutions to examples 82
Appendix 1:Cauchy' s theorem 93
Appendix2:Halfresiduetheorem 95
Bibliography 97
Indexofsymbolsandabbreviations 98
Generalindex 99
Preface
This book isbased on the prem ise thatthe learning curve is isomorphic to the
historicalcurve.ln other words the learning order of events is the sam e as the
historicalorderofevents.Forexample w elearn aritluueticbeforew elearn algebra.
W elearn how before w elearn w hy.
Historically,calculus w ith realnum bers cam e l
irstm initiated by N ewton and
Leibnitz in the seventeenth centuly Hven though com plex num bers had been
know n aboutfrom thetim eofFibonacciin thethirteenth centtlry,nobody thought
of doing calculusw ith com plex numbers untilthe nineteenth centuly Here the
pioneersw ere Cauchy and Riemann.Rigorousm athematics asw eknow ittoday
did notcom e into existence untilthe twentieth centuly ltisim portantto observe
thatthe nineteenth centul'y mathem aticians had the righttheorem s even if they
didn'talwayshave therightproofs.
The learning processproceedssim ilarly.Realcalculuscom eslirst followedby
com plex calculus.ln lnoth casesw e learn by using calculus to solve problems.lt
isw hen w e have seen w hata piece ofm athem atics can do thatw e begin to ask
whether itisrigorous.Practice alw ayscom esbefore theoly
The em phasisofthisbook therefore ison theapplicationsofcomplex calculus
ratherth= onthefoundationsofthesubject.A workingknowledgeofrealcalculus
isassumed also an acquaintancew ith complex numbers.A background notunlike
thatofan averagemathematician in 1800.Hquivalently,a British studentjust
starting atuniversity.The approach isto ask whathappens ifw etry to do calculus
withcomplexnumbersinsteadofwithrealnum bers.W elindthatpartsarethesam e
whilstotherpartsare strikingly different.The m ostpow erfulresultisthe residue
theorem forevaluatingcomplexintegrals.Studentswishingtostudythesubjectat
a deeperlevelshould notlind thatthey haveto unlearn anyt hing presented here.
1 would like to tha111:the mathem atics students at M anchester University for
sittingpatiently through lecturesonthism aterialovertheyears.A lso fortheirfeed-
back(positiveandnegative)whichhasbeen invaluable.Thebookisrespectfully
dedicated to them .
Jolm (
B.Reade
June 2002
C o m p Iex n u m b e rs
I.I The square root of m inus one

Complex numbers originate from a desire to extract square roots of negative
numbers.They were lirsttaken seriously in the eighteenth centul'
y by mathem ati-
ciarlssuchasdeMoivre whoprovedthelirsttheorem inthesubjectin1722.Also
Huler,who introduced thenotation ifor - 1 andw ho discovered the m ysterious
formula ei0 = cos0 + isin 0 in 1748. And third Gauss,whow asthe lirstto prove
the fundamentaltheorem ofalgebra concerning existence ofrootsofpolynom ial
equationsin 1799.Thenineteenth centul' y saw theconstnlctionofthelirstm odel
forthe complex numbersby Argand in 1806 laterknown astheArgand diagram,
and more recently asthe complex plane.Also thelirstattem ptsto do calculuswith
com plex num bersby Cauchy in 1825.Com plex num bersw ere lirstso calledby
Gaussin 1831.Previously they w ereknown asim aginal' y numbers orimpossible
numbers.ltwasnotuntilthetw entieth centul' y thatcomplex numbersfoundappli-
cation to science and teclm ology,particularly to electricalengineering and lluid
dynam ics.
lfw ew antsquarerootsofnegativenum bersitisenough to introduce i = - 1
sincethen,forexample, -2= -1sV2= if-
l.Combiningiwithrealnumbers
by addition and m ultiplication cannotproduce anything m ore generalth= .
x + iy
where . x y are real.Thisis because the sum and productof any tw o num bers of
this forrn are also ofthis forrn.Forexarnple
= 3 + 10ï - 8
= - 5+ 1Oï.
Subtraction producesnothing new since forexample
N eitherdoes division since forexam ple
1+ li (1+ 2ï)(3 - 4ï) 3 + li- 8ï2

3 + 4/ (3+ 4ï)(3 - 4ï) 9 - 16/2
3 + li + 8 11+ li 11 2
= = = + i.
9+ 16 25 V V
Thenumber3- 4/iscalledtheconjugateof3+ 4i.Forany.
x+ iywehave
(x + iy)(x - iy)= .
r2+ y2
so division can alw aysbe done exceptwhen . x = y = 0 thatis when .x + iy = 0.
lt is also possible to extract square roots of numbers of the form .
x + iy as
num bersofthe sam e form .Forexample suppose
1 + li = .
4 + iB ,
then we have
1+ li= (.4 + iB)l = .

42+ IiAB - Bl.
So w erequire
42- p 2 = j
.
.4# = 1.
Thesecond equation givesB = l/.4 which on substitution in thelirstequation

gives
Solving this quadraticequation in .

42by the form ulaw e obtain
42 = 1+ .
.
/S
(! '
Forreal.
4 we musttake
42 = x'
.
S+ 1
(
2 5
which gives
Hence we obtain
x''l+ 1 s?s - 1
1 + li= +i .
2 2
Thislastproperty ofnum bersoftheform . x+ iyrepresentsabonusoverwhatm ight
reasonably have been expected.lntroducing squarerootsofnegativerealnum bers
isonething.Creating a num bersystem in which squarerootscan alwaysbetaken
is asking rather more.Butthis is precisely w hatwe have achieved.Hxistence of
square roots m eansthatquadratic equations can alwaysbe solved.W e shallsee
shortly that much m ore is true namely thatpolynom ialequations ofany degree
can besolved with num bersofthe form . x + iy.This isthe fundamentaltheorem
ofalgebra(seeChapter8).
I.2 N otation and term inology

lf i = - 1 then numbers ofthe form . x + iy are called complex numbers.W e
write z = .
x + iy and call.x the realpartofz which we abbreviate to Rez,and y
the imaginary partofz which w e abbreviateto lm z.
N .B. Re z,lm z arelnoth real.
Forz= .x+iywewrite(bydelinition)i= . x- iy,andcallitheconjugateofz.
For z = .
x + iy we write (by del
inition) Izl= . r2+ y2,and callIzlthe
modulusofz.
Forexample,ifz = 3 + 4/wehaveRez = 3,lm z = 4,i = 3- 4ï,and
I.3 Properties ofi,I.

zI
W elistthefundamentalpropertiesof@,IzI.
zi= (.
r+ iyllx - iy)= .
r2+ ,2 = IcI2.
therefore we have
zw = (.
x+ iy)(u + it?)= (xu - y??l+ i(.
xt?+ yu),
iz-
b= (.
x- iy)(u - it?)= (xu - y??l- i(.
xt?+ yu).
Izw I= IzIIw I.W edelaytheproofofthisproperty untilSection 1.9.
Iz+ w I1qLIzl+ Iw I.W edelaytheproofofthispropertyuntilSection 1.11.
I.4 T he A rgand diagram

W eobtainageometricmodelforthecomplexnum bersbyrepresentingthecom plex
numberz = .
x+ iyby thepoint(x y)in therealplanewith coordinates.
xandy.
Observe thatthe horizontalar-axis represents com plex numbers . x + iy w ith
y = 0,thatis the realnumbers.W e therefore callthe horizontalaxis the real
axis.The verticaly-axis represents com plex numbers.x + iy with .
x = 0 thatis
num bersofthe form iy where y isreal.W ecallthesenum bersArfrcimaginary and
w e callthe verticalaxisthe imaginary axis.The origin O representsthe number
zerowhich isofcotlrsereal(Figure1.1).
I.5 G eom etric interpretation of addition
z + w = (.
r + u)+ i(y+ ?)
and therefore appears on theArgand diagram asthevectorsum ofzand w.
The com plex numberz + w isrepresented geom etrically asthe fotlrth vertex of
theparallelogram formed by 0 z,w (see Figure 1.2).Forexample 3 + liisthe
vectorsum of3andli(seeFigure 1.1).
Ffgure I.2
Ffgure I.3
I.6 Polar form

An alternativerepresentation ofpointsintheplaneisby polarcoordinatesr 0.The
coordinater representsthe distance ofthepointfrom the origin 0 .The coordinate
0representstheanglethelinejoiningthepointtoO makeswiththepositivedirec-
tion ofthear-axismeasured anticlockwise (seeFigtlre1.3).Supposethecomplex
numberz = .x + iy on the Argand diagram has polarcoordinates r 0.W e callr
themodulusofz,anddenoteitby I
zI.Pythagoras'theorem gives
121= .
12+ y2
consistentwiththedelinition ofIzlgiven in Section 1.2.
W e call0 theargumentofzwhich we abbreviateto argz.A littletrigonom etl'
y
on Figure 1.3 gives
0 = tan- 1 J
F = sin-1 J
- F = cos-1 .
- Y.
-
z7
. r r
ObservethatwhilstIzlissinglevalued argz ismany valued.Thisisbecause

forany given value of0 wecould takeinstead 0 + 2:7
r (in radians)and arrive at
thesamecomplexnumberz.Forexample,supposez = 1+ i.Then IzI= . vC,
butargzcanbetakentobeanyofthevalueszr/4 5>/4 9>/4 etc.also -3>/4
-
7>/4 etc.Hquivalently,argz= zr/4 + lnn'foranyintegerrl.
W edelinetjm principalvalue(PV)ofargztobethatvalueof0whichsatislies
-
zr< 0 :jqzr.Forexample,theprincipalvalueofarg(1+ ï)iszr/4 (Figure1.4).
Ff
gure /.4
'
W ew rite
arg(1+ i)= zr/4 (PV).
Forgeneralz = .
x + iy wehave cos0 = x(r sin0 = y/r (see Figure 1.3).
Therefore
= rcos0 + irsinp
= rtcos0 + isin0)
= rdio,
since,by Taylor'stheorem
= cosp + isin p.
W e callthe form ula
ei0 = cosp + isin p
Euler' sformula.Wecalltherepresentationz= reiothepolarform forz.Wecall
therepresentation z = . x+ iy theCartesianform forz.Forexample 1+ i
.$,
.
/-
2-c0,r/4(seeFigure1.4).
I.7 D e M oivre's theore m

AnimmediateconsequenceofHuler'sformula(seeSection 1.6)istheresultknown
asdeM oivre'
stheorem viz.
YOSP + iSin0)n = (eiP)X= eino = COSl10+ iSin110.
Ayplication 1 W e can use de M oivre's theorem to obtain formulae forcosn0
sin n0 in terms ofcos0 sin 0.Forexample w ehave
= (C2- Sl)+ IiCS

where C = cos0 S = sin 0.Hquating realand im aginal
'y partsw eobtain
cos2p = (72 - sl = 2c2- 1 = 1 - 1s1
using the identity (72 + Sl = 1. Hence
W ealso obtain sim ilarly
sinzp = lC S = 2 cos0 sinp.
Ayplicationl W ecan usetheaboveform ulaetoobtainexactvaluesforcos45O

sin45Oasfollow s.lfwewrite0 = 45O C = cos45O S = sin45Othenw ehave
O = cos9Oo = 2c2- 1
from which itfollow sthat2C2 = 1, andtherefore(72= 1/2.HenceC = u

l
u1/.
vC,
whichgivescos45O= I/S/
Y.
Wealsohave1= sin90O= ICS,whichgivesS = 1/2C = 1/xY,andhence
sin45O= I/vC.
I.8 E uler's form ulae for cos0,sin 0 in term s of eï

kio
W e obtained the formula ei0 = cos0 + isin 0 in Section 1.6.From thisformula
we can derivetwo more form ulae also attributed to Huler viz.
eio + c-i0 eio - c-i0
cosp = , sin 0 = .
2 li
Proof Observethat
ei0 = cosp + isin p,
e-io
= cosp - isin p.
Now eliminate sin 0 cos0 respectively.
Ayplication 4 Formulae ofthe above type are usefulforintegrating powers of
cos0 sin 0.For exam ple
jcoszpvlo-j.
)(1+coscp)vlo-.
)(é?+Si
n1zpj,
jsinzovlo-j)(1-coscp)vlo-)(é?-Si
n1zpj.
I.9 rlth roots
Supposew ehave two complex num bers z = reio w = seis. lfwe m ultiply them
togetherw e obtain
::N7 = rsci(9+/),
.
which showsthatIzv?l= IzII'

r1as claimed in Section 1.2.Alsothatargzw =
arg c+ arg w.Inparticular,taking z = w wehave.
:2 = rlelio and moregenerally
cn = rnenio Itfollows that
C1/
'n = r1/
'ndiol
'n .
Observe that rl/n is the unique positive real rlth root of r, whilst eio/n has n
possible values.
Forexam ple,ifz = - 8 then w ehave
1= 8ci:c = 8c3fn'= 8c5i:c = ...

