IA: Alkali Metals (+1 charge)

They are very reactive, shiny, and soft. They react to lose 1 electron.
IIA: Alkali earth metals (+2 charge)
They readily form divalent cations.
IIIA: Semi metal and basic metals (+3 charge)
IVA: non-metal, semi metal, basic metal (+/-4 charge)
VA: non-metal, semi metal, basic metal (-3 charge)
VIA: Chalcogens (-2 charge)
VIIA: Halogens (-1 charge)
They love to react with Alkali metals because they need to gain 1 electron.
VIIIA: Noble gases (0 charge)
They are unreactive

Transition Metals: lanthanides (rare earths) and actinides (all are radioactive); have a shiny, metallic
appearance; high melting and boiling points; high thermal and electrical conductivity; tend to exhibit
more than one oxidation state; low ionization energy.

Metalloids or Semimetals: electronegativity and ionization energy intermediate between that of metals
and non-metals; may possess a metallic luster; often make good semiconductors; reactivity depends on
nature of other elements in the reaction.

Nonmetals: halogens and noble gases; high ionization energy and electronegativity; poor electrical and
thermal conductors; form brittle solids; readily gain electrons.

Types of Saturation

When solid solute and liquid solvent are mixed, the only possible reactions are dissolution and
crystallization.

 Dissolution is the dissolving process of the solid solute.

 Crystallization is the opposite, causing the solid solute to remain undissolved.

Kinds of Definition
Saturation

Saturated Solution A solution with solute that dissolves until it is unable to dissolve anymore,
leaving the undissolved substances at the bottom. In this process, the rate
of the crystallization is faster than the rate of dissolution, causing the
amount of dissolved to be less than the amount crystallized.

Unsaturated A solution (with less solute than the saturated solution) that completely
Solution dissolves, leaving no remaining substances. In this process, the rate of
dissolution is much greater than rate of crystallization.

Supersaturated A solution (with more solute than the saturated solution) that contains
Solution more undissolved solute than the saturated solution because of its
 tendency to crystallize and precipitate. In this process, the solid begins to
crystallize as it slowly decreases the rate of dissolution.

Factors Affecting Saturation

 The solubility of ionic solutions increase with an increase in temperature.
 Finely divided solids have greater solubilities.
 The rate of crystallization depends on the concentration of the solute at the crystal surface.
  In a still solution, concentration builds at the solute surface causing higher crystallization; therefore,
stirring the solution prevents the build-up, maximizing the net dissolving rate.
 The net dissolving rate is defined as the dissolving rate minus the crystallization rate.
 If the rates of solubility and crystallization are the same, the solution is saturated, and dynamic
equilibrium is reached.

Le Chatelier's principle: predicts the responses when an equilibrium system is subjected to change in
temperature, pressure or concentration. This principle states the following:
o For an increase of temperature, solubility increases = endothermic reactions.
o For a decrease of temperature, solubility decreases = exothermic reactions.
o Adding an inert gas to a constant-volume equilibrium mixture has no effect on the equilibrium.
o An increase in the external pressure causes a decrease in reaction volume and shifts equilibrium to
the right.

Kelvin to Celsius and Celsius to Kelvin: Add Celsius to 273 to get the equivalent temperature in Kelvin.
Subtract Kelvin from 273 to get the equivalent temperature in Celsius.
Celsius to Fahrenheit: 1 degree Celsius – 33.8 degrees Fahrenheit
Nonpolar Covalent: This type of bond occurs when there is equal sharing of the electrons in the bond.
ΔEN < 0.5
Polar Covalent: This type of bond occurs when there is unequal sharing of the electrons in the
bond. ΔEN 0.5 to 1.6
Ionic: This type of bond occurs when there is complete transfer (between the two atoms) of the electrons
in the bond. One or more atoms lose electrons, and the other atoms gain them in order to produce a noble
gas electron configuration. This is formed through electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged
ions. An example is NaCl. ΔEN > 2.0
Covalent: Involve the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. Hydrogen gas, halogens such
as chlorine, and nitrogen and oxygen exhibit covalent bonding in forming diatomic molecules. Another
example is CH4.
Metallic: The properties of metals suggest that their atoms possess strong bonds. A picture of positive
ions in a sea of electrons describe metallic bonding.
Hydrogen: It is a force of attraction between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a small atom of high
electronegativity in another molecule (N, O, and F). It is an intermolecular force.
Dipole-dipole: a force that exists because of interaction of dipoles on polar molecules in close contact.
London dispersion: dipole-dipole moments
Buoyancy: negative - sink; positive - float. If the volume is greater than the mass, the object will float. If
the volume is less than the mass, the object will sink.
* A substance that floats in water has a lower density than water (1g/mL=1000kg/L)
Pure compound: the sum of the weights of the product formed is greater than the initial weight of the
substance
Mixture: the combined weight of its products is equal to the initial weight of the substance before it
undergone a reaction.
Precipitation: is the creation of a solid from a solution; product of condensation of atmospheric water
vapour that falls under gravity.
Neutralization: is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react quantitatively with each other;
no excess of hydrogen or hydroxide ions present
Hydrolysis: is a reaction involving the breaking of a bond in a molecule using water. The reaction occurs
between an ion and water molecules and often changes the pH of a solution.
Ionization: is the process by which an atom or molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining
or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes.

