Cell Biology

 Discovery of cell – In 1665 Robert Hooke examined thin slices of cork under his self-made microscope
(Magnification = 42 times). The cork seen was dead bark of spanish oak (Quercus suber). Robert Hook
coined the term "Cellula" for Honey comb like structure of bottle cork (Greek cellulae = Hollow space)
which later modified to cell. Actually he saw only the dead cell walls of plant cells. He published his
findings in his book 'Micrographia'. R.Virchow stated "Omnis cellula e cellula" which means all cells
arises from pre-existing cell. This is known as "Law of Lineage".
 Karl Nageli showed that cells in plants arise by the division of pre-existing cell. Leeuwenhoek
discovery the first living cell. Leeuwenhoek examined mud, semen, saliva, blood, Insects etc. Under his
self-made microscope and observe protozoans, sperm, bacteria, RBC, muscle cells etc. He called these
tiny creatures as "Animalcules" and published his finding in "Secrets of nature”. He is known as father
of microbiology, father of bacteriology, father of protozoology.
 Father of cytology is Hertwig & R. Hooke.
 Father of modern cytology is C.P. Swannson.
 Father of Indian cytology is Dr. A.K. Sharma.

General facts of cells

 Longest cell is nerve cell of Giraffe. (more than 1m) (90 cm in man).
 Largest cell is egg of ostrich (17cm x 13.5 cm dimension).
 Smallest cell is PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism).
 Smallest plant cell mycoplasma
 Largest plant cell – Acetabularia (10cm)
 Longest plant cell – Remie fibre (Boehmeria nevia)

Cell theory
Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden (Botanist) (1838) and Schwann (Zoologist) (1839).

 According to cell theory, all livings things are made up of cells.

 Cell is structural and Functional unit of living being.
 They has power of Reproduction.
 All cells arise from preexisting cells.
 All cells are basically similar in structure and metabolic function
 Each cell has a unit of heredity.

Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells
(Omnis cellula-e cellula -where a cell arises, there a cell must previously have existed is Exact translation
and does speak about cells dividing; tells about only the source for new cells is previous existing cells.

Exceptions to cell theory

 According to this theory all the living organism are made up of cells. Viruses are exception of this theory
because virus lacks cell organization.
 Some plant bacteria and animal like amoeba are totally unicellular and carry out all function of life with a
single cell.
 According to moderm scientists all the acellular organism - monera and protista, Xanthophytes,
(Vaucharia) Phycomycetes (Rhizopus) are exception of cell theory.
 The bodies of certain fungi are made up of protoplasm and nuclei.
 RBCs and sieve tube cells continue to live without nucleus and other vital organelles.
 Bacteria and blue-green algae do not have an organised nucleus. Their genetic material (DNA) is naked
and the cell organelles are absent.

Type Of Cells
 On the basis of nuclear organization, cells are classified into two types -
 Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell.
 Term prokaryote and Eukaryote was given by Von Neil.

Prokaryotic cell
A prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other
membrane-bound organelle. The word prokaryote comes from the Greek (pro) "before" and (karyon) "nut or
kernel. Prokaryotes reproduce without fusion of gametes. The first living organisms are thought to have
been prokaryotes.

Eukaryotic cell
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike prokaryotes
(Bacteria and Archaea), which have no membrane-bound organelles. Their name comes from the Greek (eu,
"well" or "true") and (karyon, "nut" or "kernel"). Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound
organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, and in addition, some cells of plants and algae
contain chloroplasts. Unlike unicellular archaea and bacteria, eukaryotes may also be multicellular and
include organisms consisting of many cell types forming different kinds of tissue. Animals and plants are the
most familiar eukaryotes.
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
Difference between plant and animal cell.
Plasma Membrane
Term plasma lemma was given by J.Q. Plower (1885).
Term cell membrane or plasma membrane was given by Nagelli.
Term unit membrane was given by Robertson.
At first, structure of cell membrane was studied by Overton and postulated that cell membrane is
composed of a continous layer of lipid material.
It is outermost boundary of animal cell.
Special features
Plasma membrane is a thin selective permeable & living membrane.
It is flexible and porus membrane.
Plasmalemma of animal cells is elastic due to the presence of lipids.
Model Of Cell Membrane
To describe structure of plasma membrane numerous models have been proposed but the important
model are as follow :–
Lipoidal model - This model was proposed by Overton.
Gorter and Grandel's lipid Bimolecular model (1925)
This postulated that membranes are composed of Lipid bilayer only.

