Mini Project Report on

A STUDY OF MANUFACTURING OF STEAM TURBINES

AT

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD.

STEAM & GAS TURBINES PLANT,
HYDERABAD, TELANGANA.

Submitted by

E.Pavan Kumar 17075A2401

S.Pravalika 16071A2444
​Ismail Baig 16071A0381
K.Lohith Krishna 16071A0389
M.Saketh Varma 16071A0393

Under the guidance of

M. Rajeshwara Chary
Deputy Manager (TC - Production), BHEL, Hyderabad

VNR VIGNANA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to JNTUH & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)

Bachupally, Nizampet SO, Hyderabad, Telangana - 500090.

 ​ ​INDEX

1. Introduction
i.About BHEL
ii.About BHEL HYDERABAD
2. Thermal power plant system
i. Advantages & Disadvantages
ii.Efficiency of a Thermal Power Plant
3. Rankine cycle
​i.Description
​ii.Processes in Rankine cycle
iii. Parameters influencing boiler efficiency
i​V. Methods to increase the efficiency of Rankine cycle
4. Steam turbines
​i. Operation
ii. Components of a steam turbine
iii. Classification of steam turbines
i​V​. Applications of steam turbines
​V.​ ​Steam turbines in BHEL
5. Manufacture of a steam turbine blade
i. Introduction
ii. Blade material
iii. Mechanical properties
i​V​. Steps involved in the manufacture of a blade
​ ​. Manufacturing process of a blade
V
Vi​. Root radius
​ ii​. Blade fastening
V
6. Conclusion

7. References
Introduction
BHEL - Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy-related/infrastructure
sector, today. BHEL was established more than 40 years ago, ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical
Equipment industry in India - a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized track record
of performance. The company has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends since
1976-77.BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups and caters to core sectors of
the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation & Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication,
Renewable Energy, etc. The wide network of BHEL's 14 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional
centres, over 100 project sites, eight service centres and 18 regional offices, enables the Company to promptly
serve its customers and provide them with suitable products, systems and services -- efficiently and
at competitive prices. The high level of quality & reliability of its products is due to the emphasis on design,
engineering and manufacturing to international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best
technologies from leading companies in the world, together with technologies developed in its own R&D
centres BHEL has
•Installed equipment for over 90,000 MW of power generation -- for Utilities, Captive and Industrial users.
•Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacity and other equipment operating in Transmission &
Distribution network up to 400 kV (AC & DC).
•Supplied over 25,000 Motors with Drive Control System to Power projects, Petrochemicals, Refineries, Steel,
Aluminum, Fertilizer, Cement plants, etc.
•Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000kms Railway network.
•Supplied over one million Valves to Power Plants and other Industries. BHEL's operations are organised
around three business sectors, namely Power, Industry - including Transmission, Transportation,
Telecommunication & Renewable ​Energy - and Overseas Business. This enables BHEL to have a strong
customer orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and respond quickly to the changes in the market.
The fourteen manufacturing Divisions are located at
•Bhopal(Madhya Pradesh)
•Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited, Ranipur, Haridwar (Uttarakhand)
•Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)
•Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh)
•Tiruchirapalli(Tamil Nadu)
•Ranipet (Tamil Nadu)
•Bangalore (Karnataka)
•Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh)
•Rudrapur (Uttrakhand)
•Goindwal (Punjab)
•Bharat Heavy Plates and Vessels Limited (Vizag)
Besides these manufacturing units there are four power sectors which undertake EPC contract from various
customers. The Research and Development arm of BHEL is situated in Hyderabad and two repair shops are
at HERP(Heavy Equipment Repair Plant),Varanasi and EMRP(Electric machines repair plant) Mumbai.

BHEL-Hyderabad
As a member of the prestigious 'BHEL family', BHEL-Hyderabad has earned a reputation as one of its most
important manufacturing units, contributing its lion's share in BHEL Corporation's overall business operations.
The Hyderabad unit was set up in 1963 and started its operations with manufacture of Turbo-generator sets
and auxiliaries for 60 and 110 MW thermal utility sets.
Over the years it has increased its capacity range and diversified its operations to many other areas. Today, a
wide range of products are manufactured in this unit, catering to the needs of a variety of industries like
Fertilisers & Chemicals, Petrochemicals & Refineries , Paper, sugar, steel,etc. BHEL-Hyderabad unit has
collaborations with world renowned MNCs like M/SGeneral Electric, USA, M/S Siemens, Germany, M/S
Nuovo Pignone, etc. Major products of this unit's manufacture include the following.
•Gas turbines
•Steam turbines
•Compressors
•Turbo generators
•Heat Exchangers
•Pumps
•Pulverizers
•Switch Gears
•Gear Boxes
•Oil Rigs
•Project Engineering
Thermal power plant system :

A ​thermal power station​ is a ​power station​ in which the heat energy is converted to ​electric power​. In most
of the places in the world the ​turbine​ is ​steam​-driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam
turbine which drives an ​electrical generator​. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is ​condensed​ in
a ​condenser​ and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a ​Rankine cycle​. The greatest variation in
the design of thermal power stations is due to the different heat sources; ​fossil fuel​ dominates here, although
nuclear heat energy; solar heat energy, biofuels and waste incineration are also used. Some prefer to use the
term energy center ​because such facilities convert forms of ​heat​ ​energy​ into electrical energy. Certain thermal
power stations are also designed to produce heat energy for industrial purposes, or ​district heating​,
or ​desalination​ of water, in addition to generating electrical power.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of A Thermal Power Plant

Advantages:

▪ Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.

