Impedance and Admittance Power, VA, VAR and Power Factor

The current that flows in a circuit as result a result of applying sinusoidal voltage is

governed in magnitude and phase by the circuit parameters (resistance R, self-

inductance L, Capacitance C and mutual inductance M) and the angular velocity or

frequency of the applied voltage. If the circuit parameters are constant, the current

that flows will be of sinusoidal waveform but will, differ in phase from the

sinusoidal applied voltage.

Mathematically a particular type of function is required to relate voltage and

current in a-c circuit. The one generally employed is called the impedance

function or simply the impedance of the circuit. The impedance function tells two

important facts: (1) the ratio of voltage to current i.e. Vmax to Imax or V to I, and (2)

the phase angle between the waves of voltage and current. A special type of

notation is required to signify the two properties of the impedance and the notation

is

Z∠ angle

Z is the magnitude of the impedance and in particular case is represented by a

certain number of ohms. The angle associated with Z, if it is positive, defines the
lead of voltage with respect to current and specifies the number of degrees or

radians by which the current lags the voltage.

For pure resistive a-c circuit

Applied voltage, v = Vmax sin ωt

i = v / R = (Vmax sin wt) / R= Imax sin ωt

From the above equation it is evident that Vmax / Imax = R or and that

the current wave is in time phase with the voltage wave.

So when using pure resistors in AC circuits the term Impedance, ZR =R∠ 0°ohm.

For pure inductive circuit

Applied voltage, v = Vmax sin ωt

i , where Imax= Vmax/ωL.

From the above equation it is evident that Vmax / Imax = ωL or and that

the current wave lags by one-quarter of a cycle or 90° from the voltage wave.

So when using pure inductance in AC circuits the term Impedance, ZL = ωL

∠ 90° = X L ∠ 90° ohm.

For pure capacitive circui

Applied voltage, v = Vmax sin ωt

i= where Imax= ωCVmax or 2πfCVmax .

From the above expression it follows that the maximum value of the current is

ωCVmax or 2πfCVmax.

From the above equation it is evident that V max / Imax = 1/ ωC or and

that the current wave leads by one-quarter of a cycle or 90° from the voltage wave.

So when using pure capacitance in AC circuits the term Impedance, ZC =

(1/ωC) ∠- 90° = XC∠- 90°ohm.

ADMITTANCE
Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to

a current when a voltage is applied. The effective impedance of an electric circuit

to alternating current is arising from the combined effects of resistance and

reactance. Impedance is a vector (two-dimensional) quantity consisting of two

independent quantities (one-dimensional): resistance (R) and reactance (X).

Admittance is a measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow a current to

flow. It is defined as the inverse of impedance.

Admittance is defined as
Y = 1 / Z = Z-1
where

Y is the admittance, measured in mho and the symbol ℧. Admittance is a vector

(two-dimensional) quantity consisting of two independent quantities (one-

dimensional): conductance (G) which is inverse of resistance (R) and

suseptance (B) which is inverse of reactance (X).

Z is the impedance, measured in ohms.

Where 1/XL = BL = inductive suseptance and 1/ XC = BC = capacitive suseptance.

The j Operator

The symbol j, when applied to a phasor, alters its direction by 90º in an

anticlockwise direction, without altering its length, and is consequently referred to

as an operator.
 Significance of the j operator

Start with phasor A in phase with the X-axis, then jA represents a phasor of the

same length upwards along the Y-axis. Again apply the operator j to jA , we turn

the phasor anticlockwise through another 90º, thus giving jjA or j2A. The symbol

j2 signifies that the operator j is used two times successively, thereby rotating the

phasor through 180º. This reversal of the phasor is equivalent to multiplying by -1,

i.e. j2A = -A. So that j2 may be regarded as being numerically equal to -1 and

j =√-1.

Thus
 Phasor Rotation of the j-operator

So by multiplying a phasor by j2 will rotate the phasor by 180o anticlockwise,

multiplying by j3 rotates it 270o and by j4 rotates it 360o or back to its original

position. Multiplication by j10 or by j30 will causethe vector to rotate anticlockwise

by the appropriate amount. In each successive rotation, the magnitude of the

phasor always remains the same.

Now the expression A=3 + j4 could be represented graphically by plotting the 3

units of real number in the X-axis and the 4 units of imaginary number along the

Y-axis as shown in the figure below.

 Representation of 3 + j4

This type of number, combining real and imaginary number is termed as

complex number . Since the real component of a complex number is drawn along

the reference axis, namely the X axis, and the imaginary component is drawn at

right-angles to that axis, these components are sometimes referred to as the

inphase and quadrature components respectively.