Lamellar model (PLLP) - (1935):

This model was proposed by Danielli and Davson.
It is also called trilayered, trilaminar or sandwitch model.
According to this model plasma membrane is a trilayered structure composed of lipoprotein. The bilayered phospho
lipid is sandwitched in between two layer of protein molecule. The bilayered lipid is 35 Å thick whereas, each layer of
protien is 20Å thick so plasma membrane is 75Å thick (75 – 100 Å). The polar heads of the phospholipids molecules
are directed towards protein. The two are held together by electrostatic forces. The non polar tails of the two lipids
layer is directed towards the centre, where they are held together by Vander Walls forces. Plasma membrane is a
porous membrane, it has microscopic pores of 7 to 10 Å.

Unit membrane model [(1959) A.D.]

It was proposed by J. David Robertson Robertson coined the term unit membrane. According to this model all the
cellular and organeller membranes are structurally & functionally similar (difference in chemically & size).

Fluidity of the cell membrane

It has been demonstrated by the experiment conducted by Frye and Edidin (1970).

Two different animal cells i.e., human and mouse cells were taken. Human cell was labelled with red fluorescent
(rhodomine dye) antibody, whereas mouse cell was labelled with green fluorescent (fluorescein dye) antibody. Both
the cells were then fused using PEG and examined under the microscope. One half of the fused cell was observed
green and the other half as red. They are now divided into lots. One lot is kept at 0ºC, while the other is kept at 37ºC.
In the lot kept at 37ºC, there is thorough mixing of the two pigments.No mixing occurs in the fused cells kept at 0ºC,
where most of membrane lipids tend to solidify. It these cells are now kept at 37ºC, pigment mising occurs showing
that membrane or lipid fluidity has been restored.

Fluid mosaic model (1973)

This model was proposed by Singer and Nicholson. It described protein as ice bergs in a sea of lipids. It is the most
accepted model. Their is a central bilipid layer (2 layer) composed of phospholipids arranged in a specific manner.
Hydrophilic polar head constitute top and bottom surfaces. Hydrophobic non polar tail end-are buried in the
membrane. Within phospholipid, bilayer, proteins are arranged in two forms.

Extrinsic protein (30%)

Such proteins are arranged superficially on the outer and inner surfaces of membrane and can be easily removed by
mild treatment. Such proteins are soluble and unstable. Such proteins can be seperated by change in pH Spectrin,
Acetylcholine, Cytochromes are its best example.

Some protein like permeases and translocase function as carrier for the transport of materials. Spectrin are helical type
of extrinsic protein founds on cytosolic face of membrane and attached to intrinsic protein. Spectrins are part of
cytoskeleton. Plasma membrane is an asymmetrical structure because carbohydrate is presents on outer surface and
spectrin protein is present only in inner surface of plasma membrane. Intrinsic proteins (70%) Such protein partially or
wholly remain embedded in phospholipid. Such proteins can not be seperated easily.

Some intrinsic protein are confined in lipid bilayer (Stable protein). Some integral proteins traverse the complete
thickness of membrane. These type of protein are called as tunnel protein which passage water soluble material across
the membrane. Some intrinsic protein extending from outside to inside are called as transmembrane protein eg.
glycophorin, porins. Porins also founds in outer mitochondrial memberane and bacterial memberane

Chemical composition

Plasma membrane is composed of protein, lipid and carbohydrate. Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids 58-60% 1–2% 20–
40% .P.M. of human RBC have 52% protein and 40% lipids.

Phospholipids
Phospholipid is the main component of cell membrane because it forms continous structural frame of cell membrane.
Main type of phospholipids are phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidyl choline (Lecithin), (cephalin). Phospholipid layer
provides fluidity to plasma membrane because phospholipids are rich in unsaturated fatty acid which are liquid in
nature. Cholesterol is also present in plasmamembrane. Cholestrol are more rigid than phospholipid. So it helps in
stability of membrane structure at high temperature. Cholesterol is absent in membrane of prokaryote. Thus
Hopanoides (Pentacyclic sterol) provides stability to prokaryotic cell membrane.

Carbohydrates

Cell (1962) has suggested the presence of carbohydrate in plasma membrane. The plasma membrane of RBC and liver
cell contain 5% carbohydrate Hexasamine sialic acid. Attach to lipid glycolipid. Attach to protein glycoprotein.
Carbohydrate is just 1 percent of the plasma membrane. Oligosaccharides of the glycolipids & glycoproteins on the
outer surface of plasma membranes are involved in cell to cell recognition mechanism. Best example of cell
recognition is fertilisation, (where sperm & egg recognize to each other) and blood-Antigens.

FLIP-FLOP CONCEPT IN FLUID MOSAIC MODEL :

(Flip Flop means exchange of molecules from one monolayer with those in the monolayer on the otherside). However
phospholipid bilayer has fluid property but no evidence of flip flop mechanism for protein molecule Rotational
diffusion and lateral diffusion of protein and lipids is possible in membrane. Absence of flip flop movement detected
by electro spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy.

