Major Foundations of Curriculum
Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum:
Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with
framework for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in
school.I helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are
important, how students should learn and what materials and
methods should be used. In decision-making, philosophy provides
the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision-
making.
The following four educational philosophies relate to curriculum:
1. Perennialism. The focus in the curriculum is classical subjects,
literary analysis and considers curriculum as constant.
2. Essentialism. The essential skills of the 3 R's and essential subjects
of English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language is the focus
of the curriculum.
3. Progressivism. The curriculum is focused on students' interest,
human problems and affairs. The subjects are interdisciplinary,
integrative and interactive.
4. Reconstructionism. The focus of the curriculum is on present and
future trends and issues of national and international interests.
Educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum.
A curriculum planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school
heads, evaluator anchors his/her decision making process on a sound
philosophy.
(Activity: Compare the four Philosophies of Education based on the
aim of education, role of education and curriculum trends. How does
a strong belief or philosophy influence curriculum?
Historical Foundations of Curriculum.
Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its
beginning in 1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbit's book."The
Curriculum"
Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This
can be traced back to the glorious history. Of all foreign educational
systems, the American educational system has the greatest influence
on our educational system.
The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views on
curriculum:
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science
that emphasizes on students' need.
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) - considered curriculum also as a
science which is based on students' need, and the teachers plan the
activities.
3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed curriculum as purposeful
activities which are child-centered.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - emphasized social studies in the
curriculum and the teacher plans the lesson in advance.
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curriculum as organized around
social functions of themes, organized knowledge and earner's
interests.
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curriculum is a science and
an extension of school's philosophy. based on students' need and
interests.
The historical development shows the different changes in the
purposes, principles and content of the curriculum.
(Question: What are the implications of ever-changing curriculum top
teachers?)
Psychological Foundations
Psychology provides basis for the teaching and learning process. It
unifies elements of the learning process and some of the some of
questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations.
The following are the three major groups f learning theories:
1. Behaviorists Psychology - consider that learning should be
organized in order that students can experience success in the
process of mastering the subject matter, and thus, method of
teaching should be introduced in a step by step manner with proper
sequencing of task.
(Activity: Discuss the contributions of Edward L. Thorndike, Ivan
Pavlov and Robert Gagne to the present views on curriculum)
2. Cognitive Psychology - focus their attention on how individuals
process information and how the monitor and manage thinking. For
the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for
organizing and interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the
tradition of subject matter where teachers use a lot of problem and
thinking skills in teaching learning. These are exemplified by
practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking,
discovery learning, etc.
(Activity: Discuss the contributions of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky,
Howard Gardner, Felder and Silverman and Daniel Goleman to
curriculum development.
3. Humanistic Psychology - concerned with how learners can develop
their human potential. Based on Gestalt psychology where learning
can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and
where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously
reorganizing his/her perceptions. Curriculum is concerned with the
process not the products, personal needs not subject matter;
psychological meaning and environmental situations.
(Activity: Give the contributions of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
to the present field of curriculum development.
4. Social Foundations of Education.
Schools exists within the social context.Societal culture affects and
shapes schools and their curricula.
The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and
encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula should reflect and
preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At the same time,
society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal
institutions called schools.
(Question: A school has been using the same old curriculum it has
had for the past ten years. Do you think this is a good practice?
Why? Why not?)
Source: Curriculum Development by Purita Bilbao, et. al, Loremar
Pub., 2008)
Perennial philosophy (Latin: philosophia perennis "eternal
philosophy", also Philosophia perennis et universalis) is the notion of
the universal recurrence of philosophical insight independent of
epoch or culture, including universal truths on the nature of reality,
humanity or consciousness (anthropological universals).
Perennial philosophy is the philosophical concept, which states
that each of the world’s religious traditions share a single truth.