▪ It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.

▪ The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.

▪ The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.

Disadvantages:

▪ It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one of the causes of
global warming.

▪ The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).

Efficiency Of A Thermal Power Station

A huge amount of heat is lost in various stages of the plant. Major part of heat is lost in the condenser. That is
why the efficiency of thermal plants is quite low.

1. Thermal Efficiency​: The ratio of 'heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the turbine
shaft' to the 'heat of coal combustion' is called as thermal efficiency.

Thermal efficiency of modern thermal power stations is about 30%. It means, if 100 calories of heat are
produced by coal combustion, the mechanical energy equivalent of 30 calories will be available at the turbine
shaft.

2. Overall Efficiency​: The ratio of 'heat equivalent of electrical output' to the 'heat of coal combustion' is
called as overall
Rankine Cycle
The ​Rankine cycle​ is a model used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems. It was also
used to study the performance of reciprocating steam engines. The Rankine cycle is an
idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work while
undergoing phase change. It is an idealized cycle in which friction losses in each of the four
components are neglected. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as
the working fluid . It is named after William John Macqron Rankine

Description:

The Rankine cycle closely describes the process by which steam-operated heat engines commonly found in
thermal power generation plants to generate power.

Power depends on the temperature difference between a heat source and a cold source. The higher the
difference, the more mechanical power can be efficiently extracted out of heat energy, as per Carnot’s
Cycle.The heat sources used in these power plants are usually nuclear fission or the combustion of
fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil, or concentrated solar power . The higher the temperature,
the better. The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the high heat of vaporization of the
working fluid. Also, unless the pressure and temperature reach super critical levels in the steam boiler,
 the temperature range the cycle can operate over is quite small: steam turbine entry temperatures are
typically around 565 °C and steam condenser temperatures are around 30 °C. This gives a theoretical
maximum Carnot efficiency for the steam turbine alone of about 63.8% compared with an actual
overall thermal efficiency of up to 42% for a modern coal-fired power station. This low steam turbine
entry temperature (compared to a gas turbine) is why the Rankine (steam) cycle is often used as a
bottoming cycle to recover otherwise rejected heat in combined-cycle gas turbine power stations.
The cold source (the colder the better) used in these power plants are usually cooling towers and a
large waterbody (river or sea). The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited on the cold side by the
lower practical temperature of the working fluid. The working fluid in a Rankine cycle follows a
closed loop and is reused constantly. The water vapor with condensed droplets often seen billowing
from power stations is created by the cooling systems (not directly from the closed-loop Rankine
power cycle). This 'exhaust' heat is represented by the "Q​out​" flowing out of the lower side of the cycle
shown in the T–s diagram below. Cooling towers operate as large heat exchangers by absorbing the
latent heat of vaporisation of the working fluid and simultaneously evaporating cooling water to the
atmosphere.

The four processes in the Rankine cycle:

T-s diagram of a typical Rankine cycle operating between pressures of 0.06 bar and 50 bar. Left from
the bell-shaped curve is liquid, right from it is gas, and under it is saturated liquid–vapour equilibrium.

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. The states are identified by numbers (in brown) in
the T-s diagram

● Process 1–2​: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the fluid is a liquid at this
stage, the pump requires little input energy.

● Process 2–3​: The high-pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an
external heat source to become a dry saturated vapour. The input energy required can be easily
 calculated graphically, using an enthalpy-entropy chart (h-s chart, or Mollier diagram), or numerically,
using steam tables.

● Process 3–4​: The dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine, generating power. This decreases
the temperature and pressure of the vapour, and some condensation may occur. The output in this
process can be easily calculated using the chart or tables noted above.

● Process 4–1​: The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure to
become a saturated liquid.
Parameters influencing boiler efficiency:

General efficiency equation of a boiler

(1) Eff = Absorbed Heat / Energy Input

The equation says nothing about the fact that not all adsorbed heat is useful heat. For instance the blow
down is certainly “adsorbed” heat but rarely “useful”. In other words the energy in the blow down will
be lost to ambient but any change in the blowdown rate will not affect the system efficiency.

Equation (1) was converted into another equation

(2) Eff = 1 - Losses / Energy Input

It was shown that equation (1) and equation (2) are equal and should give the same result.