Function of plasma membrane

 Plama membrane provide definite shape to the cell. Conduction of nerve impulse takes place through plasma
membrane of nerve cell.
 Plasma membrane plays important role in recognition of various cells. e.g. Macrophages engulfes only dead RBC.
 The microvilli of intestinal cells increases surface area of absorption so, rate of absorption increase.
 The site for cells recognition are located on the surface of plasma membrane.
 The antigenic property of a cells are located on the surface of plasma membrane.
 Active transport – Occurs from lower concentration to higher concentration. During this type of transport, energy
is utilized. e.g.- Sodium-pottasium pump.
 Passive transport – Occurs from higher concentration to lower concentration. During this type of transport energy
is not utilized.
 Diffusion – Movement of ions or molecules from their high concentration to low concentration. If need carrier then
called facilitated diffusion.
 Osmosis – Osmosis always occurs through semipermeable membrane in which movement of solvent occur.
 Osmosis is of two types.
 Endoosmosis – It is the process in which water enters from surrounding medium in to the cells. It is seen when cell
is immersed in hypotonic solution.
 Exoosmosis – It is the process in which water goes out of the cell into surrounding medium. It is seen when cell
immersed in hypertonic solution. It cause plasmolysis.
 Endocytosis (Bulk transport)
 Pinocytosis or Cell Drinking - Term proposed by W.H.Lewis (1934). Ingestion of liquid material by plasmalemma
in the form of vesicles or bag like structure (Pinosome) is called pinocytosis. Phagocytosis or Cell eating - Term
given by Metchnikoff. Ingestion of solid complex materials by Membranes in the form of vesicles (Phagosome) is
called Phagocytosis.
 Exocytosis / Emiocytosis / Cell vomitting - Egestion of waste materials from cell through plasma membrane.
 Rophaeocytosis – This is transfer of complex materials from one cell to another cell, through membrane in
vescicular form. (Transfer of Hb from Red Bone marow cells to maturing RBCs is good example of
Rophaocytosis).

Points to be remembered always

Cholestrol becomes intercataled between phospholipid in membranes and increases the stability of the bilayers and
prevents the loss of membrane liquidity at low temprature.

The lipid act as a barrier to the entry or exit of charged polar substance.

Faciliatated diffusion occurs through the agency of special membrane protein called Permeases but like simple
diffusion, it does not requires metabolic energy.

Plasmolysis can be shown only by living cells. So, it can determine whether a cell is living or dead.

Cytoplasm

Mass of protoplasm lying in between outside of nucleus and plasma membrane is called cytoplasm. It was termed by
Strassberger. It is colourless homogenous, translucent, amorphous and colloidal fluid. The peripheral part of
cytoplasm is normally non- granular and clear and known as ectoplasm. The inner portion is granular and less viscous
known as endoplasm. Ground plasm / Hyaloplasm / Cytosol Liquid matrix of cytoplasm except organelles.
Trophoplasm Part of cytoplasm containing organelles & non living inclusions. Cell inclusions are non -living matter.

Cell organelles

Cell organelles are organised structure of cytoplasm capable of growth and in some cases multiplication. Double
membranous structure Nucleus, Mitochondria and Plastids. Single membranous structure Lysosomes ,Microbodies,
Golgi complex and Endoplasmic reticulum. Non membranous structures Ribosome and centriole.

Mitochondria

Power house of cell or ATP-mill in cell. Cell within cell / second largest organelle Cell furanaces or storage batteries.
Most busy and active organelle in cell Semi autonomous cell organelle. It was discovered by Kolliker 1880. (In
straited muscles of insect) It was named bioplast by Altman in 1886. It was named mitochondria by C. Benda. C.
Benda stained it with crystal voilet.

Mitochondria is present in immature RBC. It occur in all cells except RBC and prokaryotes. In prokaryotes the
respiratory enzyme are present on the cell membrane instead of mitochondria (mesosome). Mitochondria are
distributed through out the cytoplasm and are localised at the sites engaged in higher metabolic activities. It also found
at the base of cilia to provide energy for movement. It also found in the light band of muscle to provide energy for
contraction.

The cell in which energy requirement is high possess large numbers of mitochondria.

Microsterias and Tripanosoma & Chlorella (Algae) - One

Yeast - Less than 10.
Liver cells - 500
Kidney 300 to 400
Chaos chaos (amoeba) - (5 lakh).
Number of mitochondria is highest in flight muscles of
Birds. (sarcosome)
Generally in plant cell number of mitocondria is less,
incomparison to animal cell.
Shape and size

Mitochondria may be spiral, rod shaped, spherical elongated or cup shaped. Yeast cell possess smallest mitochondria
(0.1 ). Oocytes of amphibians possess largest mitochondria (40).