Perennial philosophy asserts that there is a single divine foundation
of all religious knowledge, referred to as the universal truth. Each
world religion, independent of its cultural or historical context, is
simply a different interpretation of this knowledge. World religions
including, but not limited to, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism,
Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, Sikhism and Buddhism, are all derived
from the same universal truth. Although the sacred scriptures of
these world religions are undeniably diverse and often oppose each
other, each world religion has been formed to fit the social, mental
and spiritual needs of their respective epoch and culture. Therefore,
perennial philosophy maintains that each world religion has
flourished from the foundation of the same universal truth, making
these differences superficial and able to be cast aside to find
religion’s deeper spiritual meaning.
According to Huxley, the perennial philosophy is:
the metaphysic that recognizes a divine Reality substantial to the
world of things and lives and minds; the psychology that finds in the
soul something similar to, or even identical with, divine Reality; the
ethic that places man's final end in the knowledge of the immanent
and transcendent Ground of all being; the thing is immemorial and
universal. Rudiments of the perennial philosophy may be found
among the traditional lore of primitive peoples in every region of the
world, and in its fully developed forms it has a place in every one of
the higher religions
(The Perennial Philosophy, p. vii).

He also pointed out the method of the Buddha:
The Buddha declined to make any statement in regard to the
ultimate divine Reality. All he would talk about was Nirvana, which is
the name of the experience that comes to the totally selfless and
one-pointed. […] Maintaining, in this matter, the attitude of a strict
operationalist, the Buddha would speak only of the spiritual
experience, not of the metaphysical entity presumed by the
theologians of other religions, as also of later Buddhism, to be the
object and (since in contemplation the knower, the known and the
knowledge are all one) at the same time the subject and substance
of that experience.
The Perennial Philosophy
and that in the Upanishads:
The Perennial Philosophy is expressed most succinctly in the
Sanskrit formula, tat tvam asi ('That thou art'); the Atman, or
immanent eternal Self, is one with Brahman, the Absolute Principle of
all existence; and the last end of every human being, is to discover
the fact for himself, to find out who he really is.
Aldous Huxley
According to Karl Jaspers:
"Despite the wide variety of philosophical thought, despite all the
contradictions and mutually exclusive claims to truth, there is in all
philosophy a One, which no man possesses but about which all
serious efforts have at all times gravitated: the one eternal
philosophy, the philosophia perennis."
Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems
to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They
believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since
details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most
important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since
people are human, one should teach first about humans, not
machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers
second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational
topics.
A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific
reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original
accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human
side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most
importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of real science.
Although perennialism may appear similar to essentialism,
perennialism focuses first on personal development, while
essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist curricula thus
tend to be much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal
and principle-based. Both philosophies are typically considered to be
teacher-centered, as opposed to student-centered philosophies of
education such as progressivism. However, since the teachers
associated with perennialism are in a sense the authors of the
Western masterpieces themselves, these teachers may be open to
student criticism through the associated Socratic method, which, if
carried out as true dialogue, is a balance between students, including
the teacher promoting the discussion.
In philosophy, essentialism is the view that, for any specific
kind of entity, there is a set of characteristics or properties all of
which any entity of that kind must possess. Therefore all things can
be precisely defined or described. In this view, it follows that terms
or words should have a single definition and meaning.[1]
In simple terms, essentialism is a generalization stating that certain
properties possessed by a group (e.g. people, things, ideas) are
universal, and not dependent on context. For example, the
essentialist statement 'all human beings are mortal'.
According to essentialism, a member of a specific group may possess
other characteristics that are neither needed to establish its
membership nor preclude its membership, but that essences do not
simply reflect ways of grouping objects; they also result in properties
of the object, as the object can be subjugated to smaller contexts.
Anthropology professor Lawrence Hirschfeld gives an example of
what constitutes the essence of a tiger, regardless of whether it is
striped or albino, or has lost a leg. The essential properties of a tiger
are those without which it is no longer a tiger. Other properties, such
as stripes or number of legs, are considered inessential or
'accidental'. [2]
This view is contrasted with non-essentialism, which states that, for
any given kind of entity, there are no specific traits which entities of
that kind must possess.