.
C1/3 = t
ztyi:c(3, gtyin', gty5fn'
/3.
Hven though arg (-8)hasinfinitely many values,thereare only 3 distinctcube

roots.W edefinetheprincipalvalueof(- 8)1/3tobethatwhich correspondstothe
principalvalueofarg(-8),namely n'.So (-8)1/3 = lei=I3(PV).
Ffgure /.5
I.I0 rlth roots of unity

Justlike any othernon-zero complex number 1hasn com plex rlth roots.W ehave
1 = c0 = c2=i = c4xf = ...
11/n = c0, czxi/n, c4xf/n, ...
lf w e denote û? = elKi/n then the n rlth roots of 1 are 1, û?,û)2 .. .

û?Fl-1
(seeFigtlre 1.5forthecasen = 8).W ecallû?t
jm primitiverlth rootof1.
N.B. 11/n = 1(PV)ofcotlrse.
Lem m a 1+ û?+ *2 + ...+ û?n-1 = O
I.II Inequalities
The fundam entalinequality isthe so called triangle orparallelogram inequality
and isasfollow s.
Inequality 1 Iz + w I1
qL IzI+ Iw I.This inequality expressesthe factthatthe
diagonalofa parallelogram haslength lessthan orequalto the sum ofthe lengths
oftwoadjacentsides(seeFigure1.6).Hquivalently,thatthelengthofonesideof
a triangle is less th= or equalto the sum ofthe lengths of the other two sides.
(Considerthetrianglewithvertices0,z,z + w.)
Inequalityl Iz- M?11

qLIzI+ IJ?1.Thisinequality followsfrom Inequality 1by
putting - w forw .
N .B.N otethe plus sign on theright-hand side.
Ff
gure /.8
Note alsothatIz - w Ihasageometric significanceasthe distancebetween c

and w on theArgand diagram (seeFigure 1.7).
Inequality 3 Iz- v?1k:IzI- I'
r1.Thisinequality followsfrom Inequality 1by
observing that
IzI= I(z- w)+ w I:% Iz- 'r1+ I'
r1.
Inequality 4
Inequality 5
N .B. Note the minus sign on theright-hand side.
ProvethatforallIzl= 2
Solution To prove theright-hand inequality we observe firstthat

Iz2+ 11s Iz2I+ I11= 4 + 1= 5,
and second that
Iz2+ 81k:8- Iz2I= 8 - 4 = 4.

The left-hand inequality isproved sim ilarly.
I.I2 Extension to 3 term s (or m ore)

W egivetheinequalitiesfor3 terms.The generalization to m oreterm sisleftto the
reader.
Inequality 6
Proof Observethat
by repeated application oflnequality 1.
Inequality7 I.
4 + B + C Ik:I.4I- IBI- IC I.
Proof Observethat
= IA + B + CI+ IB I+ ICI.
N otes
W eneverdelinedei0 orprovedthatthelaw sofindicesholdforcomplex exponents.
A rigoroustreatmentofthismaterialwoulddehnec:cosz,sinzbytheirM aclaurin
series
and provetheirpropertiesby m anipulation ofthese series.
Therefore
= IzI2Iw I2.
(IzI+ 1+1)2 = IzI2+ 2Izv?I+ 1v?12

= 1 2+ ,2+ u2+ g2+ 2 (x2+ y2)(u2+ g2).
From which itfollow sthat
which is k:O if
(xu + y??)2s (.
x2 + y2)(u2+ t?2).
H owever,
v2+ y2)(u2+ t?2)- (xu + yt?)2 = (x2s2 + x2g2 + ,2s2 yy2g2;

(. . . .
(.
v2u2+ z-
xuyg + y2t?2)
= .z72t?2 + y2u2 - gxuytl
asrequired.
Exam ples
Hxpressthe follow ing com plex num bersin the form .x + iy.
(i)(1+ 3ï)+ (5 + 7ï), (ii)(1+ 3ï)- (5+ 7ï), (iii)(1+ 3ï)(5 + 7ï),
1 + 3i
(iv)5 + 7/, (v) 3 + 4/, (vi)logtl+ ï).
Hint For(vi)usethepolarform.
Find 1+ i.Henceshow tanzr/8= .
vC - 1.
Hxpand (cos0 + isinp)3 to obtain formulae forcos30,sin30 in terms of
cos0 sin 0.Use these formulaeto show
cos3p = 4 cosSp - 3 cosp,
sin 3p = 3sin p - 4 sinSp.
UseQuestion3toshow thatcos30O= VX z,sin30O= 1/2.

Hxpand (eio+ e-i0)3toshow
cos3p = 4
1(3cosp + cos3p),
sin3p = 4
1(3sinp - sin3p).
x/2 x/2
UseQuestion 5toevaluate cosS0d0 sinS0d0.
0 0
%
Hvaluate the integral elx cos4.x dx by taking the realpartof
0
Now do itby integrating bypartstwice and com parethe efliciency ofthetwo

m ethods.
C o m p Iex fu n ctio n s
2.I Polynom ials

H aving constnlcted the com plex number system the nexttask isto corlsiderhow
the standardfunctionsw edo realcalculuswith extend to com plex variables.Poly-
nom ials cause no problem s since they only require addition m ultiplication and
subtraction fortheirdelinition.Forexample,p(z)= 3.
:+ 4,q(z)= 4z2- 5.
z+ 6,
etc.Thenumbersoccurringarecalledcoeficients.Thedegreeofthepolynomial
isthe highestpowerofz occurring with a non-zero coeflicient.
2.2 Rationalfu nctions

Thesearefunctiorlsoftheform r(z)= p (z)(q(z)wherep(z),q(z)arepolyno-
m ials.They can bedelined forallz exceptwhere the denom inatorvanishes.Such
pointsare called singularities.Hvel'
y rationalfunction hasatleastone singularity
because ofthe fundam entaltheorem ofalgebra.Forexam ple
z+ 1
r(z)= z + 2
hasa singularity atz = -2,whilst
z2 + 1
.
V(z)= .z2 + 4
,
hastwo singularities atz = +2/.
2.3 G raphs
Hvel'yrealfunction y = f @)ofarealvariable.
x hasagraph in two dimensional
space.For exam ple,Figure 2.1 shows thegraph ofy = .
x2.
Foracomplexfunction w = f (z)ofacomplexvariablezthisoptionisnotavail-
ablebecausethe graph is atwo-dimerlsionalsurface in afour-dim ensionalspace.
W hatw e haveto do instead isto draw two diagramswhich w e calla z-plane and
Ffgure 2./
Ffgure 2.2
aw -plane,andthen indicatehow geom etricalliguresinthez-planearetransform ed

togeometricalliguresinthe w-planeundertheaction ofthefunction w = f (z).
For exam ple, for the com plex function w = . :2 we find thatthe grid lines
x = corlstant y = constantin the z-plane transform to confocalparabolasin the
.
w-plane(Figtlre2.2).
To see thisobserve thatifz = .
x + iy,w = u + it? then
u + iv = (x + ïy)2= .
x2- ),2+ zj-
xy,
therefore
Lf = 2 2
Y -#
.
@
Ff
gure 2.J
which gives on elim inating y,
Iv?I= IRew - 2.
x21
which istheequation ofaparabola with focusw = 0,directrix Re w = 2.x2. This
parabola isthe im age ofthe line.
x = constant.
Similarly,eliminating .x,we get
2+ ,2= (u + 2,2)2
IwI- Iltew + 2y2I,
which isaparabola,againwithfocusw = 0,butnow with directrix Re w = - 2y2.
This is the im age ofthe grid line y = constant.
Anotherexamplewllichreadersmightliketoworkoutforthemselvesisw = 1/z
whichtransform sthe grid lines.
x = constant y = constantin thez-planeto circles
throughtheoriginwithcentresontherealandimaginal'
y axesinthew-plane(see
Figure2.3).
2.4 T he expone ntialfunction

Forrealvariablesthe function y = ex hasthe graph illustrated in Figure 2.
4.
Forcomplex variablesw ehave
W = ez = dx+ iy = exeiy
Ffgure 2.4
Ffgure 2.5
show ing thatifwe use thepolarform w = seis w e gets = c'f,/ = y.ln other
words
Icfl= eRez rgc: = Im c.
Thiswillofcoursenotbethe principalvalue ofarg ez unless -zr < lm z : jqn'.

Thecomplexgraphofw = ezisasinFigure2.5.Thegridlines.x= constantgo
to circles centre the origin.Thegrid lines y = constantgo to halflinesemanating
from the origin.
2.5 Trigonom etric and hyperbolic functions

Forrealvariablesthetrigonom etricfunctionsandthehyperbolicfunctionsarevel'
y
differentanim als.Forexample thegraphsforsin .
x cos.
x areperiodicandbounded
(seeFigtlre 2.6).W hereasthe graphs forsirth.x cosh.
x are neitherperiodicnor
bounded(seeFigure2.7).
Ff
gure 2.8
Ff
gure 2.7
For complex variables how ever it turns out that trigonom etric functions
and hyperbolic functions are intim ately related. The follow ing formulae are
fundam entalfor allthatfollows.
2.6 Fundam entalform ulae

For allreal.
x w ehave
sintïar)= isinh.z7,
sinhtïar)= isin.x,
costïar)= cosh. z7
coshtïx)= cosx.
These form ulae can be proved in severalw ays.Forexample by delinition
from Huler'sformulaeforsin.x cos.

x (seeSection 1.8).
Or,from theM aclaurin seriesw ehave
2.7 A pplication I
W ecan usetheFundam entalformulaeof2.6 to obtain therealand imaginary parts
ofsin z,andhencedraw thegraph ofw = sin z.lfw ewritez = .x+ iy,w = u+ it?
then w ehave
which gives
u = sin .
x cosh y, t?= cos.
x sinh y.
Hlim inating .
x w e get
which isthe equation ofan ellipsew ith fociatul

u1.Hlim inating y we get
u2 t?2
- = 1
sin2.x cos2.x
which isthe equation ofa hyperbolaw ith fociatulu1.

ltfollow sthatw = sin z transformsthe grid lines.x = constant y = constant
inthez-planeto confocalellipsesandhyperbolaeinthe w-plane(seeFigure2.8).
Thegraphofw = coszissim ilar.Forsinh z,cosh zw ealso getconfocalellipses
and hyperbolae,butw ith fociatLjziinstead ofatul
u1.
Ff
gure 2.8
2.8 A ppIication 2
The inequality Isin.
xI s 1 forreal.
x fails forcomplex variables.lfwe write
z= .
x + iy,then we have
IsincI2= Isint.
x+ iy)12 = sin2.
xcoshzy+ cos2. xsinhzy
= sin2 x(1+ sinhzy)+ (1- si
. n2x)sirthzy = sin2x + sinhz y.
. .
Soif,forexample,z = zr/2 + iE,whereE7> 0,then Isin zl2= 1+ sinhz(F> 1.
2.9 A ppIication 3
The only zeros ofsin z forcom plex z aretherealzerosatz = n:r forintegralrl.
This is because ifz = .
x + iy and sin z = 0 then
0 = IsinzI2= sin2.
x+ sirthzy.
Therefore sin.
x = sirth y = 0 w hich gives.
x = n:r y = 0 and hencez = nn'.
Similarly we leave itas an exercise forthereaderto show thatthe only zeros
ofcoszforcomplex zareatz = n:r+ zr/2forintegralrl.
2.I0 Identities for hyperbolic functions

Thefundamentalformulae (seeSection 2.6)can beused to obtain identitiesfor
hyperbolic functions from analogous identities for trigonom etric functions. For
exam ple,the trigonom etric identity sin2.x + cos2.x = 1 gives,on substituting ix
for.
x,
2.II T he other trigonom etric functions
W edefinetan z cotz secz cosecz in term sofsin z cosz asfollows.
sin z cosz 1
tan z = , cotz = secz =
cosz sin z cosz
Sim ilarly fortheotherhyperbolicfunctions.
These functions all have singularities. For example tan z has singularities
atthe zeros ofcosz,thatis z = n:r + >/2.The corresponding hyperbolic
function tanhz = sinhz/coshz hassingularitiesatthezeros ofcoshz,thatis
z = itrlzr+ >/2).
2.I2 T he Iogarithm ic functio n

The graph ofy = log. x forreal.
x isasin Figtlre2.9.Observethatlog. x isonly
delined for.
x > 0.Thisisbecausetherealexponentialfunction only takespositive
values(seeFigtlre2.4).
To define log z forcomplex z we usethe polarform z = reio. W e get
since arg c is m any valued itfollows that log z is also m any valued.W e define
t
jm yrinciy alvalueoflog cto bethe one obtained by taking the principalvalue of
argc.Forexample,wehave1+ i= .
x ein'
/'
î(PV)therefore
Observethatlog zhasasingularity atz = 0sincew ecannotdelinelogr forr = 0.