Structure

Mitochondria is covered by double unit membrane. Outer membrane has more phospholipids (Phosphatidyl choline)
and cholesterol as compared to inner membrane. Phospholipid in inner membrane is mainly diphosphatidyl glycerol
and inner membrane have more protein. Each membrane is 60-75 Å thick and separated by a space (80 - 100 Å) called
perimitochondrial space. This space is rich in coenzymes and enzymes required for oxidation of fats. If outer
membrane of mitochondria is removed then structure is called as mitoplast. Outer surface of inner membrane is called
C-face while inner surface called M-face. Some sessile particles attached to outer membrane are known as “subunit of
parsons”.

Inner Membrane

It is projected into the central space in the form of finger like projections called cristae-cristae name was given by
Palade. The cristae increase the surface area and provide abundant space for metabolism. Inner membrane is
selectively permeable. It contains all enzymes of electron transport chain. Elementary particles or oxysome or F1–
particles F1 particles was at first described by Fernandez moran. It contain enzyme of electron transport system and
oxidative phosphorylation. It differentiated into base, stalk and head. A mitochondria may contain 104–105 particle.

The head piece (f1) is associated with ATP synthesis by enzyme ATPase Base (Multiprotein complex). It is also called
F0 subunit. It is embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane. F0 subunit is also called oligomycin sensitivity
conferring protiens (OSCP). (It provide tunnel for protons)

Matrix

Mitochondrial matrix have enzyme for kreb’s cycle. Beside these enzymes matrix have a complete protein synthesis
apparatus (Ribosome (70-s), DNA & RNA, enzyme) Mitocondrial DNA was discovered by Nash and Margit in 1963.
One to many (6kb to 36kb long) double stranded mainly circular naked DNA is present is mitochondrial matrix.
Mitochondrial DNA is 1% of total DNA is a cell. It is rich is G-C content Enzymes for replication and transcription of
DNA like DNA-polymerase and RNA-polymerase are found in Mitochondrial matrix. Mitochondria of mammals have
55 s ribosomes (35s, 25s units)

Function of mitochondria

Mitochodria is site for cellular respiration because it contains all enzymes required for it. Since mitochondria is a site
of cellular respiration energy, (ATP) is formed in it.

Mitochondria help in yolk formation during the development of ovum. (vitellogenesis) Mitochondria help in
formation of middle piece of sperm during sperm maturation. (spiral sheath) Mitochondria help in elongation of fatty
acids.

Mitochondria as semi autonomous organelles

Altman stated mitochondria as semiautonomous organelle. The mitochondria DNA carries enough information for the
synthesis of about 30 proteins only but that is not enough to make a new mitochondria, so the mitochondria depend
upon the nuclear DNA. Cytoplasmic enzyme and other molecules of the cell, using all the machinery mitochondria
replicates, during cell division. Mitochondrial DNA produces its own m-RNA, t-RNA and r-RNA. Biogenesis of
mitochondria By Division Endosymbiotic origin from Purple Sulphur bacteria or prokaryotic cells, because
mitochondria are similar to prokaryotic cell in - Structure of DNA and DNA sequences Type of ribosomes (70s).
Sensitivity of Antibiotic chloremphenicol with protein synthesis. Divide by amitosis or fission

Note : In scurvy disease numerous mitocondria combine with each other and from large lobe called condriosphere
chondriome.

Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)

It was discovered by Porter in 1945. It was first of all observed under light microscope by Garnier in 1897. The term
E.R. was first of all used by Porter. It was named ergastoplasm by Garnier. Robertson described relationship
inbetween endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membrane.

Occurence
It is absent in Prokaryotes, present in all eukaryotes except germinal cells and mature mammalian erythrocytes. It is
found scattered in whole cytoplasm. Structure of E.R. is like the golgi body but in E.R. cisternae, vesicles and tubules
are isolated in cytoplasm and these do not form complex Golgi body is localised cell organelle while E.R. is
widespread in cytoplasm. E.R. is often termed as “System of membranes”

Ultrastructure

Endoplasmic reticulum is network of highly branched fine tubules. Its one end, is connected with nuclear membrane
whereas other end with plasma membrane. It is composed of three types of forms which are as follows.

Cisternae – It is elongated flattened, unbranched tubular structure which are found arranged in parallel rows. It is
generally granular due to presence of ribosome. It is mainly found in cells actively indulged in protein synthesis like
in liver, pancreas etc.