Essentialism came under scrutiny and criticism in the mid to late 20th
century by the American pragmatist Richard Rorty. Discussion of its
possible limitations has taken place among social scientists and
biologists as well.
Educational essentialism is an educational philosophy
whose adherents believe that children should learn the traditional
basic subjects thoroughly and rigorously. In this philosophical school
of thought, the aim is to instill students with the "essentials" of
academic knowledge, enacting a back-to-basics approach.
Essentialism ensures that the accumulated wisdom of our civilization
as taught in the traditional academic disciplines is passed on from
teacher to student. Such disciplines might include Reading, Writing,
Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Mathematics, Science, Art,
and Music. Moreover, this traditional approach is meant to train the
mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a common culture.
==Principles of Essentialism==
Essentialism is a relatively conservative stance to education
that strives to teach students the knowledge of our society and
civilization through a core curriculum. This core curriculum involves
such areas that include the study of the surrounding environment,
basic natural laws, and the disciplines that promote a happier, more
educated living.
Other non-traditional areas are also integrated as well in
moderation to balance the education. Essentialists' goals are to instill
students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, patriotism,
and character development through traditional (or back-to-basic)
approaches. This is to promote reasoning, train the mind, and ensure
a common culture for all Americans.
Essentialism is the most typically enacted philosophy in
American classrooms today. Traces of this can be found in the
organized learning centered around teacher and textbooks, in
addition to the regular assignments and evaluations typical in
essentialist education.
[edit] Essentialism as a Teacher-Centered Philosophy
The role of the teacher as the leader of the classroom
is a very important tenet of Educational essentialism. The teacher is
the center of the classroom, so they should be rigid and disciplinary.
Establishing order in the classroom is crucial for student learning;
effective teaching cannot take place in a loud and disorganized
environment. It is the teacher's responsibility to keep order in the
classroom.
The teacher must interpret essentials of the learning
process, take the leadership position and set the tone of the
classroom. These needs require an educator that is academically
well-qualified with an appreciation for learning and development. The
teacher must control the students with distributions of rewards.
==History of Essentialism==
The Essentialist movement first began in the United States in the
year 1938. In Atlantic City, New Jersey, a group met for the first time
called "The Essentialist's Committee for the Advancement of
Education".Their emphasis was to reform the educational system to a
rational-based system.
 The term essentialist first appeared in the book An
Introduction to the Philosophy of Education which was written by
Michael John Demiashkevich.
In his book, Demiashkevich labels some specific educators
(including William C. Bagley) as “essentialists." Demiashkevich
compared the essentialists to the different viewpoints of the
Progressive Education Association. He described how the
Progressives preached a “hedonistic doctrine of change” where as
the essentialists stressed the moral responsibility of man for his
actions and looked toward permanent principles of behavior
(Demiashkevich likened the arguments to those between the
Socratics and the Sophists in Greek philosophy).
In 1938 Bagley and other educators met together where
Bagley gave a speech a speech detailing the main points of the
essentialism movement and attacking the public education in the
United States. One point that Bagley noted was that students in the
U.S. were not getting an education on the same levels as students in
Europe who were the same age.
A recent branch has emerged within the essentialist
school of thought called "neoessentialism." Emerging in the eighties
as a response to the essentialist ideals of the thirties as well as to the
criticism of the fifties and the advocates for education in the
seventies, neoessentialism was created to try to appease the
problems facing the United States at the time.The most notable
change within this school of thought is that it called for the creation
of a new discipline, computer science.
===Renowned Essentialists===
William Bagley (1874–1946) was an important historical
essentialist. William C. Bagley completed his undergraduate degree
at Michigan Agricultural College in 1895. It wasn’t until after finishing
his undergrad studies that he truly wanted to be a teacher.