To get the complex graph for w = log z it is bestto consider the action of
logz on the circles IzI= constantand the halflinesargz = constantin the z-
plane.These transform to the grid linesRew = constant lm w = corlstantin the
w-plane (seeFigure2.10).
Ffgure 2.9
Ff
gure 2./0
N otes
W ehavenotactually delined ez sin z,cosz,log zforcomplex z.W ehave merely
assumed that these functions can be delined and that they continue to have
the properties they possess in the real dom ain.For example laws of indices
law s oflogarithm s trigonom etric identities.A rigorous treatm entw ould deline
ez sin z cosz log z from theirM aclaurin series and derivetheirproperties from
theseseries.The function log z would be del ined astheinversefunction ofez.
The functions we have drawn complex graphsofare allconform alm appings
in the sense thatcurves which intersectatan angle 0 in the z-plane transform to
curves which intersectatthe sam e angle 0 in the w-plane.Observe thatin evel 'y
case the grid lines.
x = constant y = constantin the z-plane transform to curves
which intersectorthogonally in the w-plane.Thisconform alproperty iscrucialin
applicationsto lluid dynamics.
Exam ples
2:
% Iz- 41:
i 6.
ProvethatforallIzI= 3
8 .
:2 + 1 10
V s zz+ 2 1q-,
j-.
3 z+ ï 5
l
jY c -i Y -'
3
ProvethatforallIzI= R > l
1 1
22 + z + 1 :
% R - R - 1.
z
ProvethatIezI= clke:
Find whereIezIismaximum forIzIs l (draw adiagram).
Provethatforz = .
x + iy
Isint.
v + iy)1
2 = sinz.
x+ sinhzy,
Icost.
x + iy)1
2 = cosz.
x + sinhzy.
Find whereIsin zIismaximum forIzIs 1(draw adiagram).
Provethatallpointsz satisfying
z+ 1
= 2
z+ 4
lie on a circle.Find itscentreand radius.
D e riv ativ e s
3.I D ifferentiabiIity and continuity

Forarealfunction f @)ofarealvariable.xthederivative./'/@ )isdelinedasthe
lim it
f?( f(x + h)- flx)
1)= h
. liyt)... h .
Observethat(seeFigtlre3.1)
f(x + h)- flx)
h
isthegradientofthelineP Q whichconvergestothetangentatP asQ --> P .So
f'@)isthegradientofthetangentatP.
Forexample,ifflx)= . x2then wehave
f(x V h)- flx) V V h)l- .
12 .
x2+ lxh + hl- .
x2
h h h
lxh + hl
= = 2.
x + h,
h
Ff
gure .
?./
Ffgure J.2
Sim ilarly onecan inprinciplego through alltheelem ental'y functionsofcalculus

and show they havethederivativesthey are supposed to have.
W ecan alsoprovealltheelem ental'y com bination rulesfordifferentiating sums,
products quotientsand composites.
W e cannotassume thatthe derivative f'@ ) always exists.For example, if
f @ )= 1.
1Ithen
so hasno lim itash --> 0.

Observethatthegraphoff @)= 1.
xIhasnowelldefinedtangentat.
x = 0 (see
Figure3.2).
Wethereforedelinef@)tobed@erentiableat.xif
lim f (x + h)- f (x)
à..
+.0 h
exists.Accordingtothisdelinition flx)= 1. xIisnotdifferentiableat.x = 0.

Another case where differentiability fails is ata discontinuity of flx).A
continuousfunction flx)isonewhose graph hasnobreaks.W emake thisidea
preciseby del
ining flx)tobecontinuousat. xif
lim f (x + h)= f @).
à--+0
Forexample,f @) = 1/.x isnotcontinuousat.

x = 0 (Figure 3.3).ln this
connection w ehavethe follow ing theorem .
Theorem 1 Differentiability impliescontinuity.
Ff
gure 3.3
Proof Supposef@)isdifferentiableat.
x thenwehave
f( f(x + h)- flx) ?
x + h)- flx)= h h -->0 x f (.
x)= 0
Corollal'
y flx)= 1/.
x isnotdifferentiableat.
x = 0.
ObservethattheconverseofTheorem 1isfalse.A counterexampleisflx)= 1
.
xI
which iscontinuousbutnotdifferentiable at.x = 0.
Fora complex function ofa com plex variable z,w edeline differentiability and
continuityofflz)exactlyaswehavedoneforrealfunctionsofarealvariable.The
fam iliarfunctionsallhavetheirfam iliarderivatives,and the fam iliarcombination
rules are allvalid.There is also a further constraintin the form ofthe Cauchy-
Riem ann equationsto which w e devote thenextsection.
3.2 C auchy-Riem ann equations

Supposewehavea complex valued function w = flz)ofthecomplex variable
z, and suppose we write w = u + it? z = .
x + iy then w e can express u t?
asfunctionsof.x y and corlsidertheirpartialderivativesbu/bx élu/ély,é)v/bx
é)v/by.Forexample,ifw = zl then
u + iv = w = .
:2= Lx + ïy)2 = . x2+ zj-xy - y2
which givesin thiscase
1: = 2 2
Y - #y
.
Jw éhu éht? éhu éht?
= + i = -ï + .
dc /7 /7 '
i-
y '
J-
y
Therefore on equating realand im aginal'y partswe have
bu gr bv gu
91 by 91 by
These are the Cauchy-Riemann equations published independently by Cauchy

(1818)andRiemann (1851).
W e callthe formula
Jw éhu éht?
= - + i-
dz 9. :7 9.:7
the Cauchy-Riem ann formula forthe derivative.

In the case w = .
:2 we get
é hu éht? 9t? bu
- = - = t
z.
x, - = - - = 2y.
9. :7 éhy 9.
1 èy
Also the Cauchy-lkiem ann formula gives
Jw éhu éht?
= - + i- = 2.
x + liy = 2.
z
dz 9. :7 9.:7
asexpected.
3.3 Failure of the C auchy-Riem ann equations

Corlsiderthe function w = @ = .
x - iy.lfw = u + iv then wehave u = .
x
t?= - y.Therefore
bu 9r éht? = éhu
= 1, = - 1, - = (),
91 9y 9.:7 èy
which m eansthatthelirstCauchy-l
kiem ann equation isnotsatislied for any .
x,y.
W eareforcedtotheconclusionthatthefunctionflz)= icannotbedifferentiable
forany z.
ln this connection we have the following theorem .
Theorem 2 Foru + it?= f(x + iy)with continuouspartialderivativesbu/bx
élu/ély,é)v/bx,g?/iy thefunction flz)isdifferentiableatz ifand only ifthe
Cauchy-l
kiemann equations
bu gr bv gu
91 by 91 by
are satislied.
Proof Weprovednecessityabove.Forsufliciencywereferthereadertorigorous
books on complex analysis.
3.4 G eom etric significance ofthe com pIex derivative

Fora realfunction f@ )ofa realvariable.
x the equation ofthetangentto the
graph y = f@ )at.x = a is
)'= f (tz)+ (x - tz)f'(J).
Foracomplexfunction f (z)ofacomplex variablez,theequation ofthetangent

plane(in 4dimensions)to thegraph w = flz)atz = a is
w = fla)+ (z- a)f'(a)= ztz+ B,
where.4= f (tz),B = fla)- af (tz).

The geom etriceffectofthe linearfunction w = ztz+ B isarotatioa a scaling,
and a translation.The rotation is through the angle arg .
4 the scaling is by the
factorI.
4I.Thetranslation isthrough adistance IB Iin thedirection argB.
W hatthistellsusaboutthetransformation w = f (z)isthatnearz = a the
effectisapproximatelyarotationthroughargf'(tz),andascalingbyIf (t
z)I.For
example,ifa = in' /l and flz) = ez,then we have fla) = ein'/l = i.Also
f'(tz) = cl = ein'/l = i.So the effectnearz = a is arotation through 90O
anticlockwise(seeFigure3.4).lfb = in'/l + 1,then wehave flb) = f'Lb) =
ei,sotheeffectlocally isnow ascaling by c,and again arotation through 90O
anticlockwise(seeFigtlre3.4).
Thefactthatw = flz)actslocallylikearotationthroughargf (z)explains
why curveswhich intersectata certain angle in thez-plane are transform ed under
theactionofw = flz)to curveswhich intersectatthesameanglein the w-plane.
Thisisthecharacteristicpropertyofaconformalflll///ïrl,
j'whichisimportantfor
the applicationsto lluid mechanics.
@ +)
Ffgure J.4
3.5 M aclau rin expansions

lthasalw aysbeen importantto be able to approxim atefunctionsby polynom ials.
Thisisbecause polynom ialsarethe only functionswhosevaluescan be calculated
arithm etically.For a calculatorto calculate ex for given .
x ithasto evaluate the
series
to as m any term s as are needed to achieve the required degree ofaccuracy.To

calculate thevalue ofzr itisnecessal'y to use the series
with .
x = 1.ln practice lnoth ofthesecalculationsare doneby m ore sophisticated
m ethods butthey stillhave to m akeuse ofpolynom ialexpansiorlsin one form or
another.
M aclaurin(1742)gavethegeneralform forexpandingafunction flx)inpowers
of.x.The expansion is
where the rlth coeflicientan is given by the formula
y(
n)(())
Jn = ,
n!
and wherefçns(0)denotestherlth derivativefçns@)offlx)evaluated at.x = 0.
W ecallthisexparsionthei
vlkc/tzrlWnexpansionoff @) andwecallthecoeflicient
antherlthM aclaurincoeflicientoff(x).
asalready observed above.
To seewheretheM aclaurin form ulafortherlth coeflicientcom es from observe
thatif
flx)= aè+ a3x + 52.
12+ JIS-
'
rS+ ...
then putting.
x = O givesf(Q)= ao.
D ifferentiating term by term w e get
f'lx)= Jl+ 252.
1+ 353.
r2+ ...,
which on substituting.
x = 0givesf'(0)= tz1.
D ifferentiating again w e get
y//(.
x)= 1az+ 6. .
x2+ ...,
which on substituting.x = 0givesfn(0)= zt zz,andhenceaz= fM(0)/21
Similarly,differentiating n timesand putting .
x = 0 wegetfln)(0) = nltzn,
andhencean = f (rl)(Q)(n!asrequired.
M aclaurin w as concerned with realvariables only buthis exparlsion rem ains
valid for com plex variables also. W e list below som e examples of M aclaurin
expansionsin the com plex context.
z2 z3
ez = 1 + z + - + - + ...
2! 3!
z3 z5
sin z = z - - + - ...
3! V
2 4
E
. .E
cosz = 1 - - + - - ...
2! 4!
E3
. .E5
sinh z = z + - + + ...
3! V
z2 z4
cosh z = 1 + - + - + ...
2! 4!
(1+ zllf= 1+ az+ a(a2-! 1)zz+ ...
(1zI< 1)
(IzI< 1).
Thelirstlive expansionsarevalid forallz,w hilstthelastthree are only valid for
IzI< 1.Theexparlsionfor(1+ zlafisofcoursethebinomialtheorem whichgives
a term inating series in the case a a positive integer.The particular case a = - 1
givesthe geom etric series
which onintegrating term by term givestheseriesforlogtl+ z)(PV).
3.6 C aIcuIating M aclaurin expansions

W ecan eitherusetheM aclaurin formulaan= fçns(0)/rl!orwecan combinethe
standardexpansionslistedin Section 3.5.
Forexample,suppose f (z) = tanz.Then writing F = tanz,S = seczand
observingthatJF/JZ= Sl,dsldz= ST wehavethefollowing.
Hence we obtain
Alternatively,w e can write
3.7 Taylo r expansions
TheM aclaurin exparlsion isa particularcase ofa m ore generalexparlsion due to
Taylor(1715)whichrepresentsflz)asaseriesinpowersofz- cforanylixedcas
X
J'lz)- l'
-qtzzztz-cln,
n=0
where the rlth coefl
icientan isgiven by the formula
y(n)(c)
Jn = .
n!
W e callthisexpansion the Taylor expansion of flz)atz = c,and we callthe
coeflicientan therlth Taylorcoeflicientofflz)atz = c.
Forexample,supposef (z)= 1/zand c= 1.W ecan calculateanasfollows:
ao = ./(1)= 1.
f'(z)= - 1/z2 = - 1atc = 1.Thereforetz1= - 1.
=z 1- (z- 1)+ (z- 1)2- (c- 1)3+ .-

asbefore.
Therangeofvalidityforthisexpansion isIz- 11< 1.
3.8 Laurent expansions

The Taylor exparlsion is a specialcase ofa stillm ore generalexpansion due to
Laurent(1843)whichrepresentsf(z)asthesum ofatwo-waypowerseries
X
J'lz)- J--
2anlz-c)n
The Laurentexpansion is used for functions which have a singularity at c.W e
classify singularities according tothetypeofLaurentexparlsion obtained.W ecall
thatpartof the Laurentexparlsion with negative pow ers ofz - c theprincipal
part.W esay flz)hasapoleatz = c iftheprincipalparthasonly linitely many
non-zero term s.lf the principalparthas inlinitely many non-zero term sw e say
flz)hasan essentialsingularity.
The orderofapole isthe largestn forwhich tz-n # 0.A poleoforder 1is
calledasimplepole.A poleoforder2iscalledadoublepole.Theresidueofflz)
atz = c is the coefl
icienttz-l in theLaurentexpansion atz = c.
Forexample,f(z)= clx hasanessentialsingularityatz= 0,sincetheLaurent
expansion atz = 0 is
The residue ofclx atz = 0 is 1.