Vesicles – It is rounded oval form of 25-500 micron. It is found well scattered in the cytoplasm. It is mainly found in
protien forming cells. It is also granular structure.

Tubules – It is tubular, highly branched, found near the cells membrane. It is smooth structure, because ribosome is
absent from its surface. It is mainly found in cells associated with synthesis of cholesterol, glycerides, hormones etc.

Types of E.R.

SER - In Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ribosome is not found.

RER - In Rough endoplasmic reticulum ribosomes is found on the surface of ER.

Note :

Ribosome are attached to ER by a glycoprotein called ribophorin-I & II. SER of pigmented epithelial cells of retina is
called myeloid body. RER of nerve cells is called nissle's granules (Ergastoplasm)

Origin – SER get originated from RER by loss of ribosome. RER arises by evagination of outer nuclear membrane.

Chemical composition

E.R is composed of lipoprotein. Protein constitute 60 % whereas lipids 40%.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum – These smooth E.R. occurs in skeletal and cardiac muscles. S.E.R. Stores Ca+2 and energy
rich compounds required for muscle contraction.

T-tubules - these are transversely arranged tubules in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. These transmits stimulus for
contraction of muscls.

Microsome – These are fragments of E.R. associated with ribosome.

It was was first discovered by Claude in 1951. It is obtained by high speed centrifugation.
Functions

 E.R. acts as cytoskeleton and provide mechanical support and shape to the cell.
 E.R. helps in the formation of primary lysosome, Golgi body, microbodies etc.
 E.R. also helps in synthesis of nuclear envelope during telophase.
 It helps in lipid synthesis.(Phospholipid & Cholestrol) It helps in synthesis of steroid hormone.
 It helps in glycogenolysis. (glycogen glucose) It helps in synthesis of ascorbic acid.
 Protein synthesis
 Intracellular exchange - E.R. forms intracellular conducting system. Transport of materials in cytoplasm from one
place to another may occurs through the E.R. Cellular metabolism - The membranes of the reticulum provides an
increased surface for metabolic activitities within the cytoplasm.
 Detoxification - Smooth ER concerned with detoxification of drugs, pollutants and steroids. Cytochrome P450 in
E.R. act as enzyme which function in detoxification of drugs and other toxins.
 It provides the precursor of secretory material to golgi body.

Ribosome

Ribosome was discovered & term by Palade Ribosome was at first seen by Claude in electron microscope in animal
cell. Ribosome was discovered by Robinson and Brown in plant cell of bean roots. Ribosome are without any
membrane. Ribosomes are the smallest and largest in number organelles in a cell. Ribosome are also called as
“Organelle with in an organelle” & “Protein factory of cell”.

Occurrence

Ribosome are small organelles found in all types of cells (except mature mammal RBC). In prokaryotes ribosomes are
attached with plasma membrane and some are scattered in the cytoplasm, because no ER is found. In eukaryotes
ribosomes are scattered in the cytoplasm and attached to
endoplamic reticulum and outer nuclear membrane. They are
found in large number in protein synthesizing cells.

Ultrastructure of ribosome

Each ribosome composed of two subunits i.e. larger and smaller

subunits. Larger subunit is dome shaped and smaller unit is
ovoid. Smaller subunit has a platform, a cleft & head. The larger
subunit has a protuberance, a ridge and a stalk. Larger subunit
also contains a tunnel which opens in cavity of E.R.

80s = 60s + 40s

70s = 50s + 30s

Magnesium ion is essential for the binding the ribosome sub units. Mg+2 form ionic bond with phosphate groups of r–
RNA of two subunits.

Types

Ribosome is mainly of two types, which are as follows – Prokaryotic Ribosome (60% RNA + 40% protein)
Prokaryotic ribosome is 70S. 70S ribosome have two subunits 50S and 30S. 50S It is larger subunit. Its base is
spherical. RNA found is 23'S rRNA and 5S rRNA.

Note : S = Swedberg unit or Sedimentation rate.

Polyribosomes or polysome
At the time of protein synthesis two subunits of ribosomes get attached. Many ribosomes get attached with mRNA and
known as polyribosome or polysome. Larger subunit of ribosome get attached with - ER through ribophorine-I & II.
Smaller subunits of ribosome get attached with mRNA.

Chemical composition – It is composed of RNA and Protein (Ribonucleoprotein). 55S ribosome in mitochondria of
mammal.

Biogenesis

In prokaryotes ribosome originate in cytoplasm. In eukaryotes ribosome originates in nucleolus. Therefore nucleolus
is also called as ribosomal factory. After synthesis move to cytoplasm where protein synthesis occur. The proper
folding and transport of proteins is assisted by specific proteins called chaperons.