The energy input to the system is in the most simple case the energy of the fuel and the enthalpy of the
combustion air. However one may add to the energy input the steam necessary to atomize the fuel, or
the electricity needed to power all electric motors of the boiler. In large power plant boilers it is
especially important to draw a system boundary and prepare a list of all energy flows that enter and
leave the system boundary.

Using the efficiency simulator one will notice that system efficiency does not change at all if the
following parameters are:

1.The Steam Pressure

2.The Steam Temperature

3.The blow down fraction

The above parameters do not enter equation (2) and consequently the system efficiency will not
change.Nevertheless lowering the steam pressure or temperature or increasing the condensate return
 and temperature will certainly save fuel. There is absolutely nothing wrong with the definition of
efficiency, except the fact that we may save fuel by not changing the system efficiency at all.
Whenever Ps , Ts, xBD, xcon,Tcon, change the steam output changes as well, but the efficiency stays
the same. Consequently we cannot calculate the fuel savings by the equation

(3) Fuel Saving % = ( Eff new - Eff old ) / Eff new

Another peculiarity is the savings one may achieve by preheating the air or the feedwater. The
efficiency definition does not provide for entering the temperature of preheated air or feedwater,
because preheating devices such as an economizer and air preheater are inside the system boundary. In
other words preheating of the combustion air and the feedwater is taken into account through lowering
the stack gas temperature.

So basically, the major purpose of writing it to again clarify that fuel saving does not necessarily mean
the increase in efficiency. Currently I have worked an oil water emulsion technique which makes nano
particle mix of fuel saving 3-5% fuel but there is no change in the efficiency of the system as none of
the boiler parameter is changing. This makes saving just by using water as fuel.

Methods to increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle

Basic idea: Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or
decrease the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.

1. Lowering the condenser Pressure:-

Lowering the operating pressure of the condenser lowers the temperature at which heat is rejected. The overall
effect of lowering the condenser pressure is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
2. Superheating the steam to high temperatures:-

The average temperature at which heat is added to the steam can be increased without increasing the boiler
pressure by superheating the steam to high temperatures.

Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has another very desirable effect: It decreases the moisture
content of the steam at the turbine exit.

3. Increasing the Boiler pressure:-

Increasing the operating pressure of the boiler, automatically raises the temperature at which boiling takes
place.

This raises the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam and thus raises the thermal efficiency
of the cycle..
4. Regeneration:

In the regenerative cycle the dry saturated steam from the boiler enters the turbine at a higher temperature and
then expands entropic ally to a lower temperature in the same way as that of Rankine and Carnot cycle. Now
the condensate from the condenser is pumped back and circulated around the casing, in a direction opposite to
the steam flow in turbine. The steam is thus heated before entering into the boiler. Such a system of heating is
known as regenerative heating, as the steam is used to heat the steam itself. The ideal regenerative cycle has
efficiency equal to that efficiency of Carnot cycle with the same heat supply and heat rejection temperatures. It
is impossible to achieve the cycle, in actual practice due to not possible to affect the necessary heat transfer
from the steam in the turbine to the liquid feed water and moisture content of the steam leaving the turbine is
considerably increased as a result of the heat transfer.
5. Reheat :

In basic rankine cycle, after the isentropic development in turbine, steam is specifically fed into condenser for
condensation process. There are two turbines in the reheat system which is utilized for enhancing
effectiveness. Steam, after extension from high pressure turbine, is sent again to boiler and heated till it comes
to superheated condition. It is then left to extend in low pressure turbine to accomplish condenser pressure.
The processes of reheat rankine cycle are explained below using the enthalpy-entropy diagram.
Process 1-2
This process is known as high pressure turbine.
Obtain the work-done by turbine using enthalpies of inlet and exit.

Where, h1 is the enthalpy for inlet state 1 and h2 is the enthalpy for outlet state 2.
To find the values of h1 and h2, use the given values of pressure and temperature at point 1 to calculate first
entropy at state 1(S1) and enthalpy (h1) from the superheated steam table.
Next to find the variable is dryness fraction to calculate the value of entropy at exit state 2 (S2) with the given
formula.

Write the formula for enthalpy at exit state 2.

Process 2-3
This process is known as boiler.
In this process calculate the values of h3 and S3.
Process 3-4
This process is known as low pressure turbine.
In this process calculate the values of h4 and S4.
Where, S4 is the entropy at state 4.
Process 4-5
This process is known as condenser.
In this process calculate the heat expelled from condenser.

Process 5-6
This process is known as pump.
In this process work done is calculated by the pump.

Where, h6 is the enthalpy at state 6.