Ontheotherhancl,g(z)= ez/z4hasapoleoforder4atz = 0,sincetheLaurent
expansion atz = 0 is
ez 1 .
:2 z3
.
=
F V 1+z+ T + V + '''
1 1 11 11
= ?'+ ?'+ T?-+ V -
c+ '''.
Theresidueofez/z4 atc = 0 is 1/3!= 1/6.
3.9 C aIcuIation ofLaurent expansions

W eproceed by way ofexam ple.Corlsiderthe function
1
f U)= 1+ zz,
which has singularities atz = L
jzi.
W elind the Laurent expansion atz = i by putting t = z - iand expanding in
pow ersoft.W e obtain
which showsthatflz)hasasimplepoleatz = iwithresidue1/2ï.
W e getthe Laurentexpansion atz = -ïby putting t = z+ iand expanding in
term soft.Thistim e we have
1 1 1 t
1
+ c2 = - 1it+ k + qk+ ...y
which shows that f(z) also has a simple pole at z = -ï but now with
residue- 1/2ï.
N otes
ForaproofofTheorem 2 see forexample Knopp (1945)page30.
N either Taylor nor M aclaurin gave a rigorous proof of the validity of their
expansions.They are notvalid in general even forfunctionsw ith derivatives of
allorders.A n interesting example isthe function
flx)= e 1/x2,
-
which (ifwe assume f @ ) = 0 at. x = 0)has fçns(0) = 0 foralln,so has

a M aclaurin expansion which vanishes identically,therefore cannot = flx)at
any .
x # 0.
They are ofcourse valid forthe elementary functionswe corlsiderhere.
Rigoroustreatm ents ofcomplex analysis areableto giveproofsofthe validity
of Taylor M aclaurin and Laurent expansiorls in the com plex dom ain using the
theol'y ofcontourintegration developed in thenextchapter.(See Knopp (1945)
chapter7 forthedetails.)
Exam ples
Verify the Cauchy-lkiem ann equations forthe following functions:
sinz, log z.
Verify the Cauchy-lkiem ann formula forthe derivative in each case.
Prove I
zI2isdifferentiableonly atz= 0.W hatisitsderivativeatthispoint?
Prove flz) = i(1zl2 - 2)isdifferentiable only on theunitcircle IzI= 1.
Verifythatf'(z)= 12forthesez.
Provethatiff (z)isdifferentiableforallzandisevelywhererealvaluedthen
flz)mustbecorlstant.
FindtheM aclaurinexparlsion ofezsinzuptotermsin . z5(i)bydifferentiating
andputtingz = 0,(ii)bymultiplyingtheM aclaurinexpansiorlsofezandsin z
together.
Find theTaylorexpansiorlsofthe follow ing functions atthepointsindicated.
Statetherange ofvalidity in each case.
(i)1/z at .
!
:= 2, (ii)ez at .
!
:= i, (iii)log.
:(PV) at .
! !
:= 1.
Find theLaurentexpansionsofthefollow ingfunctionsatthepointsindicated.
State whattypeofsingularity each oneis and whattheresidues are.lndicate
theprincipalpartin each case.
(i)cZ;/z10 at c = 0, (ii)sinz/z15 at c = 0,
Find constants.4,B such that
3.
:+ 1 .
4 B
flz)= ( = + .
z+ 2)(z- 3) z+ 2 z- 3
HencelindtheM aclatlrin expansion offlz).W hatisitsrangeofvalidity?
In te g ra Is
4.I Review of realvariables
Geometrically the integralrepresentsthearea underthegraph off @)between

thelimits.
x = a,.
x = b.Theapproximatingarea)(2flx)dxrepresentsthesum
oftheareasoftherectanglesheightflx)and width dx (Figure4.1).
W e havethe following two theorem s.
Theorem 1(Existencetheorem) flx)continuousimpliesflx)integrable.

Theorem 2 (Fundamentaltheorem ofcalculus) lfflx)iscontinuousfora :
jq
x:
.jq b,then
where F(x)isany primitiveoff (x).
Ff
gure 4./
Ffgure 4.2
An integrable function isoneforw hich theabove lim itexistslinite.A prim itive

forf @ )isany F @ )such thatF/@ ) = f(x).Theorem 1 guaranteesthatthe
integralexistsforany continuousfunction.Theorem 2 givesusapracticalm ethod
forevaluating integrals.Togetherw ith the following combination rules.
*. Linearcombination rule
*. Productrule(integrationbyparts)
b
/J,(-).,?-(-)-s.-- E,(.-).,?(.-)q'- jJb,-(
. - -
-).
?(-)-
, s.
-.
*. Compositerule(integrationby substitution)
b
/Jyt
-
vl-
ï.
x-j-'y(g(,))g-(,),,,
whereg((
y)= a,g@ )= b.
Forintegrals which cannotbe evaluated exactly w e have the inequalities
b
/-flx)dx:
%j-bI
.
/*(.
r)1dx:
%M(b-J),
4.2 C ontours
lnstead ofintervalswe shallintegrate complex functions flz) ofthe complex
variable z along contours.By a contour y we m ean a continuous curve in the
com plex plane.A parametrisation of y isa representation ofy as
?'= 1/(/):a :
i t:
i /$),
where /(t)is a continuous function on the realintervalgty /$1.W e callt the
parameter,/(t)theparametricfunction gty /$1theparametricinterval.Wecall
thepointsa = / ((
y),b = /(p)theendpointsofy.W esay y isaclosedcontourif
a = b.Theorientation ofacontoury isthedirection inwhichthepointz= /(t)
m oves as tm oves along theparam etric interval.W e putan arrow on the contour
to indicatetheorientation.
Example 1 (StraightIine) W ecan parametrisethe straightline y going from

a to basz = (1- t)a + tb where0 :
jqt:
jq 1(Figtlre4.3).
Example2(Unitcircle) Wecanparametrisetheunitcircley describedonceanti-

clockwiseasz= eitwhere0 :
jqt:
jq2:
7r(Figure4.4).
Example3(Unitsquare) Thesquareywithverticesat0 1 1+ï idescribedonce

anticlockwisecan bewritten asy = n + yz+ p + y4,w here n ,yz,p ,y4 arethe
foursidesofthesquareindicatedin Figtlre4.5.W eneedadifferentparam etrisation
foreach side.
On n W e can take z = t,where 0 :é t:é 1.

On yz W e can take z = 1 + it,where 0 :é t :é 1.
On p W e can take z = t+ i,where 1 k:t k:0.
On y4 W e can take z = it where 1 k:t k:0.
Ff
gure 4.3
Ff
gure 4.4
Ffgure 4.5
Observethatthe orientation ofp ,y4 isgiven by decreasing t.W eindicatethisby

writing 1 k:t k:0 instead of0 :jqt :
jq 1.
4.3 C ontour integrals

Given acontoury andafunction flz)definedforz eEy wedeline
j/.
t'(z)dz=z
y
ti
-
mxl
j)-).
f(z)dz.
Theorenls 1 and 2 of Section 4.1 renlaùAvalid in the conlplex context also the
com bination rulesforintegrals.Theinequalitiesgeneraliseto the follow ing.
4.4 Estim ate Iem m a

lfI.
f(z)I:i M forz e y,then
flz)dz :
% M lv,
/
where lr isthe length ofy .

Regarding evaluation ofcontourintegralsw e give three methods.
4.5 M ethod I:Substituting the param etric fun ction

W edescribe the m ethod by way ofexam ples.
Exam ple 1 Hvaluate
Zndz,
p'
where y istheunitcircle parametrised by letting z = eitw here0 :

jq t:
jq2zr.
dz 2>
- = i dt = ln'i.
y Z 0
Exam ple 2 Hvaluate
Z2Jc,
/
where y istheunitsquarey = n + yz+ p + y4 asin Figure4.5.
2 1 1
z Jc = tl dt = - .
p'
1 o 3
On y4W e have z = itw here 1 k:t k:0.Therefore dz = idtwhich gives
H ence we have
jyz2Jc=jyy+j+Js+(=l+(-1+2
j.
.ij+(2
j.-jj+j
lj.()
.
4.6 M ethod 2:U sing the fundam e ntaltheore m ofcaIcuIus
lf the contour y has end points a b w ith orientation a to b and ifthe function
f (z)hasaprimitiveF (z)on y (F/(z)= f(z)),then
(1+ ï)S
3
M ore generally w ehavethefollowing theorem .
Theorem 3 lfy isanyclosedcontotlr andiff (z)hasaprimitiveon y then

flz)dz= 0.
;'
Corollal'
y 1(SeeExample 1ofSection 4.5) lfy istheunitcircle,then forall
n # - 1wehave
zndz = 0.
r
Proof Forn# -1thefunctionznhastheprimitiveznh'î/(rl+ 1)ony.
Corollal'
y 2 Thefunction 1/zhasnoprimitiveontheunitcircle.
Proof WeshowedinSection4.5that
ltmightbethoughtthatlogz isaprimitive for1/z ontheunitcircle.However

by Theorem 1 ofChapter3,any F(z)such thatF/(z) = f (z)mustbecontin-
uous.W hichever valuesw e take for log z on the unitcircle there isbound to be
adiscontinuity.Forexample logz (PV)hasadiscontinuity atz = - 1.
4.7 M ethod 3:U sing the residue theorem
Theorem 3abovesaysthatifflz)hasaprimitiveontheclosed contoury,then
Theorem 4 (Cauchy's theorem) lfy is a closed contourand if flz) has a

derivative on y and evelywhere irlside y,then
f U)dz = 0.
r
Proof SeeAppendix1.
W e can useCauchy'stheorem to show (fora third time)thatify istheunit
circle then
zndz = 0
r
for n k:0.For n < 0 Cauchy's theorem does nottellusanything,since zn then
hasa singularity atz = 0 which isinside y.
Cauchy'stheorem m ightappear atlirst sightto be rather trivial.However it
turnsoutto have farreaching consequences asw e shallshortly see.
Corollal' y 1 lfthecontoursn ,yzhavethesameendpointsa b andiff (z)is

differentiableon n ,yzandbetweenthem,then (Figure4.6)
flz)dz = flz)dz.
/1 /2
Proof lfy = yz- n ,thenwecanapplyCauchy'stheorem toy toobtain

0=
Jflz)dz=J.
J/ /'U)dz-J.
/'
J/%(Z)dZ' J/1
Ff
gure 4.8
'
,
y'I
/2
T9 /4
/2
' '/n
I
Ffgure 4.7
Corollal'
y 2 lfthe closed contours n ,yz are such thatyz liesirlside n ,and if
f (z)isdifferentiableon n ,yzandbetweenthem,then
'
Proof lfwemakecrosscutsp,y4asindicatedinFigure4.
7 andifwedenote
theupperpartsofn ,yzby y1
', yz
'andthelowerpartsbyy)'y:
MthenbyCorollal'y1
)
we have
Therefore
Corollal'
y3 lf non-intersecting closed contotlrs n ,...,yn alllie inside the
closed contour y,and iff (z)isdifferentiable on y,n ,...,yn and on thearea
internalto y andexternalton ,...,yn,then (Figtlre4.8)
Proof MakecrosscutsasintheproofofCorollal'
y2.
Ff
gure 4.8
Theorem 5 (Residue theorem) lfy isa closed contourand ifflz) is diff-

erentiable on y and irlside y exceptatcl,...,cn inside y,then
where Rkistheresidueofflz)atck.
Proof (Specialcase) Supposef(z)hasasinglesingularityatz= cirlsidey.lf
w eletyrbea circlecentre c radiusr sm allenough to ensurethatyr liesinside y
then by Corollal'
y 2 ofCauchy'stheorem we have
lftheLaurentexpansionofflz)atz = cis
then we have
sinceforn # - 1wehave
(Z- C)X-F1
r
U - c)ndz = n+ 1
r p'r
by M ethod 2.
asrequired.
Generalcase lff (z)hasa singularitiesatz = cl,...,cninsidey thenwecan

draw circles n ,...,yn w ith centres at cl,...,cn and with radiism allenough
to ensure they alllie inside y and thatthey don'tintersect each other.H enceby
Corollal'y 3 ofCauchy'stheorem w e have
/
J'lz)dz- X
k=1 /k
J'lz)dz- X
k= 1
lxiRk
by whatw ehavealready proved.
Exam ple Hvaluate theintegral

dz
;' .:2 + 1'
where y isto be specilied.
Answer W eneed to lind the singularitiesofthe integrand and lind the residues
atthese singularities.ln factw ealready didthisin Section 3.9 wherew efound
thatthesingularitiesareatz = Ljziwithresiduesul
u1/2ï.
y == circle centre i,radius 1.
lrherefore
jp.zzJ+
21-l.
n.
i(s1)-n.
y == circle centre --ï,radius 1. 1n this case --ïis irside y,iis outside y.
lrherefore
jp.zzJ+
21-zn.
i(-sl)--n.
y == circle centre p,radius 2. 1n ttéscase b0th singularities qziare ùlside
y.lrherefore
jyzzl+21-lxi(sl-s
l)-O.
y == circle centre p,radius 1/2. 1n this case neither singularity is inside y.
lrherefore
dz
= O
r .z2 + 1
by Cauchy'stheorem .
4.8 Q uick w ays offinding residues