Function

Main function of ribosome is protein synthesis so called protein factory or cell engine.

Nucleus

Nuclear membrane :- Nucleus is surrounded by two unit membranes, thus nucleus is double membranous component
of cell. Space (150 to 300Å) between two membranes is known as perinuclear space. Outer membrane, of nucleus may
connected with E.R. at several places and ribosome also may found on it. Nuclear membrane is perforated by minute
nuclear pores of size, 300 to 1000Å diameter. Each nuclear pore is guarded by a octagonal discoid structure of
nucleoplasmin protein this structure is called as annulus or Bleb. (Annulus + Pore = Nuclear Pore complex).

Nuclear pore mainly regulates :- Proteins moving into the nucleus to be incorporated into nulear structure or to
catalyse nuclear activities. RNA & protein-RNA complexes formed in nucleus and exported to cytoplasm. The inner
side of inner nuclear membrane is lined by nuclear lamina. This structure is formed by filaments of lamin protein. Pore
complex provides the main channel, between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm, while nucleoplasmin regulates
nucleocytoplasmic traffic.

Nucleoplasm or Karyolymph :- (Term by Strasburger 1882) Nucleoplasm or Nuclear sap is a ground substance of
nucleus which is a complex colloidal formed of a number of chemicals like nucleotides, nucleosides, ATPs, proteins
and enzymes of RNA and DNA polymerases, endonucleases, minerals, (Ca++, Mg++) etc. Nucleoplasm contain high
concentration of Nucelotides in the form of triphosphate. Nucleoplasm also have enzymes for Glycolysis, thus nucleus
may obtain energy by glycolysis. Chromatin net and nucleolus are embeded in nucleoplasm. Nucleoplasm provides
site for process of transcription.

Chromatin net : - (Term given by Flemming) It is an intranuclear, (stained with basic dyes) long, thread like fine
fibers, which embeded in nucleoplasm. Chromatin net is mainly formed of DNA and histone protein complexes.
Chromatin fibres contain genetic information and condensed to form constant number of chromosomes during cell
division. Chemically chromatin consists of DNA (31%), RNA (2-5%), Histone protein (36%) and non histone protein
(28%). On the basis of relative amount of arginine and lysin there are five type of Histone protein. (H2A, H2B,
H3,H4, H1)

Chromatin net has two type of chromatins (by Emil Heitz)

Euchromatin :- This is lightly stained and diffused part of chromatin. Which is transcriptionally or genetically more
active. Generally euchromatin lies at central part of nucleus.

Heterochromatin :- This is a dark stained, thick and condensed part of chromatin this part have more histone and less
acidic protein. Heterochromatin is genetically less active chromatin and forms stop point in transcription.
Heterochromatin occurs near nuclear membrane.

Constitutive heterochromatin :- Occurs in all cells in all stages e.g. centromeric region.
Facultative heterochromatin :- Occurs in some cells in some stages. e.g., Barr body. Barr body in female cell is a
facultative heterochromatic structure. (By M.Barr). Number of Barr body in nucleus of an individual is number of (X-
chromosome) minus one.

Heterochromatin takes light stain during cell division stages (M-phase) & takes dark stain during interphase.
Nucleolus :- Discovered by Fontana and Term by Bowman. Nucleolus is naked or membraneless, rounded or slightly
irregular structure present in nucleus and usually attached to chromatin (or chromosomes) of specific site called
Nucleolar organiser region/NOR. Number of nucleolus in a nucleus is one. Onion cell has 4, and in oocytes of
amphibian has 2000 nucleoli. Nucleoli absent in sperm cell, muscle cell etc. Human cell has 5 nuleoli (13, 14, 15, 21
and 22nd). Calcium is essential for maintenance of nucleolus. Nucleolus disappears during late Prophase and
reappears in telophase.

Chemistry of nucleolus :- Proteins 85%, RNA 10% and DNA 5%. Electron microscope has shown nucleolus to be
made of following parts :

Fibrillar region :- This is central fibrous part of nucleolus, which is consist of mainly rDNA and proteins.

(Nucleonema)

Granular region :- This is peripheral granular part of nucleolus which is consist of rRNA and proteins.
Amorphous matrix or pars amorpha :- This is proteinaceous ground matrix, which contains both fibrous and
granulus.

Functions

Ribosome formation is the chief role of nucleolus, thus is called as Ribosome factory of cell, the proteins of ribosome
are synthesised in cytoplasm but it diffused in to nucleus and reach at nucleolus. Here rRNA and ribosomal proteins
are assembled to form ribosomes which move to cytoplasm through nuclear pores.

Karyosome / Chromcentre / False Nucleoli - At some place hetrochromatin form thick, dark dense granule.