Process 6-1
This process is known as boiler.
In this process obtain the heat supplied.
Steam Turbines

Operation
The​ ​expansion of steam through numerous stages in the turbine causes the turbine rotor to rotate. Steam
expands through impulse stage or reaction stage.
•Impulse steam turbine stage consists as usual from stator which is known as the nozzle and rotor or moving
blades
•Impulse turbines are characterized by the that most or all enthalpy and hence pressure drop occurs in the
nozzle.
•The rotor blades can be recognized by their shape, which is symmetrical and have entrance and exit angles
around 20 degrees.

Components of a Steam Turbine

Casing

The typical casing for an Elliott turbine consists of a cast high-pressure steam chest, an intermediate barrel
section, and a separate exhaust casing. The barrel section is generally integral with the steam chest so that the
vertical bolting joint is at one of the latter stages where internal pressures are very much reduced. The steam
end, exhaust casing, nozzle ring, reversing blades and diaphragms are all split on the horizontal center line
which allows for easy removal of the upper half of the turbine for internal inspection. The diaphragms are
machined on the outside diameter and assembled into grooves accurately machined in the casing. Cap screws,
secured by locking, fasten the nozzle ring to the steam chest, while the diaphragm halves are locked in
position by stops located at the horizontal split in the casing. Steam chest passages, nozzle block partitions and
the valve opening sequence are all carefully designed to ensure even and rapid heating of the casing after
steam is first admitted to the turbine. The high-pressure end of the turbine is supported by the steam end
bearing housing which is flexibly mounted to allow for axial expansion caused by temperature changes. The
exhaust casing is centerline supported on pedestals that maintain perfect unit alignment while permitting
lateral expansion. Covers on both the steam end and exhaust end bearing housings and seal housings may be
lifted independently of the main casing to provide ready access to such items as the bearings, control
components and seals.
Rotors
Rotors are precisely machined from solid alloy steel forgings. An integrally forged rotor provides increased
reliability particularly for high speed applications. The complete rotor assembly is dynamically balanced at
operating speed and over speed tested in a vacuum bunker to ensure safety in operation. High speed balancing
can also reduce residual stresses and the effects of blade seating. Elliott also offers remote monitoring of
the high speed balance testing, allowing customers to witness the testing from their offices or at any other
location.
Blades

Blades are milled from stainless steel stock purchased within strict specifications for proper strength, damping
and corrosion resistant properties. Disk profiles are designed to minimize centrifugal stresses, thermal gradient
and blade loading at the disk rims. The blades have various shapes to achieve maximum performance and
withstand any mechanical stresses.

Stationary Components
Nozzle rings and diaphragms are specifically designed and fabricated to handle the pressure, temperature and
volume of the steam, the size of the turbine and the required pressure drop across the stage. The nozzles used
in the first stage nozzle ring are cut from stainless steel. Steam passages are then precision milled into these
nozzle blocks before they are welded together to form the nozzle ring. The nozzles in the intermediate
pressure stages are formed from profiled stainless steel nozzle sections and inner and outer bands. These are
then welded to a circular center section and to an outer ring then precision machined. The low-pressure
diaphragms in condensing turbines are made by casting the stainless nozzle sections directly into high-strength
cast iron. This design includes a moisture catching provision around the circumference which collects released
moisture and removes it from the steam passage. Additional features such as windage shields and inter-stage
drains are used as required by stage conditions to minimize erosion. All diaphragms are horizontally split
for easy removal and alignment adjustment. Labyrinth seals are utilized as end gland seals and also interstage
seals. Stationary labyrinth seals are standard for all multistage turbines and grooves are machined on the
rotating part to improve the sealing effect. The leakage steam from the outer glands is generally condensed by
the gland condenser. Some leakage steam from the intermediate section of the steam end gland seals can be
withdrawn and utilized by re-injecting it into the low-pressure stage or low- pressure steam line. Replaceable
journal bearings are steel-backed and babbitt-lined with five-shoe tilting pad design. Thrust bearings are
double-acting and self-equalizing. Center pivots are typically used to make assembly easier and provide
maximum protection if reverse for high oil temperature applications.

Turbo Generators
The turbo-generator is common-shaft excitation AC synchronous generator with 3phases, 2 poles or with 3
phases, 4 poles. BHEL-Hyderabad makes turbo generators that have the brushless excitation mechanism
which has been explained in the NTPC report. BHEL presently has manufactured Turbo-Generators of ratings
up to 560 MW and is in the process of going up to 660 MW. It has also the capability to take up the
manufacture of ratings up to 1000 MW suitable for thermal power generation, gas based and combined cycle
power generation as-well-as for diverse industrial applications like Paper, Sugar, Cement, Petrochemical,
Fertilizers, Rayon Industries, etc.