For simple polesthere are quickerm ethods for l
inding residuesth= calculating
the Laurentexpansion and taking the - 101Laurentcoefl icient.Forexam ple w e
have the follow ing.
Coverr!
//rule lfflz)takestheform
fl g(z)
z)= C - C ,
Proof TheTaylorexpansionforg(z)atz= cis
which givesim m ediately
fl g(c) ,
z)= C - C + .
!
l(c)+ '''
Exam ple Corlsideragain

1 1
z = :
z q-1 (zq-i)(z--i)
which hassimple poles atz = Ljzi.Covering up z - i,z + iin turn we have
1 1 1 1 1 1
Rej = = , Res = =- .
k;-, .z2 + 1 c + i k;= j è-/ k;- - Jcz + 1 c - i k;- - g è/
Proof Wehave
fl g(c)+ (z- c)g'(c)+ ... k(z)
z)= (z- c)h,(c)+ (c- c)z/;,,(c)ya!.
y....= az- c,
where
k( #(c)+ (Z - c)#J(c)+ '- .
z)=z ? ?? z!o
h (c)+ (z- c)h (c)( . . .
Thereforetheresidueofflz)atz = cisg(c)//l/(c)by thecoveruprule.
Exam ple Consideragain
1 1 1 1 1 1
Rej 2 = = - , Res = =- .
:=2 C + 1 2.
: := i 2.ï i.:2 + 1
, 2.: i V
N otes
A rigoroustreatmentofcontourintegration would presentthe factsin a different
order.W ehave assum ed in ourproofofthe residuetheorem thata differentiable
function has avalid Laurentexpansion near an isolated singularity,and thatthis
expansion can be integrated term by term .W ehavealso assumed in otlrstatem ent
ofCauchy'stheorem thatthe çinside'ofa closed contour is w elldelined.A rig-
orousproofoftheresiduetheorem requiresa know ledge ofuniform convergence.
A rigorousproof ofCauchy'stheorem requires a knowledge ofplane topology.
80th ofthesecan befound in Knopp (1945).
Exam ples
Hvaluate the following contourintegrals.
(i)J;'Rezdzwhereyistheunitcirclez= eit(0: jqt:
jq2zr).
(ii)J;'IzI2dzwhereyistheparabolicarcz= t+itl(0: jgt:jg1).
(iii)J;'idzwhereyisthestraightlinejoining0to1+ i.
Use the estim atelemm a to prove the following inequalities.
c- 2
(iii) dz :
jq4.$,
.
/*9 wherey isthesquarewithverticesatul
u1ului.
r c- 3
Find all the singularities of the follow ing functiorls. Use the m ethod of
differentiating the denom inatorto lind alltheresidues.
z+ 1 ez 1
(i)z - 1, (ii): 7r2, (ii
.2 + : i) zz- 6.
: + 8.
U setheresiduetheorem to evaluatethefollow ingintegralsroundthecontours
indicated.
z+ 1
(i) ;'c - 1 dz (y = circlecentre 1,radius1).
(ii) ;'.:2 + :7r2 dz

dz
(iii) ;'.z2 6c + 8 (y = circlecentre 0,radius3).
-
Provethatiff(z)isdifferentiableirlsideand on the closed contoury,then

forany a inside y
f( 1 flz)dz
a)= z;.r.j jy.
z..s
(Cauchy'sintegralformula).W hatisthevalueofthisintegralifaisoutsidey?
E v a Iu a tio n o f fin ite
re a I in te g ra Is
Asalirstapplicationoftheresiduetheorem (seeSection4.7)wedescribeamethod
forevaluating acertain classofrealintegralsovera l
inite interval.
Exam ple 1 Considertheintegral

1:: dt
0 5 + 4cost'
W e can transform this integralinto a contour integralround the unit circleby
m aking the substitution z = eit W e have dz = ieitdt = izdt which gives
dt= dz/iz.W e also have
Thereforew e get
jz:
c5+4
o!
r
cost-jd
iz5+2tc1+1/c)-'
1
j
-Jy2c2+d5
zc+2'
where y istheunitcircle.
W e now evaluate this contourintegralusing the residue theorem .Observethat
2z2+ 5.z+ 2 = (2c+ 1)(c+ 2),thereforethesingularitiesoftheintegrand occur
atz = -2,- 1/2 (Figure 5.1).Oftheseonly z = - 1/2 isinside y,wherethe
residue is
1 1 1
-
/ 4: + 5
. =-1yz = 3i,
usingthemethodofdifferentiatingthedenominator(seeSection4.8).
Hence we have
11:5+4
dt
cost'UU
1Jy2.
:2+d5
z.
:+2'UCKiXj1
/=l3
:
,
r'
Ff
gure 5./
Exam ple 2 Considerthe integral

1:: dt
o 1 + sin2 t'
Putting c = eitgives
1:
%' dt dz 1 4/cdz
z = z = 4
0 1+ sin t p.U'
J 1- (z- 1/z)/4 :z + 1,
yz -6.
where y isthe unitcircle.Here we used the formula
The singularities ofthe integrand areatthe solutionsofthe equation
/ - 6z2+ 1= 0
.
which are given by
Ofthese only z = ulu 3- 2.

$,
/1'= ul
. u(x'
C - 1) are inside y (Figure 5.2).
D ifferentiating the denom inatorwe obtain theresiduesby evaluating
4ïz i
4c3 - 12c c2 - 3
at.
:2= 3-2./-
2.Thereforetheresiduesare-i(l.vX atl
noththesepoints.
H ence by the residuetheorem w ehave
Ffgure 5.2
Exam ple 3 Considertheintegral
2x
cos4tdt.
0
The substitution z = eitgives
/-2x
where y istheunitcircle.
Observethattheintegrand isalready a Laurentexpansioa indicating thatthere
isapoleoforder5atz = 0,andthattheresiduethereis6/16ï= 3/8/.
Hence we have
z,r (
3 3a.
cos4tdt = ln'i x = .
0 W 4
Exam ple 4 Consider theintegral
2x
sin ltcos3/dt.
0
M aking the substitution z = eitw e obtain
z,c 1 dz 1 1
sin ltcos3/dt = .
:2 - /+
.
0 y
-k-
1
/j/'
J
j
'
?
c(g..z.y.
1.p1'j
c
=-g/
1j(c4-1.
ysl..sljt
y.
z
sincetheintegrandisaLaurentexpansion with no term in 1/z.
H ence we have
2x
sin ltcos3/dt = 0.
0
Exam ples
Hvaluatethe follow ing integrals.
(2n./.
$,,
4)
dt
3 + 2 sin t
2n.sin 5t
dt
0 Sin t
2n.
cos6tdt
0
E v a Iu a tio n o f in fin ite
re a I in te g ra Is
6.I C onvergence
Forintegrals oftheform
/--J'
l
xldx
the problem of convergence arises.W e shalldeline the Cauchy princi
palvalue
(CPV)ofsuch an integraltobe
*
J-.yt
. wl,
2.
v-sl
ix
-moaj-R
sy(
.
v)J.
v,
and say the integralconverges whenever this lim itexists.For exam ple consider
the integral
oa dx
.x2 + 1'
W ehave
R dx R zr
s.
x2+1 gtan-lwj-A=2tan-1R-->2x-
=
2=zr
O dx
= %.
.x2 + 1
6.2 T he m ethod
W e illustrate the method for evaluating inlinite real integrals using com plex
calculusby applying itto the integral
O dx
x2
. +1
considered in Section 6.1.

Let y = n + yz be the D -shaped contour consisting of the real interval
g- A,.P1= n togetherwiththeuppersemicircle yzhaving g- A,.
P1asdiameter
(Figure6.1).And considerthecontotlrintegral
dz
Jv.
12+1 .
l
j
yL.
:2d+
z1o'lj
.
yz.
z2d+
z1'
On n
dz
J/1:2+ 1 )/
. R.x2d+x1'
-R
.
Inside y For allR > 1the integrand hasone singularity atz = iwhere the
residueis1/2ï.Therefore
Onyz w ehaveIzI= R therefore

Iz2+ 11k:Rl- 1
(seelnequality 5ofSection 1.11)from which itfollowsthat
1 1
:2 + 1 :f R z - 1
.
Ff
gure 8./
l/2z2d+
z1YR1
J
:-
A1-*0
asR --> co.
Putting allthis inform ation togetherwe have
R dx dz dz dz dz
= = - = Jr- -> Jr
- R.
x2 + 1 /1 .:2 + 1 / .z2 + 1 /2 .z2+ 1 /2 .z2 + 1
asR --> co.Hencew e deducethat
agreeingw ith whatw e found in Section 6.1.
6.3 Failureofj7/2-->0
ltisessentialto thesuccessofthem ethod outlined in Section 6.2thatw ecan prove
J -->0.Forexample,corlsidertheintegral
oo x dx
.x2 + 1'
ln this case we have

z z 1
Res o = - = -.
z=,
'z'f+ 1 2.: C= i l
Therefore
zdz 1
= 2.
zri x - = n'i
r:
. 2 + 1 2
forR > 1.lfwe could provethat

zdz --
>0
/2 .z2+ 1
asR --> co,then w e could deduce that

R .x dx c dz c dz cdz
= = - --> n.i
- s.
r2 + 1 /1 :
. 2 + 1 / z
. 2 + 1 /2 .z
2 +1
as A -+ co.svhich isnonsensebecause
R xdx
.
= 0
- R .x2 + 1
forallR sincethe integrand isodd.ln fact

zdz
j A 0
z .z2 + 1
v'
in thiscase.1tsvalue is
zdz zdz zdz
= - = n.i
/2 .:2 + 1 ;' :
. 2 + 1 /1 + 1
z
. 2
forallR > 1.
6.4 Integrals involving cosx,sin .

x
Considerthe integral
* cos.x dx
xz .y.1 .
Thecontotlrintegral
coscdz
;' :
. 2+ 1 '
IcoszI2 = cos2.
x+ sinhzy
(c = .
x + iy)isunbounded in theupperhalfplane.lnsteadweuse
eiz t
r
y.z
;' .:2 + 1'
observing firstthatthe integralwe require

Co cos.x dx C'
O eix dx
= Re ,
. x2 + 1 .x2 + 1
and second thateiz isbounded in theupperhalfplane since
fory k:0.ltfollow sthat
eizdz JZ'.P
/ * 0
:2 + 1
. R1 - 1
asR --> co.ForR > 1theintegrand has a singularity atz = iinside y wherethe
residue is
ei
z ei.
z j.
Rej = = .
z=, .
:2 + 1 2.z zzi lie
Therefore
ei zdz 1 zr
= z.
n'i x lie = -
p':
. 2 + 1 e.
Hence we have
asR --> co,from which itfollowsthat

* cos.xdx zr
x2 + 1 converges = -c .
.
W etherefore deducethat
though this isof cotlrse im m ediate from the factthatthe integrand is odd in this
Case.
6.5 Roots of unity

Supposew ew antto evaluatethe integral
dz
;' + 1'
:4
.
Ff
gure 8.2
where y = n + yzasin Section 6.2.Theintegrandhassingularitiesatthesolutions

oftheequation.
/ + 1= Owhichareû?,0)3 û)5 û)7(Figure6.2)whereû?= ei=/4
istheprimitive8t.
11rootofunity (seeSection 1.10).
D ifferentiating the denom inator we lind the residues ofthe integrand at z =
û?,0)3ar
e 1/4*3 1/4*9 respectively.Therefore,
jvc4d+z1=ln'i4u
1?
3+4.
19=(
2
n.'
i9(û?(
5+1)=n'
i(
1.
,
-
,i)=zr(1.
+,i)
,
since*6 = -ï. nutû?= (1+ illp/
'Isoweget
as R --> co.Therefore
R dx dz dz dz =
= = - ->
-R .
x4 + 1 :
/1. 4 + 1 /./ + 1 /2.
/ +1 . vC
as R --> co,which show sthat
OD dx >
Converges =
w4+ 1 j.
X'
'
6.6 S inguIarities on the realaxis