Functions of nucleus

 Genetic information :- Nucleus contains genetic information in its chromatin. (store house of genetic material)
Transmission of genetic information :- Nucleus takes part in transmission of genetical information from parent cell
to daughter cell or the one generation to next.
 In cell-division :- Division of nucleus is pre-requisite to cell division.
 Control of metabolism :- Nucleus controls metabolism of cell by sending m-RNA in cytosol (Basically
biomolecule DNA controls cellular activities through directing synthesis of enzyme).
 Variations :- Variation develope due to change in genetic material of nucleus. (Evolutionary role).

Chromosomes

At the time of cell division the chromatin material get condensed to form chromosome, thus chromosome is highly
condensed form of the chromatin. Chromosomes are not visible during interphase stage. First of all, chromosomes was
observed by Hofmeister (1818) and Karl Nageli in pollen mother cells of Tradescantia. Strasburger (1875) described
chromosome structure appeared in nucleus during cell division. (Credit of discover of chromosomes goes to
Strasburger). Term “Chromosome” was proposed by Waldeyer in 1889. (Term ‘Chromatin, was suggested by
Flemming.) Trillium plant has longest chromosome. Chromosomes can be best studies at metaphase stage because
size of chromosome is the shortest during metaphase due to highly condensation of chromatin threads by gelation,
dehydration and coiling.

Chromosomal theory of inheritance, was given by Sutton & Boveri. Generally chromosomes in plants are larger than
chromosomes of animals, but number of chromosome is high in animals as compared to plants.

Maximum no. of chromosome Aulocantha (protozoa) = 1600.

Maximum no. of chromosome in plant ophioglossum (pteridophyta) = 1262

T.H. Tijo and Levon reported 2n = 46 in human cell. 2n = number of chromosome in diploid cell. n = number of
chromosome in haploid cell. x = Basic number in one set of earliest ancestor. The number of chromosome is definate
for each species. For example every normal human being has 46 chromosomes in each body cell. Gametes of all
diploid organisms contain only one of each chromsome. The number of chromosomes in a gamete is called “Genome”
or haploid chromosome. (Human 23) “A complete set (n) of chromosome (all genes) inherited as a unit from one
parent is known as genome”.

Structure of chromosome

Metaphase chromosome

Pellicle :- This is outermost, thin proteinaceous covering

or sheath of chromosome.

Matrix :- Ground substance of chromosome, which has

different type of enzymes, minerals, water,
proteins.Chromonema (singular chromonemata) :- Term
by Vejdovsky. This is an important, gentical, highly
coiled thread, throughout the length of a chromosome or
chromatid . It was called chromonema. Each
chromonemata is consist of a single long thread of DNA
associated with histone. Sometimes bead like structure are
seen on chromonema fibres, which are called as
chromomeres

Type of coiling in chromonema -

Plectonemic-coiling :- When both the chromonema are

inter twined and can not be separated easily. (in mitotic
prophase chromosomes)

Paranemic coiling :- When both chromonema can be easily seperable. In meiotic prophase.

Centromere/Kinetochore :- (Primary constriction) Each chromosome (at metaphase) is consist of two half
chromosome or two chromatids. Both the chromatids of a chromosome are joined or connected by a structure called
Centromere. At this point or centromere two protein discs are present which is called Kinetochore. Kinetochores
contitute the actual site of attachement of spindles to chromosomes during cells division. Centromeric DNA is called
as alphoid DNA (Hetrochromatic).

At the region of centromere the chromosome is comparatively narrower than remaining part of chromosome,thus it is
termed as Primary constriction. Chromatid :- At metaphase stage each chromosome is consist of two cylindrical
structures - called Chromatids.Both sister chromatids or longitudinal half chromatids (in Anaphase or Telophase) or
two chromatid. (as in metaphase)

Secondary constriction : Besides primary constrictions one or two, other constriciton may also occurs on some
chromosome, which are known as secondary constriction. Secondary constriction is also known as NOR (Nucleolar
organiser region) (13,14,15,21,22 chromosomes in human).

Satellite / Trabent – Found in chromosome in which secondary constriction is found. It is small spherical part of
chromosome distal to secondary constriction. Chromosome with satellite is called SAT chromosomes. Telomere Tip
of chromosome is known as telomere. (rich in guanine base) show polarity. Perform two important function. It prevent
ends of two chromosomes from sticking with each other. (fusing of chromosome) Help chromosome in attachment to
nuclear envelope. Enzyme telomerase present in Telomere which is a type of Ribozyme.
Type of Chromosome on basis of position of centromere

Metacentric - Centromere in mid two arms are equal so chromosome is v-shaped.

Submetacentric - Centromere slightly away from mid so chromosome is L-shaped.