Classification of Steam Turbine:

Steam turbines can be classified in several different ways:

​1. By details of stage design

• Impulse or reaction Impulse or reaction

2. By steam supply and exhaust conditions

• Condensing or non-condensing

• Automatic or controlled extraction

• Mixed pressure

• Reheat

3. By casing or shaft arrangement

• Single casing, tandem compound or cross compound

4. By number of exhaust stages in parallel

• Two flow, four flow or six flow

5. By direction of steam flow

• Axial flow, radial flow or tangential flow

6. Single or multi-stage

7. By steam condition

• Superheated or saturated
The classification of steam turbine is given in Fig. below. The most important common divisions are with
respect to the dynamic action of the steam. A steam turbine is mostly a case of axial flow.

I. Impulse Turbine:

i. Simple Impulse Turbine (De Laval Turbine):

A simple impulse turbine or single-stage impulse turbine is suitable for low-pressure steam. An impulse
turbine is a type of turbine in which the pressure drop takes place only in the nozzle. The pressure remains
constant throughout while flowing over the moving blades. In this case, the high-pressure steam is initially
expanded in a nozzle or a set of nozzles which is placed by the side of rotor leaving some gap of about 5-6
mm.

As the steam flows through the nozzle, pressure falls from steam chest pressure to condenser pressure in the
case of condensing type or atmospheric pressure in the case of non-condensing type of plant. Due to pressure
drop, a high velocity is obtained at the outlet of the nozzle. The steam at this high kinetic energy flows over
the blade channel and then it is discharged from the turbine.

It is evident that if the initial pressure of steam is very high, the kinetic energy obtained at the exit of the
nozzle is very high and hence the velocity of steam leaving the moving blade is high in proportion to the
maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of kinetic energy at the exit is known as
leaving loss. The velocity of steam at the exit is known as lost velocity.

In the beginning, the simplest form of turbine was developed which was known as De Laval turbine. In this
turbine, the exit velocity or leaving velocity or lost velocity was about 4-5% of the nozzle outlet velocity. In
addition to this, since all the kinetic energy was to be utilized by one row of moving blades only, the
revolution of the rotor could be expected about 20,000 rpm.

Such a high revolution was rather unmanageable with balancing point of view. However, the rotor speed could
be reduced by the method of compounding. The compounding of turbine was done to reduce the rotor speed.
Figure shows the diagrammatic representation of a simple impulse turbine in which large number of blades is
fitted on the circumference of a wheel, called rotor.

Figures above show the representation of an impulse turbine. The top portion shows the nozzle and blades,
and the lower portion shows the variation of the pressure and velocity of the steam as it flows over the nozzle
as well as blade channel. Since the expansion of steam takes place only in the nozzle, the pressure drop is
represented by the curve PQ by dotted line.

As there is no change in the pressure of steam while passing over the row of blade, the pressure is shown by
the horizontal line QR. Since the velocity of steam increases due to expansion in the nozzle, an increase in
velocity is represented by AB by a full line. As some of the kinetic energy is utilized as it flows over the
moving blade, the steam comes out at less velocity represented by the line BC.

ii. Compounded Steam Turbines:

Due to advancement in technological ability, the trend is to generate steam at high pressure and temperature,
as high as 100-150 bar pressure and about 550°C superheat. For obtaining maximum thermal efficiency, the
total pressure drop from boiler to condenser pressure must be completely converted into kinetic energy.

If the entire pressure drop from high to low pressure takes place only in one set of nozzles, then the turbine
rotor rotates at a very high speed in order of about 20,000 rpm. Such a high revolution of turbine rotor is not
useful for practical purposes. It poses a number of technical problems such as structural failure due to high
centrifugal stress developed, increase in vibration, excessive noise produced, and overheating of bearings.

The high speed will require a reduction gear to couple with generator. In addition to this, the lost velocity at
the discharge point is very high. It is about 5-6% of the initial velocity. This gives rise to a great loss.
Therefore, the expansion of steam is carried out in several stages instead of a single stage. The successful
utilization of total available energy can be done by compounding.

The different types of compounded steam turbines are as follows:

(a) Velocity-compounded turbines

(b) Pressure-compounded turbines

(c) Pressure-and-velocity-compounded turbines

a. Velocity-Compounded Turbines (Curtis):

A velocity-compounded turbine is shown in Fig. in the next page. In this case there is one set of nozzles and
two or more rows of moving blades arranged in series. In between two rows of moving blades, one set of
guide blades which is fixed and hung from the casing of turbine is arranged in a suitable manner.
The placement of the blades in fixed row is just the reverse of moving blades rows. The steam is expanded in
nozzle from boiler pressure down to condenser pressure. The high-velocity jet of steam coming out from
nozzle is passed onto the first row of moving blades where it produces a change of momentum.

The kinetic energy gained in nozzle is utilized in the stages of moving rows and finally the steam is exhausted
from the first row at comparatively less kinetic energy but in reverse direction. The steam then enters the first
row of fixed blades and is redirected by changing direction to the second row of moving. This way the
expansion is continued till total kinetic energy is fully absorbed. A turbine working on this principle is known
as velocity-compounded steam turbine.
b. Pressure-Compounded Turbines (Rateau):

Pressure-compounded impulse turbine is one in which a number of simple impulse turbines are arranged in
series and placed on a common shaft. In this case, a row of fixed nozzles is placed at the entry of each row of
moving blades, i.e., this comprises alternate rows of fixed nozzles and moving row of blades in series.