W e cannotevaluate the integral
O dx
0 .x3 + 1
Ffgure 6.3
by considering the contourintegral
//sd+
zl
round y asin Section 6.2 since the integrand hasa singularity atz = - 1which is
on y .lnstead weusethepizza slicecontoury = n + yz+ p shown in Figtlre6.3.
Hereû?= el=i/3istheprimitivecuberootofunity (see Section 1.10).
On n W ehavez = t(0 s t:é A).Therefore,
dt
t3 + 1'
On p W ehavez = a)t(R k:tk:0).Therefore,

dz R û?dt R dt
=- = -u? (u?3= 1).
n .:3 + 1 () œ3t3 + 1 () t3 + 1
On yz W ehave
lz3d+
z1YR
2>34
-/3
1-*0
asR --> co.
Theintegrand hasasingularityinsidey atz = ei=/3 = -û?2(ifR > 1)where
theresidue is
Therefore
dz 2>ï
v .:3 + 1 3*
Ff
gure 8.4
H ence we have
dt + J dz
t3+1 y/2.
zt
j.y),
which show sthat
oo dt 2zr/ 2:/
Collverges =
o t3 + 1 3* (1- û?) 3.$,,77,
=
6.7 H alf residue theorem

To evaluate the integral
co sju x
- co A
w ew ould like to considerthe contotlrintegral

diz
- Jc
v C
round the usualD -shaped contourasin Section 6.4 exceptthattheintegrand hasa

singularity atz = 0.W euse instead the indented contour y = n + yz + p + y4
shown in Figure6.5.
Onn W ehavez = t(r :
jqt:
jqA).Therefore
Ffgure 8.5
On p W ehavez = --t(R k:tk:r).Therefore

di.
z R d- it
dz = - dt.
/3 z r t
Combining these two integralswe get

eik; t?ik
; R eit- e--it R Sjyjj
- - dz + - - dz = dt = li dt.
p'
1 Z py Z r t r t
On yz W ehave (integratingbyparts)
diz diz diz
dz = + dz.
p'
z z iz pv z izl
p'
The lirstterm on the right-hand side

t?ik
; e-iR t?iR g COSp
-s- = - =- --> O
l.: /2 - iR
! iR iR
asR --> co.W hilstthe second term

eiz a.w a.
dz :% = - --> 0
iz1 42 R
asR --> co.Therefore

diz
- dz --> 0
Z
asR --> co.

On y4 W ehavez = reit(zrk:tk:0).Therefore,
ei
z Jc 1 co (jcln
v4 2 dz= :.4-2 + :.4-
2 )-) n! Jc. 1
The lirstterm on the right-hand side
A sforthe second term we have
1 '<' (ïcln 1 '<'rn c-r- 1

z)-y n! s -
-
r)-y-
n!= r ,
1 1
which gives
asr -+ 0.Therefore
asr --> 0.
Thisisaparticularcaseofthehalfresiduetheorem .lfy were afullcirclecentre
0,radiusr then
diz
- dz = ln'i
/4 Z
for allr > 0,since the residue ofthe integrand atz = 0 is 1.The halfresidue
theorem statesthatify isasem icirclethen theintegralconvergestohalfthisvalue
asr -->0 (seeAppendix2).
Piecing allthistogetherwe have
and hence
oo sin / zr
dt = - .
o t l
Exam ple Considerthe integral
/-c
-
o(si
n-
-vjzvy.
To evaluate this integralw e observe that
oo sin .x 2 1 oo 1 - cos2.
x 1 * 1 - elix
dx = - dx = - Re dx,
.x 2 .
x2 2 .x2
and work with

1 1 - eliz
- dz
2 p' .
:2
wherey = n + yz+ yg + y4asin Figure6.5.

The Laurentexpansion ofthe integrand atz = 0 is
11- eliz 11- (1+ liz+ ...) i

i :2 = i c2 = --
cV ...y
which show s that z = 0 is a simple pole with residue -ï.Therefore the half
residue theorem appliesand continuing asin the lirstexample w e obtain
.
1-
*o
co
a(si
n
.
x.
v)2dx-'''
Exam ples
Hvaluate the follow ing integrals.
CO dx
.x2 + 4
(>/6)
(2,,/..,
4)
* cos.x dx
tzrc-lcos1)
x2 + 2.x + 2
.
co xz .y j
dx
.x4 + 1
co dx
Jo.
v5+1C3%/t
y;sstxys;
/-o
-
a(si-
n-
vjavy
S u m m atio n o f se rie s
'
7'.I Residues ofcota
z
Hlem ental'y theol'
y of sequences and series only allow s vel'y few series to be
sum med exactly.ln m ostcases one hasto be contentw ith know ing thata series
convergeswithoutknow ing whatthe sum is.ltishoweverpossibleto sum aw ide
class ofseries by exploiting propertiesofthe com plex cotangentfunction cotz.
Thesingularitiesofcotz= cosz/sinzoccuratthezerosofsinzwhich are at
z = n:rforintegraln (seeSection 2.9).Theresiduesatthesesingularitiescanbe
obtainedby differentiating the denominatorrule and are
R es cotz = Res cosz = cosz = 1.

zuznx zuznx sin c cosc C=/X
'
7'.2 Laurent expansion ofcota
z
W e can either divide the M aclaurin exparlsions of cosz, sin z (aswe did in
Section 3.6 fortan z)orusetheexpansion oftanzto obtain
7.3 The m ethod

W edem onstrate them ethod by sum ming the series
)oZop1
1
W eletyx bethesquarecentre0with halfside (N + 1/2):
v (Figure7.1),and
considerthe integral
cotz
2 Jz.
y,v Z
Theintegrand hassingularitiesatz = n:rw herethe residuesare
cotz 1
Res 2 = s2n.2
forn # 0.Atz= 0 theLaurentexpansion is
showingthatthereisatriplepoleatz = 0withresidue- 1/3.

Thereforebytheresiduetheorem (seeSection4.7)wehave
/-
lfw ecan show the integral--> 0 as N --> co then w eget
and hence
Xoo 1 :a.2
1
ky - o .
7.4 Boundedness ofcot.
z
From Section 2.8 w ehave
2 cos2 .x + sinhzy
Icotzl2= COSZ =
sin z sin2.x + sinhzy ,
where z = .x + iy.
For y lixed w ehave
cos2 .x + sinhzy 1 + sinhzy coshzy
s = = ()0thzy,
sin2.x + sinhzy sinhz y sinhzy
which showsthatIcotzIs cothzr/2 = 1.090331411...forallz eEthehorizontal

sides ofyx forallN k:1.
For.
xlixed = (N + 1/2):v wehave
cos2 .x + sinhzy sinhzy
= s 1,
sin2.x + sinhzy 1 + sinhz y
which showsthatIcotzIs 1forallz eEtheverticalsidesofyx forallN k:1.

Hencewehave Icotzls M = tl0th zr/2 forallz eEyx forallN k:1.
W e can now show
cotz
2 dz --> 0
(JN .:
!
asN --> co.Forz e yx wehave IzIk:(N + 1/2)> > Nn',and the length of
yx is8(.V + 1/2)> :é 9Nn'forN k:4.Thereforeby the estimate lemma (4.4)
we have
7.5 U se ofcosec a
z
Having shown that
we can obtain the sum of
by observing that
An alternativew ay to sum this second series isto use cosecz.The singularities

ofcosecz= 1/sinz areatz = n:rwheretheresiduesare
1 1
zRe
ccns
,rcosecz= zRe srsin c = cosc C=/X = (- 1)/.
zcw,
And cosecz isbounded on yx asin Section 7.3 since
cosecz d 9N n' 9
2 z :% = --> 0
yn Z N zn.z x ;r
asN --> co.But
/-
Hence we obtain
oo (- 1)n :
7
.
,2
nl 12 '
1
equivalently,
1 1 1 :
/2
1- èx + ïf- kl+ ...= 12
asbefore.
7.6 U se oftan a
z
W ecan sum the series
given that
by observing that
Alternatively,w e can usetheintegral

tallz
2 dz,
pk .'
!
whereyx isthesquarecentre at0withhalfsideNn'(Figure7.2).

Thesingularitiesoftanz areatz = (rl+ 1/2):
v with residues- 1.Therefore
theresidueoftanz/zlatc = (r!+ 1/2):
v is
tan z 1 4
Res =z - =z - .
z=(n+1/z),r .
:2 (n + 1/2)2>2 (2r!+ 1)2:
7.
,2
Ff
gure 7.2
Thereisalsoasingularity oftanz/zlatc = 0 wheretheLaurentexpansion is

(seeSection3.6)
Therefore the residue atz = 0 is 1.

ltfollow sthat
which gives
oo 1 :
a.2
X (2rl+1)z= 4'
equivalently,
1 1 1 ,r2
1+ --i + -y + --i + '''= - ,
3 5 7 8
provided we can show
/)
.
asN -> co.

Forthis itis suflicientas previously to show tan z isbounded on yx forallN .
W hich itissince
sinc 2 sin2.x + sinhzy 1 + sinhzn'
ItanzI2= cosc
= cos2 x + sinhzy s sinhzn. = cothzn'
.
forIyIk:n'.Andfor.
x = Nn'wehave
7.7 U se ofcotzr.
z
Corlsiderthe series
oo 1
X nz+
- 1.
1
The integral
cotz
dz,
ï' :2 + 1
N .
whereyx isthesquarecentre 0with halfside(N + 1/2):

v willsum theseries
* 1
X zzol
1
which isnotquitew hatw ew ant.lnstead we use

cotn'z
dz,
ï'N :2 + 1
.
whereyx isthesquarecentre 0with halfside(N + 1/2)(Figure7.3).

The singularitiesofcotn'z occtlr atz = n with residues
coszrz coszrz 1
Rescotzrz = Res = =-.
z=n z=n sinzrc zrcoszrz C= / zr
Ffgure 7.3
Therefore
cotn'z 1 1
Res =- .
z=n .
z2 + 1 :
rrnl + 1
The integrand also has singularitiesatz = Lj
ziwhere theresiduesare
cotn'z cotn'z cotn'i (l0thzr cotn'z
Res = = =- = Res .
z= ,' .:2 + 1 2.z :.j li l z=-f.
:2 + 1
Therefore
N
cotzrc 1 1
ï' :
N .
2 + 1 dz= l
n'i -
z
r X)nl + 1 -co
t.
hzr ,
- N
which gives
providedtheintegral--> 0asN --> co.W hich itdoessince Icot

.
hn'
zIs cothzr/2
on yx,andthelength ofyx is8(N + 1/2),therefore
JYNc2
ot
+zr1
c'îzY8(x
(N++11
/2
/2
))
c2
ot
-
hz
1
r/z-'0
asN -> co.
7.8 U se of seca
z
ltm ightbethoughtthatthe integral
seczdz,
2
y.hl Z
where yx isthesquarecentre0with halfside Nn'(see Figure7.2)willsum the

series
H ow ever itturnsoutthatitdoesn't.The problem isthatitsum sthe series
Yl
oa(l(
n-1
+)
s
1)2 = 0
which istruebutnotvel
'y helpful.
Exam ples
Find the sum ofthe series
by integrating cotz(z4roundalargesquarecontour.
Useyouranswerto Question 1to l indthesumsofthefollowingseries.
1 1 1
1+ V + V + W + - .
Find the sum of
byintegratingcosecz(z4roundalargesquarecontour.Compareyouranswer
with theansweryou gotinQuestion 2.
Find the sum of
1 1 1
1+ V + V + W + ...
byintegratingtan z(z4roundalargesquarecontotm Comparewiththeanswer
yougotin Question 2.
Find the sum of
1 1 1
1+ V + V + W + ...
by integrating cotn'z/(2z+ 1)4roundalarge squarecontotm Comparewith
Questions2 and4.
Find the sum of
)o7oT 1
1 rltrl+ 1)
by writing the rlth term as
1 1 1
rltrl+ 1) n n + 1
Find the sum of
C'
O 1
)'
1
:n(n+1)
by integrating cotn'z/z(z+ 1)round a largesquarecontour.Comparewith
Question 6.
F u nd a m e n ta l th eo re m o f
a Ig e b ra
8.I Z eros
W ecallthepointcazeroofthefunction flz)if.J(c)= 0.Forexample thezeros
ofsin z are atz = n:r for n = 0 + 1 + 2 ....
W edelinetheorderormulti
plicityofazeroasfollows.Supposeflz)hasTaylor
expansion
atz = c.W esay cisazeroofordern ifao = tz1 = ...= tzn-l = 0,butan # 0.