Acrocentric - Centromere occupies sub terminal position, so one arm is very long whereas other arm is extremely
short. Acrocentric chromosome is J-shaped.

Telocentric - Centromere occupies terminal most position so chromosome is single armed.

Ultra structure of the chromosome

Single strand models :- (Supported by crossing over) Uninemal model :- Given by Ris. According to this model each
chromatid of chromosome is consist of one DNA molecule.

Folded fibre model :- Proposed by Du Praw. According to this model, chromosome is consist of highly folded single
DNA molecule.

Nucleosome model :- Bead like structure in chromatin was first observed by Olin’s et al. This model was proposed by
Kornberg & Thomas in 1974. It is most important and universally accepted model for the structure of chromosome.
This model explain that how giant DNA molecule and histone (Chromatin) packeaged in to a chromosome. Term
nucleosome was given by P.Oudet in 1975. “Nucleosome is a unit of chromatin (Chromosome) which is composed of
about 200 base pairs of the DNA and an Octamer (Core particle) of four types (H2A, H2B, H3 & H4) of histone
proteins”. Nucleosome is also known as Nu-body or -particle / PS-particle.

Special type of Chromosome (GIANT CHROMOSOME)

Lampbrush Chromosome – It was first observed by Flemming (1882) in amphibian oocyte at Diplotene stage of cell
division. A detail study was made by J.
Ruckert (1892) in the oocyte of sharks. Found
in the oocytes of insect, sharks, amphibian,
reptiles and birds which produce yolky eggs.
Lampbrush chromosome composed of main
axis which possess series of chromomere.
Main axis formed of DNA and Protein. Main
axis give rise to lateral loops (composed of
DNA). Lateral loops axis remain surrounded
by matrix. Matrix is composed of RNA and
Protein. It is concerned with protein synthesis,
yolk formation (vitellogenesis) and RNA
synthesis.
Polytene Chromosome / Salivary Gland Chromosome - It was discovered by Balbiani in 1881. It is found in
salivary gland of chironomous larva, Salivary gland, malphigian tubule, epithelial lining of drosophila, salivary glands
of certain Diptera. The larger size of chromosome is due to the presence of numerous chromatids so called
polytene(Many stranded) chromosome. Numerous chromatids (512 to 1000) presence is because of repeted division of
chromosome without centromeric and nuclear division such division is called endomitosis or endoreduplication.
Ecdyson hormone of insect stimulates formation of balbiani ring. Polytene chromosome is related with metamorphosis
of an insect.

Supernumerary / B-Chromosome / Accessory Chromosome

In certain plants and animal one or more additional chromosome were observed in addition to the normal number
called supranumerary chromosome (named by D.Jones). It is genetically inert, Heterochromatic and small sized. It is
present in the nucleus. Its presence does not affect an organism phenotypically if its number is high they reduce the
fertility and vigour. Wilson in 1905 discovered it in metapodium insect. Increase ecological adaptation to organism.

Special note

Megachromosome – It was seen in hybrid tobacco plant. Its size is 15 times more in comparison to normal
chromosome.

Isochromosomes – When the both arms of the chromosome are identical or gentically similar. Then chromosomes
called as isochromosomes. If arm of a telocentric chromosome is splitted upto centromere then a metacentric
chromosome with two identical arms is formed. such chromosome is called isochromosome.

Ring chromsome – Prokaryotic chromosome are ring chromosome or consists of circular folded DNA without
histone.

Sex chromosome – May be XX or XY

Artificial chromosome – HACs, MACs, YACs, BACs, etc.

Human Chromosomes – Human chromosomes are morphologically numbered into 7 groups (size and position of
centromere)

Group :

A : 1 - 3 chromosome, largest size, submeta or metacentric.

B : 4 - 5 chromosome, less large size, submetacentric.
C : 6 - 12 chromosome, medium size, submetacentric.
D : 13 - 15 chromosome, shorter than group ‘c’, acrocentric and SAT chromosome.
E : 16 - 18 chromosome, short size, meta / submetacentric.
F : 19 - 20 chromosome, short size, metacentric.
G : 21 - 22 chromosome, smallest, Acrocentric & SAT.

X-chromosome - C-group, large size, submetacentric. Y-chromosome - G-group, short size, acrocentric, satellite
absent.

Karyotype – It is external morphology of Chromosomes which is specific for each species of living organisms.
Karyotype can be studied in metaphase of mitosis. Karyotype includes the number of chromosomes, relative size,
position of centromere, length of the arms, secondary constrictions and banding patterns. Banding technique is used to
study of the specific pattern of band and interbands on chromosome. This include the use of flurochromes (Flurescent
dyes).