The total pressure drop from high pressure to exhaust pressure is split into series of smaller pressure drop to
take place in different stages in series. Each set combining one row of fixed and one row of moving blade is
known as one stage. High-pressure steam is expanded in the first row of fixed nozzles of the first stage with a
small pressure drop.

Due to small pressure drop, less kinetic energy is available at the exit of the first row of fixed nozzles. The
steam with small kinetic energy enters to the first row of moving blades where it undergoes a change of
momentum and the kinetic energy is absorbed. The pressure remains the same while flowing in the first row of
moving blades.

The steam from the first stage then enters the second stage where there is further small pressure drop and
increase in the kinetic energy which is again absorbed. This will continue till the steam pressure becomes
equal to the exhaust pressure.

c. Pressure-and-Velocity-Compounded Turbines:

Such turbines are the combination of pressure and velocity compounding. If the pressure range is very large,
this arrangement is very much suitable. As we know, a two-row velocity-compounded turbine is more
efficient than a three-stage velocity-compounded turbine. But the construction of two-row
velocity-compounded turbine possesses some difficulties as it increases the velocity per blade.

Hence, the total pressure drop of steam from boiler pressure to exhaust pressure would split up in two and
three steps, as done in pressure compounding, and the kinetic energy gained in each step is absorbed
completely in two moving wheels before the next pressure drop occurs.

In a two-step pressure-and- velocity-compounded turbine, the first pressure drop occurs in the first set of
nozzles, the gain in kinetic energy is utilized completely in two rows of moving blades before the second
pressure drop occurs in the second set of nozzles, and the kinetic energy gained is again utilized in two rows
of moving blades successively.
II. Reaction Turbine:

In principle, pure reaction turbine has no meaning with steam as a working fluid. It is actually with a joint
application of impulse and reaction. In this type of turbine, the high-pressure steam is not expanded initially in
the nozzle only, as in the case of impulse turbine, but the expansion of steam takes place in moving blade row
also.

The moving blade also acts as nozzle. The shape of the blade is so well-designed (known as aerofoil section
blade) that the blade channel formed between two consecutive blades acts as a nozzle and forms a narrow
passage at the exit. At the exit of the nozzle, steam will possess both pressure as well as kinetic energy.

The steam which possesses some pressure energy gets further expanded while passing over in blade channel
and hence further increase of kinetic energy is obtained. Hence, a gradual pressure drop takes place
continuously over the nozzle and moving blades. The increase in the velocity of steam flowing over the blade
passage develops an opposite reaction.

The opposite reaction force acting on the blade forms a propulsive force. In addition to this propulsive force,
there is also a change in momentum due to change in velocity. This causes an impulsive force on the moving
blade. Thus, the net force on moving blade in reaction turbine is the resultant of reaction force and the
impulsive force as shown by the force diagram shown in Fig. below.

Figure in the next page shows a four-stage reaction turbine. The actual reaction turbine, also called impulse
reaction turbine, consists of a number of rows of moving blades fitted on a single rotor. The fixed blade ring is
hung from the casing of the turbine between the two rows of moving blades. The blade of fixed row is placed
just reverse to the blade of moving row. The high-pressure steam passing in the first row of fixed blade
undergoes a small drop in pressure causing the increase of velocity of the steam.

It then enters the first row of moving blades where it suffers further drop in pressure and the kinetic energy is
converted into mechanical energy in terms of the rotation of rotors. Thus, the velocity of steam decreases. This
continues in the further rows of moving and fixed blades till the pressure of steam is completely reduced. The
variation of pressure and velocity has been shown in Fig. below.

Comparison of Impulse and Reaction Turbine:

Impulse Turbine:

i. Pressure drop takes place only in the nozzle and not in the moving blade. The pressure remains constant in
the moving blade row.

ii. The area of blade channel at entrance and exit is same.

iii. Symmetrical profile type blades are used in impulse turbine which provides a uniform section. Impulse
turbine may be either partial admission or full admission.

iv. This occupies less space for the same power.

v. Not much power can be developed.

vi. Efficiency is found low.

vii. Suitable for small power generation.

viii. High rotor speed requires compounding of turbine.

Reaction Turbine:

i. Pressure drop takes place in the fixed blade (nozzle) as well as in the moving blade row also.

ii. The area of blade channel at the exit is made narrow. It is of convergent type.

iii. Aerofoil types of blades are used in reaction turbine. Reaction turbine is always full admission turbine.

iv. This occupies more space for the same power.

v. Much power can be developed.

vi. High efficiency can be achieved.

Vii. Suitable for medium and high power generation.

viii. The speed is relatively low and hence no compounding is required.