Bagley did his Graduate studies at the University of Chicago
and at Cornell University. He acquired his Ph.D. in 1900 after which
he took his first school job a Principal in a St. Louis, Missouri
Elementary School
Bagley’s devotion increased during his work at Montana
State Normal School in Dillon, Montana. It was here where he
decided to dedicate his time to the education of teachers and where
he published The Educative Process, launching his name across the
nation. Throughout his career Bagley argued against the
conservative position that teachers were not in need of special
training for their work. He believed that liberal arts material was
important in teacher education. Bagley also believed the dominant
theories of education of the time were weak and lacking.
In April 1938, he published the Essentialist's Platform, in  De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning
which he outlined three major points of essentialism. He described resources
the right of students to a well-educated and culturally knowledgeable
 Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills
teacher. Secondly, he discussed the importance of teaching the
 Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and
ideals of community to each group of students. Lastly, Bagley wrote
productions
of the importance of accuracy, thoroughness and effort on part of
the student in the classroom.
The curriculum theories of reconstructionism and
perennialism are polar opposites. Reconstructionism focuses on
Educational progressivism is the belief that education
society. They believe that the curriculum should be a method of
must be based on the principle that humans are social animals who
change and social reform for society. Furthermore, they see the
learn best in real-life activities with other people. Most progressive
schools as the solution to different social crisis. On the other hand,
educators believe that children learn as if they were scientists,
perennialists believe that the curriculum should focus on the intellect
following a process similar to John Dewey's model of learning:
by teaching the classical subjects. In addition, both theories have
1. Become aware of the problem.
different views about the roles of the teacher, what subjects should
2. Define the problem.
be emphasized, and what knowledge should be imparted to students.
3. Propose hypotheses to solve it.
4. Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's
past experience.
Theodore Brameld is considered to be the creator of the term
5. Test the likeliest solution.
reconstructivism in 1950. He stated that, " reconstructionism is a
Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desires to
crisis philosophy, appropriate for a society in crisis, which is the
provide not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and
essence of our society and international society today." This theory
activities that center on the real life of the students. Typical
gained popularity during the progressive educational movement
progressivist slogans are "Learn by Doing!" and "Learn by Discovery."
because people became unhappy with what our society was
becoming and began calling for reform.
Philosophy
There are five goals for education in the reconstructionist philosophy:
Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the
(1) to examine both the cultural heritage of the society and the rest
late nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the
of civilization, (2) confront controversial issues and discuss them, (3)
present. More recently, it has been viewed as an alternative to the
dedicated to bringing about change within the society, (4) examine
test-oriented instruction legislated by the No Child Left Behind
the future and the possible future realities, (5) participation of both
educational funding act.
the students and the teachers in interculturalism. While these goals
The term "progressive" was engaged to distinguish this education
are good they are also unrealistic. Reconstructionists are often seen
from the traditional curriculum of the 19th century, which was rooted
as idealistic since their theory is based on a utopian society (Ornstein
in classical preparation for the university and strongly differentiated
& Hunkins, 2004, Ch. 4). Students spend the majority of their day
by socioeconomic level. By contrast, progressive education finds its
with their parents and therefore the impact that a teacher can have
roots in present experience. Most progressive education programs
in one year of their life is minimal. Even all of their teachers could
have these qualities in common:
not completely erase a parent's influence. These goals could only be
 Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects,
accomplished if the parents were a part of the effort. Unfortunately,
expeditionary learning, experiential learning
this is not always the case.
 Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units In order to accomplish their goals reconstructionists believe that the
 Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking focus of the curriculum should be on the social sciences(Ornstein &
 Group work and development of social skills Hunkins, 2004). These courses examine culture in economic, political
and social aspects. These types of classes would allow for
 Understanding and action as the goals of learning as
opportunities to discussion on societal issues. However, the sacrifice
opposed to rote knowledge
of other courses could be detrimental to our society. While teaching
 Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
tolerance and understanding is important, it is equally important to
 Education for social responsibility and democracy learn math and science. Without having students that focus in these
 Integration of community service and service learning areas we
projects into the daily curriculum
 Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what
skills will be needed in future society