Hquivalently,if./'(c)= .
/'(c)= ...= .
/*(n-1)(c)= 0,but./'(n)(c)# 0.A zero of
order 1 iscalled a simple zero a zero oforder 2 is called a double zero etc.For
example,thezerosoff(z)= sinzareallsimplesincef (z)= cosz= ul
u1at
z = nn'.However,forexample,g(z) = zsinzhasadoublezero atz = 0 since
theM aclaurin expansion is
Theorem 1 (Fundamentaltheorem ofalgebra) Hvel'

y polynomialofdegree
n w ith complex coefl
icients has n zeros in the complex plane taking account of
m ultiplicity.
Casen = 2 Hvel' y quadraticpolynomialp(z)with complex coeflicientshas

2roots,possiblycoincident.Thecaseofcoincidentrootsiswhenp(z)isaperfect
squaretaking the form
plz)= Atz- .
P)2
thereforep(z)hasadoublezeroatz = B .
8.2 A rgum ent principIe
W ecan countthenumberofzerosa function hasinside a closed contourby m eans
ofthe following theorem .
Theorem 2 (Argumentprinciple) lfflz)is differentiable inside and on the

closedcontoury,and iff (z)# 0 anywhereony,thenthenumberN ofzerosof
f(z)inside y isgivenby theformula
N =
1 /''(c)Jz.
.
ln'i y flz)
G eometricalinterpretation Observe that
lxi 1lv
'f/''(l
.z))'''D'-'ln'1i7''VEZCZII'Z
z
sincelogflz)isaprimitiveoff'lzl(f (z).But(seeSection 2.12)
andlogIflz)Iissinglevalued.Therefore,
1 s a 1
ln'iLlog.f(z)1),= zzv Larg.
f(z)1),.
SoTheorem 2saysthatthenumberofzerosofflz)insidey isequaltothenumber
oftimesflz)circulatestheoriginaszgoesround y.
Example Suppose flz) = .
:2- 1.
yl = circle centre 0 radius 1/2.
W e can parametrise n asz = eit/l (0 : jq t :

jq 2:
7r).Therefore,the image
contotlr ./'(y1)parametrisesas w = f (z) = .:2 - 1 = elitjzî- 1which isthe
circlecentre- 1 radius1/4 describedtw ice.Observe that./'(y1)doesnotcirculate
theorigin atallcorrespondingtothefactthattherearenozerosoff(z)insiden
(Figure8.1).
Ff
gure 8./
yz = circle centre 0 radius2.
W ecanparametriseyzasz = leit(0 : jqt:jq2:

7r).Therefore,the imagecontour
f (yz)parametrisesasw = f (z)= z2- 1 = 4elit- 1whichisthecirclecentre- 1,
radius4 described twice.Hence in thiscasethe imagecontourf (yz)circulates
theorigin twice,rellectingthefactthatflz)has2 zerosinsideyz(Figure 8.2).
Case3 p = circle centre 1 radius 1.
which showsw + 1 = reiowherer = 4cos2t(l,0 = t.Hencein thiscasethe

image contouristhe cardioid illustrated in Figure 8.3 which circulatesthe origin
once,in agreementwith the factthat. :2 - 1hasonezero irlside y atz = 1.
Ffgure 8.2
Ffgure 8.3
flz)= an(z- c)n+ Jn+l(z- c)'-F1+ ...,
wherean # 0.Therefore
f'lz) nanlz- c)''-1+ (n + 1)tz,z+1(z- c)''+ ...
flz) an(z- c)n+ Jn+l(z- c)n+1+ ...
1 nan+ (rl+ 1)tzn+1(z- c)+ ...
z- c an + an+1(z- c)+ .-
hasasimplepoleatz = cwith residue n bythe coverup rule (seeSection 4.8).
Theresultfollow s.
8.3 Rouché's theorem

Thefollowingtheorem duetoRouché(1862)enablesustosaysomethingaboutthe
distribution ofthezerosofa given function by comparing itwith anotherfunction
whose zeros areknown.
Theorem 3 (Rouché'stheorem) lff (z),g(z)aredifferentiableinsideand on

theclosedcontoury,andifIf(z)I> Ig(z)Iforallz eEy,then f(z),flz)+ g(z)
have the sam e numberofzerosinside y.
Proof lnformally,we can add any çsmaller'function g(z)to f(z)without

changing the numberofzerosinsidethe contour.
By the argumentprinciple itwillbe sufl
icientto prove that
/'/
''((cc))++gg'l
z))'u
'z- J/
v'
./
/'(c))dz'
.
/ (c '(
c
/ . .
Observethat
f'lz)+ g'(z) f'lz) = d d
flz)+ g(z) flz) dzlog(.f(z)+ g(z))- dz logflz)
-
Ffgure 8.4
where
hl g(.
:)
z)= 1+ fl .
z)
The condition Iflz)I > Ig(z)Iimpliesthath(z) mustsatisfy the inequality

I/l(z)- 1I< 1forallz eEy.ltfollowsthath(z)cannotcirculatethe origin asz
goesround y (Figure8.4).Thereforeby theargumentprinciplewemusthave
1/h'
ç
(
zb
)'Z'
-''
asrequired.
Ayplication W ecanuseRouché'stheorem to show forexample thatthezeros
ofthepolynomialplz)= .
:3+ .
:2+ 3a1llieintheannulus1 < IzI< 2.lfwetake
f U)= 2S,.%U)= 22+ 3,then forIzl= 2wehave
Therefore by Rouché'stheorem plz) = f(z)+ g(z) and f(z)have the same

numberofzerosinside IzI= 2.Butf(z)= . :3 has3zerosinside Izl= 2 in the
form ofatriplezero atz= 0.Hencealso plz)has3 zerosinsideIzI= 2.
lfinstead wetake flz)EEE3,g(z)= .
:3+ z2,then forIzI= 1wehave
Thereforeby Rouché'stheorem p(z)= flz)+ g(z)and flz)EEE3havethesame

numberofzeros inside IzI= 1.Butf (z)hasno zerosinside IzI= 1.Hence
neitherhasp(z)(Figure8.5).
0 I 2
Ff
gure 8.5
8.4 Proof of the fundam entaltheorem of algebra

Supposethat
J'(z)= anzn+ Jn-lzn-1+ .- + J1z + Jo,
wherean # 0,isapolynomialofdegreerl.Let
flz)= anzn,
andletyR bethecontotlr Izl= R.Then on yR wehave

.
'
?(c) tzn-lcn-l+ ...+ tzlc+ ao
f (z) anzn
IJn-lz''-lI+ ...+ Itzlzl+ Itzol
S IanznI
I
tzn-lIA''-1+ ...+ ItzlIR + It
zol
IlnlAn
asR --> co.Therefore,wecan chooseR suchthatIflz)I> Ig(z)Iforallz eEyR.

ltfollowsby Rouché'stheorem thatp(z) = flz)+ g(z)and f (z)have the
samenumberofzerosinside yR forthisR.Butflz)= anzn hasn zerosinside
yR,allatz= 0.Hencealso p(z)hasnzerosinside yR,asrequired.
Exam ples
Fundam entaItheorem ofaIgebra 8I
2. Provethatexactly tw ozerosofthepolynom ial.

:3+ 9z2 + 9.z+ 9lieinside
thecircle IzI= 2.
3. Provethatnoneofthezerosofthepolynomial.
:3 + 9z2+ 9.z+ 9 lieinside
thecircle IzI= 1/2.
4. Prove thatallthe zeros ofthe polynomial.
:3 + 6.: + 8 lie betw een the two
circlesIzI= 1,IzI= 3.
5. Provethatthepolynomial.
/ + c+ 1hasonezeroineachquadrant.
Solutions to exam ples
(iv) (13/37) + (4/37)/.
lfC = cos0,S = sin 0,then
lfC = cos30O then
0 = cos90*= 4CS - 347= C(4C2- 3).
ThereforeC = 0or+VV 2.WhatdotheothervaluesofCrepresent?
2 C om pIex functio ns
8. To l
indthemaximum ofIsinzlonthedisc IzIs 1weusetheinfiniteform of
thetriangle inequality which statesthat
X X
j1gzn sj1gIal
forany sequenceofcomplex numbers(zn)nz1.
ln particular,
Iz13 Iz15 IzI7

:% Izl+ 31 + 51 + 71 + '''
1 1 1
:i 1+ V + V + W + ...
== sirzA 1
forIzI1qL1.
Alsoforz = iwehaveIsiniI= Iisirth 1I= sinh 1.
Therefore Isinzlismaximum on IzIs 1 atz = iwith maximum value
equalto sinh 1.
lfz = .
x + iy then
z+ 1
= 2
z+ 4
isequivalentto
1.
x + iy + 1I2= 4Iv+ iy + 412
.
(x + 1)2+ ,2= 4((.

x+ 4)2+ y2)
x2 +
. 2.x+ 1+ ),
2= 4.(.
x2+ 8.
x+ 16 + y2)
O = 3w2 + 3y2 + 30.x + 63
2 = Iz+ 51
which istheequationofacirclecentre-5 radius2.
3 D erivatives
Ifc = reio = .v + iy,then
logc= logr+ io = 1
z log(
.
x2+ y2)+ itan-1-
X.
A
utx,y)- 1
. zlog(x2+ y2), gtx,y)= tan-l-
. .X.
A
ut.
'
r,y)= .r(.r2+ y2- 2), tlt.x,y)= -y@ 2+ ,2- 2).
é)u o o é)u é)?
- = 3. :7
* + yz'- 2, - = 2.
xy, - = -2.
xy,
é).x é)y é).
x
é)u = é)t?
- - - fora1l.
x y.
J)' J.Y '
é)u é)t?
- = - only when
9.:7 é)y
3.
x2 + ,2 - 2 = - .x2 - 3y2 + (
2
which simpliliesto
r2 . y y2 .
. j.
ForIzI= 1wehave
lff(z)isrealvalued,then t?(x,y)= 0.Therefore,

é)u é)t? bu 9t?
= = 0, = - = 0.
9.:7 é)y èy 9.
1
Thereforeu(x,y)= corlstant.
ezsin z= z+ .:2+ c3/3- c5/30 + ....
(i)Putt= z- 2.Then z = t+ 2.Therefore,
Therange ofvalidity ofthe geometric seriesis I//21< 1.Thereforethe

rangeofvalidity oftheTaylorseriesisIz- 21< 2.
Range ofvalidity is allt,therefore allz.
t2 (3
logz= logt/+ 1)= t- Y + @ - ...
1 1 1 1 1
c2 - 1 (t+ 1)2- 1 tl+ lt lt1+ tll
Simplepolewithresidue 1/2.
Simplepolewith residue - 1/2.
8.
4 Integrals
2n.
(i)Jp'Rezdz=j (cost)jej,tyjx my .
(i)Ic'
.
fI= cRe:s c2forc e y.Length ofy is2:
7r.
(ii)Isinzls sinh 1,Iz+ iIk:V'
1forzeEy.Lengthofyisn'.
(iii)Iz- 21: é 10,Iz- 31k:2forz eEy.Length ofy is8.
(i)Singularity at1.Residue2.
(ii)SingularitiesatLjzn'
i.ResiduesEFE1/2zrï.
(iii)Singularitiesat2,4.ResiduesEFE1/2.
The integralvanishesfora outside y by Cauchy'stheorem .
5 Evaluation of finite realintegrals

W ehave
j1:2+dc
tost='
2
)
-j.
z2+d
4z
c+1=.
2
v/
:
)
z
'
:
j
.
by the residue theorem .The integrand has one singularity irlside y at z =
.$,./-
3 - 2,wher
etheresidueis1/2./- 3(differentiatethedenominator).
W ehave
j1:3+d
2t
sint=Jy.
:2+3
di
zc-1=s
2,
:
'
)
z
-
j
.'
Theintegrandhasonesingularityinsideyatz= (Vl
$'- 3)ï/2,wherethe
residueisI/V'
V.
W ehave
2,, dt cdz
= 4/ = n'.
o 4 - 3cos2 t r 3c4 - 10c2 + 3
Theintegrandhastwosingularitiesinsidey atz = ul
u1/.
$/X,wherethe
residuesarelnoth equalto - 1/16.
w ehave
z,c 1 1 6 dz
cos6tdt = - c+ -
o 64 p' z iz
=&';j/(c6+6c4+lsc2+2o+-
p5-+(6
1 7+F')'
t
j
'
?
z-58
,,'
6 Evaluation of infinite real integrals
1 h
assingularitiesatz = + 2/.
.z2 + 4
Theresidueatz = liis1/4ï(differentiatethedenominator).
dz zrR
/2 .:2 + 4 :
éR-
'L- 4 (R > 2)--> 0 asR -
->co.
vlz ,,.p
//
.'
2(c2+l)(c2+4.
)'(.
p2-1)(.
p2-4.
)CR>2)-''asR->co.
To gettheresiduew ehaveto compute the Laurentexpansion.Putt = z- i.