Advantages of Steam Turbine over Steam Engines:

(a) The thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant is higher.

(b) Steam turbines are highly simplified in construction and operation.

(c) Condensate can be directly used in boilers.

(d) Vibration and noise are minimized.

(e) Balancing of the rotor can be done accurately.

(f) Much higher speed is possible.

(g) Steam turbines are suitable for the operation with high-pressure steam.

(h) They are well suited for large steam power plants.
Applications of Steam Turbines

Steam turbines are a part of various industries, from medium to large scale, and include dozens of institutional

applications.

● Chemical Industry: Providing heat and electricity to drive different processes in the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries, steam turbines are integrated in the process of producing power.
● Waste Plants: Steam turbines help generate the power needed to harness energy from waste.
● Oil & Gas: Used as a pump drive or a compressor, steam turbines support dozens of operations in the
oil and gas industry.
● Sugar Mills: Offering high levels of efficiency and sustainable operations, steam turbines are used to
produce green carbon-dioxide energy from bagasse.

Some of the most popular applications of a steam turbine in different industries include the following:

1. Combined Heat and Power

Steam turbines are an essential component of most CHP systems. They support combined heat and power

systems that are used to power industrial processes, under conditions where waste fuels are available for the

boiler to safely utilize. When used for CHPs, the steam emitted by the steam turbine can be used

directly.Steam turbine powered CHPs are typically found in paper mills, where there is an abundance of waste

fuels ranging from black liquor to hog fuel, each equally successfully in powering the boiler.They can also be

found in chemical plants that make excessive use of steam turbines; followed by their use of metals.

2. Driving Mechanical Equipment

Steam turbines are a far more efficient alternative to electrical power. Especially when it comes to driving

different equipment like air compressors, boiler feed water pumps, refrigerator chillers, etc.

3. District Heating & Cooling Systems

Different institutions throughout different cities rely on district cooling and heating systems. These systems

usually have a steam turbine placed between the boiler and the distribution system or placed as a replacement

for a pressure reduction station.

It is to be noted that, more often, boilers are capable of producing moderate-pressure steam while the

distribution requires low pressure steam. Bridging this gap between the two, a steam turbine generates energy

using the high pressure steam and emits low pressure steam into the distribution system.

4. Combined Cycle Power Plants

Steam turbines allow power plants to generate power using a gas turbine and utilize gas and heat produced in

the process to generate steam that, in turn, produces additional power. Combined cycle power plants supported

by steam turbines are capable of producing or accomplishing electric generation efficiencies extending beyond

the 50-percent mark and are used in large industrial applications.

Most of the electricity throughout the United States is produced with the help of steam turbine engines.

Offering higher efficiencies, lower costs, and a positive impact on the environment, steam turbines have

become an integral part of several American industries.

Steam Turbines in BHEL:

B​HEL with decades of experience and over 1000 turbines has comprehensive know how and know why of
Steam Turbines covering system design, engineering, manufacturing, erection & commissioning. BHEL
Hyderabad started manufacturing steam Turbine in mid sixties with Technologies from Skoda Czechoslovakia
& later since mid seventies with Siemens collaboration.

In Industrial applications, production process and thus the steam parameters and flows decide the turbine
selection.This makes each industrial turbine design an individual solution,with very special design
features.BHEL has provided specific solutions with built-in reliability for a wide spectrum of industries using
building block concept which is being continuously improved.

BHEL steam Turbines cover the whole range of requirement from Power (Captive power & utility), Drive,
cogeneration , Solar applications and Combined Cycle power plants encompassing comprehensively all
requirement for industry /utility sectors in range of 3-150 MW.
1.SINGLE FLOW STEAM TURBINES, CONDENSING

● With Gear box for unit ratings up to 60 MW

● Direct drive for ratings above 50 MW
● With possibility of injection

2. COUNTER FLOW STEAM TURBINES

● Applicable for unit ratings 30-150 MW

 ● With Possibility of injection
● Direct Drive

3. TWO CASING STEAM TURBINES FOR REHEAT APPLICATION

● Applicable for unit ratings above 100 MW

● Combined HP-IP casing with counter flow
● Center Admission LP casing

​4. SINGLE CYLINDER STEAM TURBINE FOR REHEAT APPLICATIONS

● Application for unit ratings above 100 MW.

● Two bearing design.
Manufacture of Turbine Blade

Introduction:

A turbine blade is the individual component which makes up the turbine section of a gas turbine or steam
turbine. The blades are responsible for extracting energy from the high temperature, high pressure gas
produced by the combustor. The turbine blades are often the limiting component of gas turbines. To survive in
this difficult environment, turbine blades often use exotic materials like superalloys and many different
methods of cooling, such as internal air channels, boundary layer cooling, and thermal barrier coatings. Blade
fatigue is a major source of failure in steam turbines and gas turbines. Fatigue is caused by the stress induced
by vibration and resonance within the operating range of machinery. To protect blades from these high
dynamic stresses, friction dampers are used.