The various ways of representing the complex number algebraically:

A = a +jb (Cartesian or rectangular notation)

= A(cosθ +jsinθ) (trigonometric notation)
= A∠θ (polar notation)

Complex Numbers using the Rectangular Form

A complex number is represented by a real part and an imaginary part that takes

the generalized form of:

  Where:
 Z - is the Complex Number representing the Vector
 x - is the Real part
 y - is the Imaginary part
 j - is defined by √-1

Complex Numbers using the Complex plane

Conjugate Complex Numbers

Complex Numbers using Polar Form

The Polar Form of a complex number is written in terms of its magnitude and

angle. Thus, a polar form vector is presented as: Z = A ∠±θ, where: Z is the

complex number in polar form, A is the magnitude or modulo of the vector and θ

is its angle or argument of A which can be either positive or negative.

Polar Form Representation of a Complex Number

Converting Polar Form into Rectangular Form, ( P→R )

Converting Rectangular Form into Polar Form, ( R→P )

Impedance is represented as a complex quantity Z and is given by Z= R ± jX

where the real part of impedance is the resistance R and the imaginary part is

the reactance X.
For pure Resistive Circuit

For pure Inductive Circuit

For pure Capacitive Circuit

Admittance, just like impedance, is a complex number, made up of a real part (the

conductance, G), and an imaginary part (the susceptance, B), thus:

Y = G + jB

where G (conductance) and B (susceptance). Now

Power in AC Circuits
 • Power in an electric circuit is the rate at which electrical energy is generated

or absorbed or it is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is

transferred by an electric circuit.

• Instantaneous power to a load is p = v • i

• In an ac circuit

– p may be positive sometimes and negative other times

• Average value of the power, P

– Real power

• Average value of instantaneous power, real power, active power, and average

power mean the same thing.

Active Power

 The power associated with energy transfer from the electrical system to

another system such as heat, light or mechanical drives are termed active

power.

 The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle of the AC

waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is active power

 (sometimes also called real power). The active power is the power that is

dissipated in the resistance of the load.

 It uses the same formula used for DC (V & I are the magnitudes, not the

phasors).

V2
P=I R= 2
[watts, W]
R
 True power is a function of a circuit’s dissipative elements, usually

resistances (R).

 Actually do some “work”.

 Measured in watt.

Reactive Power

 The portion of power due to stored energy, which returns to the source in

each cycle, is known as reactive power. It doesn’t do any useful “work”.

 The reactive power is the power that is exchanged between reactive

components (inductors and capacitors).

 The formulas look similar to those used by the active power, but use

reactance instead of resistances.

  Units: Volts-Amps-Reactive (VAR)

V2
Q=I X =2
[VAR]
X

 Reactive power is a function of a circuit’s reactance (X).

 Reactive power is present when applied voltage and current are not in phase.

 One waveform leads the other.

 This can happen for inductive or capacitive loads.

 Average value of reactive power is zero.

Apparent Power

 The apparent power is the power that is “appears” to flow to the load.

 The magnitude of apparent power can be calculated using similar formulas

to those for active or reactive power:

V2
S = VI = I Z =
2
[VA]
Z
 Units: Volts-Amps (VA)

 Apparent power is a function of a circuit’s total impedance (Z).

 V & I are the magnitudes of effective voltage and effective current.

 If load has both resistance and reactance

 Product is neither the real power nor the reactive power, but a

combination of both.

 Resistive load only:



The true (active) power, reactive power and apparent power for resistive load

 Reactive( Pure inductive) load only:

 True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a purely reactive load.

 Resistive/reactive load:

True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a resistive/reactive load.
Power Triangle

 The power triangle graphically shows the relationship between real (P),

reactive (Q) and apparent power (S).

 AC Impedance is a complex quantity made up of real resistance and

imaginary reactance.
uv
Z = R + jX (W )

 AC Apparent Power is a complex quantity made up of real active power and

v
imaginary reactive power: S = P + jQ (VA)
Active and Reactive Power Equations

• P = S cos q = VI cos q

• Q = S sin q = VI sin q
 • V and I are RMS or Effective values

• q is the phase angle between V and I

Power to a Resistive Load

 In ac circuits, voltage and current are functions of time.

 Power at a particular instant in time is given by

Vm I m
p = vi = (Vm sin w t )( I m sin wt ) = Vm I m sin 2 wt = ( 1 - cos 2wt )
2

This is called instantaneous power.

 p is always positive

 All of the power delivered by the source is absorbed by the load.

Average power P = VmIm / 2

  Using RMS values V and I

Vm
VRMS = rms value of voltage
2
Im
I RMS = rms value of current
2
Vm I m �Vm �
�I m �
P= =� � � �= VRMS I RMS (watts)
2 2
� � �2�

 Active power is the average value of instantaneous power.

Power to an Inductive Load

 Consider the following circuit where

v = Vm sinωt and i = Im sin(ωt – π/2)

 p is equally positive and negative.