Then w ehave
(usingthebinomialtheorem withexponent-2).Thereforetheresidueis1/4ï.
asR --> co.
as R --> co.
C<' cosw dx C<' eix dx

= Re .
.x2 + 2.x + 2 -oo .x2 + 2.x + 2
= jei(x-biy)j= jeix-yj= jeixe-yj = e-y :j( 1 on yz.
as R --> co.
Theresidueatz = - 1+ iisc-1-i(li.Therefore,
co eix ty.x
= 7(e 1- i.
-
x2
. + 2 .x + 2
The residue atc = û?is

* 2+ 1 û)7 + 0)5 .//
'
2-/ i
4*3 4 4 2.$///-
2-
The residue atc = 0)3 is
* 6+ 1 û)6+ 1 a)5+ .)7 yxi i
4*9 4* 4 4 2.$,,7
-1'
. :2+ 1 n'RLRI+ 1)
/2 .:4 + 1 dz s R 4- 1 (R > 1)-
-> O asR --> co.
Useapizza slicecontourwith angle2>/5.

8. Observethatfor.
x real
sin. x 3 3 sin .x - sin 3.
x 3c01 - e3ix
= = Im ,
.x 4.x3 4x3
and thatfor zcomplex
3eiz- e3iz 3(1+ iz- z2/21+ ...)- (1+ 3ïc- 9:2/21+ ...)
4c3 4c3
Sum m ation ofseries
>4/90.
7>4/720,>4/96.
Observe that
CO j CO j j
X1n(s+1)-Y/(-
s-n+1)
(l-.
l.)+()-.
a -
a
l.
)+...+()-s)1)+...-l.
lfy isthesquarewith centre0,andhalfsideN + 1/2,then
cotn'z 8(N + 1/2)cothzr/2 16cothzr/2
16
r
c(c+ 1)dz Y (>F+ 1/2)(>F+ 3/2) - 2:7+ 3 -* 0
asN --> co.Forn # 0 - 1wehave

cotn'z 1
Res = .
z=n c(c+ 1) n'n(n + 1)
Atz = 0 we have
which showsthatz = 0isadoublepolewithresidue- 1/>.

Atz = - 1w ehave putting t = z + 1
which showsthatz = - 1isalsoadoublepolewithresidue- 1/>.

Therefore by the residuetheorem w ehave
N .V-1
J/cc
(c
ot
+z,c
1)''
Z--
n
1.x
.
&1
.-n(n1
+1)-F-
n
1.x
zL
y
.-n(n1
+1)--
n
1.'
which on letting N --> co gives
2 * 1 2
O= - V - -,
zr z'-
1 rltrl+ 1) zr
and hence
8 Fundam entaltheorem of algebra
Thereforeby Rouché'stheorem f (z)= z3,f(z)+g(z)= .

:3+ 9z2+ 9.
z+ 9
havethe samenumberofzerosinside IzI= 10.Butf (z) = . :3has3 zeros
inside Izl= 10,allatz = 0.Hencealso .
:3+ 9z2+ 9.
z+ 9has3zerosinside
IzI= 10,asrequired.
ThereforebyRouché'stheorem flz)= 9:2,flz)q-g(c)= . z3+9c2+9c+9

havethesamenumberofzerosirlside IzI= 2,namely 2,sincef (z) = 9z2
has2zerosirlside Izl= 2,both atz = 0.
lff (z)EEE9,g(z)= .:3 + 9z2+ 9c,then forallIzl= 1/2wehave
ThereforebyRouché'stheorem f(z)EEE9,flz)+ g(z)= .

:3+ 9z2+ 9.
z+ 9
havethesamenumberofzerosinsideIzl= 1/2 namelynone,sincef(z)EEE9
hasnozerosinside IzI= 1/2.
On IzI= 1wehave
IzS+ 6zIs IzI2 + 6IzI= 7 < 8.
Therefore .
:3 + 6.:+ 8hasnozerosi
nside IzI= 1.
On IzI= 3wehave
Take flz) = .
:4 + 1,g(c) = c.The zeros off (z)are atû?,a?,û?5,û)7
where û?= eiICI4 Lety = n + yz + p ,w here yl is the straightline z = .
x
(0 s .
x s R),yzisthearcc = eit(0 s t: s(:
v/2),and p isthestraightline
z = iy (R k:y k:0).
W ehave.x4 + 1 > x.(Clearly!)
.
On p'
z
Hence Iflz)I > Ig(z)Ion y ifR > 2.Therefore f(z) = .
/ + 1,
flz)+ g(z)= .
:4+ c+ 1havethesamenumberofzerosinsidey ifR > 2,
nam ely 1.Argue sim ilarly forthe otherquadrants.
A ppendix C auchy's theorem
j/.
/'
(z)dz=0.
Proof
Case 1:y = Unitsquare W riting y = n + yz+ n + y4where n ,yz,n ,y4 are
thefoursidestakeninanti-clockwiseorderstartingfrom 0 andwritingf(x+ïy)=
u(.
'r,y)+ i??(.
r,y),wehave
'
j/1.
/*(2)dz=
Therefore
Jflz)dz+J.
J/1
/'U)dz J/7
'
--j /o'?
',
u(.
.
x,ylou-
s,-i/o'/
o'?
',
'(
.
x,yldxdy.
. .
Butthe Cauchy-lkiem ann equations
bu gr bu gr
91 by gy 91
hold everywhere insideand on y .H ence we have
Jfl
J/
z)dz=J.
fU)dz+J.
fU)dz-FJ.
J/1
fU)dz-FJ.
J/2
fU)VZ=0. J/3 J/4
Case2:y = .
4rly rectangle Sim ilar.
Case3:y = .
4rlyrectilinearcontour Meaningy = )(2X
Iynwhereeach ynis
a straightline paralleleitherto therealaxis orto the im aginal'
y axis.
By adding and subtractingftlrtherstraightlinesw ecanwrite y =
X)N/
1 yn?where
y' are allrectangles.Therefore,
Case 4: y = . 4rly closed contour W e can choose a sequence of rectilinear

contotlrsyn,alllying inside y,such that
A ppendix 2: H aIf residue theo rem
Thereforew e musthave
: *
p'
r
/'(z)dz= p'r -Z dz+ rr )(-)anzn dz.
.
)
The firstintegralevaluatesto
and thereforeby the estirnatelernrna
X X
p'
r
1-
o
)anzn dz:én'r1-
o
)IanIrn
which --> 0 asr --> 0.Theresultfollow s.
N .B.W e can allow m ultiple polesprovided there are only odd negativepow ers
in the Latlrentexpansion since these makeno contribution to the integralround
the srnallsernicircle.
Bibliography
Ablowitz,M .
J.and Attlanassios,S.E ,Complex Variables,Cam bridge University Press,
Cambridge,1997.
Ahlfors,L.
V.,ComplexAnalysis,M ccrraw Hill,New York,1953.
Copson,E.
T.,TheoryofFunctions,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford,1935.
Knopp,K.,TheoryofFunctions,Dover,New York,1945.
M ilewski,E.G.,Complex VariablesProblem Solver,REA ,New York,1987.
Spiegel,M .R .,Complex Variables,Schaum ,New York,19Y .
Titchmarsh,E.C.,TheoryofFunctions,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford,1932.
W hittaker, E.
T. and W atson, G.N., M odern Analysis, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge,1902.
Index of sym bo ls and abbreviations
Re z 3
lm z 3
i3
I.
EI3,5
arg z 5
(PV) 5
y(n)(.
x) (
29
y 37
ly 39
Res 46
(CPV) 53
G eneral index
Argand 1 fundamentalttleorem:ofalgebra 75'of

Argand diagram 4 calculus 36
argurnent 5
argurnentprinciple 76 Gauss 1
boundednessofcotz 67 halfresidue ttleorem 95

hyperbolicfunctions 17
Cartesian form 6
Cauchy 1,26 irnasnaryaxis 4
Cauchy principalvalue 53 irnasnarypart 3
indent
edcontour 61
Cauchy-ltiemann equations 26 inequalities 9
Cauchy'sintegralformula 48 int
egrable function 37
Cauchy'sttleorem 42,43
closed contour 38 Laurentexpansion 32
conform alrnapping 22 lengdnofacontour 39
conjugate 3 logaddnnl 21
continuousfunction 25
contour 37 M aclaurin cœ fficient29
convergence ofan infiniteintegral 53 M aclaurin expansion 29
coverup rule 46 m odulus 3,5
de M oivre 1 zzt.
hroot8,9
de M oivre'sttleorem 6
derivative 24 orderofapole 33
differentiablefunction 25 orderofazero 75
differentiatingttle denorninator 47 orientationofa contour 38
doublepole 33 parallelogram law ofaddition 5
doublezero 75 pararnetrisation ofa contour 37
D-sham d contour 54 pizza slicecontour 59
polarform 6
essentialsingularity 33 pole 33
estirnatelernrna 39 polyrlornial 14
Euler 1 prirnitive ofafunction 37
Euler'sformula 6 prirnitive zzt
.
h rootofunity 9
Euler'sformulaeforcosp,sin 0 7 principalpart 33
principalvalue:tp
/arg:;5;tp
/log:;8;of simple zero 75
:;1/n 8 singularity 14,33
pureimasnary 4 straightline 38
substituting ttl
e paramet
ricfunction 39
rationalfunction 14
realaxis 4 Taylorcœ fficient 32
realpart 3 Taylorexpansion 32
residue 33 triangleinequality 9
residuettleorem 44 trigonornetricfunction 17
Riernann 1,26
rootsofunity 9 unitcircle 38
Rouché'sttl eorem 78 unitsquare 38
simplepole 33

CaIcuIus With CompIex Numbers by John B.reade

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Sttm m ation ofseries

8 Ftmdam entaltheorem ofalgebra

I.I The square root of m inus one

Subtraction producesnothing new since forexample

1+ li (1+ 2ï)(3 - 4ï) 3 + li- 8ï2

1+ li= (.4 + iB)l = .

Thesecond equation givesB = l/.4 which on substitution in thelirstequation

Solving this quadraticequation in .

I.2 N otation and term inology

I.3 Properties ofi,I.

I.4 T he A rgand diagram

I.5 G eom etric interpretation of addition

I.6 Polar form

ObservethatwhilstIzlissinglevalued argz ismany valued.Thisisbecause

I.7 D e M oivre's theore m

= (C2- Sl)+ IiCS

using the identity (72 + Sl = 1. Hence

W ealso obtain sim ilarly

sinzp = lC S = 2 cos0 sinp.

Ayplicationl W ecan usetheaboveform ulaetoobtainexactvaluesforcos45O

from which itfollow sthat2C2 = 1, andtherefore(72= 1/2.HenceC = u

I.8 E uler's form ulae for cos0,sin 0 in term s of eï

Now eliminate sin 0 cos0 respectively.

which showsthatIzv?l= IzII'

1= 8ci:c = 8c3fn'= 8c5i:c = ...

Hven though arg (-8)hasinfinitely many values,thereare only 3 distinctcube

I.I0 rlth roots of unity

lf w e denote û? = elKi/n then the n rlth roots of 1 are 1, û?,û)2 .. .

Inequalityl Iz- M?11

N .B.N otethe plus sign on theright-hand side.

Note alsothatIz - w Ihasageometric significanceasthe distancebetween c

Solution To prove theright-hand inequality we observe firstthat

Iz2+ 81k:8- Iz2I= 8 - 4 = 4.

I.I2 Extension to 3 term s (or m ore)

by repeated application oflnequality 1.

and provetheirpropertiesby m anipulation ofthese series.

(IzI+ 1+1)2 = IzI2+ 2Izv?I+ 1v?12

From which itfollow sthat

v2+ y2)(u2+ t?2)- (xu + yt?)2 = (x2s2 + x2g2 + ,2s2 yy2g2;

UseQuestion3toshow thatcos30O= VX z,sin30O= 1/2.

Now do itby integrating bypartstwice and com parethe efliciency ofthetwo

2.I Polynom ials

2.2 Rationalfu nctions

hastwo singularities atz = +2/.

aw -plane,andthen indicatehow geom etricalliguresinthez-planearetransform ed

which gives on elim inating y,

2.4 T he expone ntialfunction

Icfl= eRez rgc: = Im c.

Thiswillofcoursenotbethe principalvalue ofarg ez unless -zr < lm z : jqn'.

2.5 Trigonom etric and hyperbolic functions

2.6 Fundam entalform ulae

from Huler'sformulaeforsin.x cos.

which isthe equation ofan ellipsew ith fociatul

which isthe equation ofa hyperbolaw ith fociatulu1.

Soif,forexample,z = zr/2 + iE,whereE7> 0,then Isin zl2= 1+ sinhz(F> 1.

2.I0 Identities for hyperbolic functions

2.I2 T he Iogarithm ic functio n

Observethatlog zhasasingularity atz = 0sincew ecannotdelinelogr forr = 0.

3.I D ifferentiabiIity and continuity

Sim ilarly onecan inprinciplego through alltheelem ental'y functionsofcalculus

so hasno lim itash --> 0.

exists.Accordingtothisdelinition flx)= 1. xIisnotdifferentiableat.x = 0.