The efficiency of the turbine depends on more than anything else on the design of the turbine blades. The
impulse blades must be designed to convert the kinetic energy of the steam into mechanical energy. The same
goes for the reaction blades, which furthermore must convert pressure energy to kinetic energy.

The blades are strong enough to withstand the following factors

● High temperatures and stresses due to the pulsating steam load

● Stress due to centrifugal force
● Erosion and corrosion resistance.

Depending upon the pressure region the blades are also classified as follow. Refer above figure for rotor
pressure region

● High Pressure (HP) blades

● Intermediate Pressure (IP) blades
● Low Pressure (LP) blades
Twisted Blades

This type of blades is used in the last stage of a large m​ultistage steam turbine. These are the largest blade in
turbine and contribute around 10% of the turbine total output. Due to larger in size, these types of blades are
subjected to high centrifugal and bending forces. To overcome these forces twiste​d construction is used.

BLADE MATERIAL:
The development of superalloys in the 1940s and new processing methods such as vacuum induction melting
in the 1950s greatly increased the temperature capability of turbine blades. Further processing methods like
hot isostatic pressing improved the alloys used for turbine blades and increased turbine blade performance.
Modern turbine blades often use nickel-based superalloys that incorporate chromium, cobalt, and rhenium.

Aside from alloy improvements, a major breakthrough was the development of directional solidification (DS)
and single crystal (SC) production methods. These methods help greatly increase strength against fatigue and
creep by aligning grain boundaries in one direction (DS) or by eliminating grain boundaries altogether

Different materials used for blading are

● 403 stainless steel
● 422 stainless steel
● A-286
● Haynes Stellite alloy No. 31
● Titanium alloy
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

All the above said materials are subjected to heat treatment operations.
Tensile strength 95 kgf/sq mm
0.2 Yield stress 70 kgf/sq mm
Impact 05 kg/sq mm
Elongation ( l=5d) 15% min
Reduction in area 50% min
BHN 270

Steps involved in the manufacture of a steam turbine blade:

● Cutting to bar size

● Size milling and grinding
 ● Rhomboidal milling and grinding
● Blade length cutting
● Root milling
● Width milling
● Back profile milling
● Canal profile milling
● Backwidth
● Canal width
● Root radius
● Taper milling and grinding
● fitting and polishing.

Manufacturing Process of a Blade

The manufacturing process of turbine blades primarily depends on the type of blade e.g. Bar type, Brazed
type, GasTurbine blade
(1) Bar type blade:
(2)​ ​Brazed type blade:

(3) Gas turbine blade:

ROOT RADIUS

Blades are assembled in the rotor for forming aturbine" To assemble these blades these blades should form a
circle of radius equal to the rotor as its diameter increases as per the row of blades" Root radius helps in the
assembly of blades in the rotor by giving a radius on the root on the lower face of the root" This radius should
be correct to assemble else it will create a problem while assembly .In root radius end mill cutter is used on a
cnc machine in which it moves in all three axis"

Blade Fastening:
After turbine blades are machined through the milling process. Then the blades are inserted in the rotor
groove. Depend upon the application the blade root section varies

Blade roots are subject to take four types of stress

● Tensile stress due to the centrifugal forces

● Bending stress due to fluid forces act on the blade in tangential direction
● Stress due to vibration forces.
● Thermal stress also due to the uneven heating of the blade root and the rim.
The most common types of blade fastenings in steam turbines were shown below. The two features, which a
blade root should possess to conform with the cylindrical geometry, are a wedge shape, formed by the two
axial planes and arc shapes for all circumferential surfaces.

Conclusion
Steam turbines act as steam engines that convert heat energy into mechanical energy. Steam turbines extract
thermal energy from steam that is exposed to extremely high pressures. Due to its rotary motion, the steam
turbines are used to drive motors for the electricity generation. In BHEL Hyd. we have explored various bays
and have seen the real time manufacture and assembly of steam turbines. We also attended technical classes
that gave us a better view of what is happening is the factory.We had hands on experience and industrial
exposure. The training brought to our knowledge the various machining and fabrication processes went not
only in the manufacturing of blades but other parts of the turbine.
References
https://www.explainthatstuff.com/steam-turbines.html

https://www.scribd.com/doc/182649655/BHEL-BLOCK-3-ppt

https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/browse/blade-design-and-analysis-for-steam-turbines/c9780071635
745ch03#ch03lev1sec03

https://www.coursehero.com/file/p2elg8i/7-Conclusion-Steam-turbines-act-as-steam-engines-that-convert-heat-
energy-into/

https://gradeup.co/rankine-cycle-i-70ca799c-bc2b-11e5-a318-0cdb14599439

A TEXTBOOK OF FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES ​by Dr. R. K. Bansal