 All of the power delivered by the source is returned.

 Average power PL = 0 W. It contributes nothing to average power.

• QL = I2XL = V2/XL

• Unit is VAR.

 The power that flows into and out of a pure inductor is reactive power only.

Power to a Capacitive Load

 Consider the following circuit where

V = Vm sinωt and i = Im sin(ωt + π/2)

 p is equally positive and negative

 All of the power delivered by the source is returned (no power losses with a

pure reactive load).

Average power PC = 0 W

• QC = I2XC = V2/XC
 • Unit is VAR.

• Power that flows into and out of a pure capacitance is reactive power only.

Power Factor

• Ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S) is called the power factor, Fp

• Power factor (FP) tells us what portion of the apparent power (S) is actually

real power (P).

• Fp = P/S = cos q

• Power factor angle q is given by q = cos-1(P / S). For a pure resistance, q =

0º. For a pure inductance, q = 90º. For a pure capacitance, q = -90º. For a

circuit containing a mixture, q is somewhere between 0° and ±90°.

• Power factor is a dimensionless quantity is expressed as a number between 0

to 1.0.

• The power factor is one when the voltage and current are in phase. When the

power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the

load.

• The power factor is zero when the current leads or lags the voltage by 90

degrees. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive
 and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. Therefore

there is no real power consumed by the load.

• Whether the current is leading or lagging the power factor is termed as

leading or lagging power factor correspondingly.

The power factor of the circuit may also be defined in any one of the following

ways:

(i) Power factor is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and current in

an A.C. circuit.

(ii) Power factor is defined as the ratio of resistance to impedance of an A.C.

circuit.

cos θ = R/Z

Unity power factor (FP = 1)

 Implies that apparent power is real power (S = P).

 If FP = 1, then q = 0º.
  It could also be said that the load looks purely resistive. Load

current and voltage are in phase.

Lagging power factor

For load containing resistance and inductance

 Power factor will be less than one and lagging

 The load current lags load voltage.

 Implies that the load looks inductive.

Leading power factor

For load containing resistance and capacitance

 Fp (power factor) is less than one and is leading.

 The load current leads load voltage

 Implies that the load looks capacitive

The importance of power factor

cos q = Real power (watts) / Apparent power (volt-ampere).

 To transfer a given amount of power at certain voltage, the electrical current

is inversely proportional to cosq. Hence higher the power factor lower will be

the current flowing. A small current flow requires less cross sectional area of

conductor and thus it saves conductor and money.

 Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum

volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts). This increases

generation and transmission costs. For example, if the load power factor were

as low as 0.7, the apparent power would be 1.4 times the real power used by the

load. Line current in the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at

1.0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are

proportional to the square of the current). Alternatively all components of the

system such as generators, conductors, transformers would be increased in size

(and cost) to carry the extra current.

 Further the KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having higher power

factor as,

Hence, the size and cost of machine also reduced. So, electrical power factor

should be maintained close to unity.

 Increasing the Power Factor:

As the power factor (i.e. cos θ) increases, the ratio of real power to apparent

power (which = cos θ), increases and approaches unity, while the angle θ

decreases and the reactive power decreases. [As cos θ → 1, its maximum

possible value, θ → 0 and so Q → 0, the load becomes less reactive and

more purely resistive].

 Decreasing the Power Factor:

 As the power factor decreases, the ratio of real power to apparent power also
decreases, as the angle θ increases and reactive power increase.
 If an a.c. generator is rated to give, say, 2000 A at a voltage
of 400 V, it means that these are the highest current and

voltage values the machine can give without the

temperature exceeding a safe value. Consequently the

rating of the generator is given as 400 2000/1000 =800

kVA. The phase difference between the voltage and the

current depends upon the nature of the load and not upon

the generator. Thus if the power factor of the load is unity,

the 800 kVA are also 800 kW, and the engine driving the

generator has to be capable of developing this power

together with the losses in the generator. But if the power

factor of the load is, say, 0.5, the power is only 400 kW, so

that the engine is developing only about one-half of the

power of which it is capable, though the generator is

supplying its rated output of 800 kVA.

Similarly, the conductors connecting the generator to the

load have to be

capable of carrying 2000 A without excessive temperature

rise.
 Consequently they can transmit 800 kW if the power factor

is unity, but

only 400 kW at 0.5 power factor for the same rise of

temperature.

It is therefore evident that the higher the power factor of

the load, the greater

is the active power that can be generated by a given

generator and

transmitted by a given conductor. The matter may be put

another way by

saying that, for a given power, the lower the power factor,

the larger must be

the size of the source to generate that power and the

greater must be the

cross-sectional area of the conductor to transmit it; in other

words, the

greater is the cost of generation and transmission of the

electrical energy.