Aflatoxin: poisonous and cancer-causing chemicals that are produced by certain molds (fungi) which
grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains; naturally-occurring mycotoxins.
Ammonia: azane; NH3. It is a colorless gas with a pungent smell.
Benzopyrene: carcinogenic and mutagenic; pollutants; found in coal tar, tobacco smoke, and many foods
(grilled meats).
Urethane: colorless or white crystalline compound used in organic synthesis and formerly as a palliative
treatment for leukemia.
Organic compounds: soluble in ethanol but insoluble in water; combustible; has a low melting point.
Inorganic compounds: can conduct electricity (in liquid phase); possess extremely high melting and
boiling points; highly soluble in water; can form crystals (in saturated solutions)
Sodium carbonate: NaCO3; washing soda, soda ash, soda crystals; water softener; used in
manufacturing glass; a white, odourless powder that is hygroscopic (absorbs moisture from the air).
Potassium chloride: KCl; has a salt-like taste. It is used in medicine, scientific applications, food
processing, and used to cause cardiac arrest as the third drug in the “three-drug cocktail” for executions
by lethal injection.
Sodium nitrite: NaNO3; a food additive to prevent botulism; carcinogenic and mutagenic. It is
responsible for the desirable red colour of meat (colouring fixative). A component of curing salts which
preserve meat.
Decreasing conductivity: largest to smallest Ki
Increasing conductivity: smallest to largest Ki
Eclipsed conformation: is a conformation in which two substituents X and Y on adjacent atoms A, B are
in closest proximity, implying that the torsion angle X-A-B-Y is 0 degrees.
Gauche effect: conformational isomers where two vicinal groups are separated by a 60-degree torsion
angle. Gauche interactions hinder bond rotation.
Amines: contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. They are formally derivatives of ammonia, where
in one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group. It
results from the reduction of a nitro compound.
Enamine: is an unsaturated compound derived by the condensation of an aldehyde or ketone with a
secondary amine; nitrogen analog of enols.
Imide: consists of two acyl groups bound to nitrogen; a known component of high-strength polymers. It
is similar to acid anhydrides but they are less reactive than the latter.
Imine: contains a carbon-nitrogen double bond.
Grignard reagents: react with dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) followed by aqueous acid work-up to give
carboxylic acids.
Electronegativity

Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity

Atomic Radius

Melting Point
 Metals generally possess a high melting point.
 Most non-metals possess low melting points.
 The non-metal carbon possesses the highest boiling point of all the elements. The semi-metal boron
also possesses a high melting point.

Metallic Property/Character

Electrolyte: produces electrically-conducting solution when dissolved in water; contains ions and can be
decomposed by electrolysis
Catalyst: increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up in the process
Oxidant: causes gain of electrons; is reduced in a chemical reaction
Reductant: causes loss of electrons; is oxidized in a chemical reaction
LeORA – Lose electrons, Oxidation, Reducing Agent
GeROA – Gain electrons, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent
Indicator: undergoes a distinct observable change when conditions in its solution change
Carbohydrates: most important source of energy for the body. These are changed into glucose, which is
used for energy for the cells, tissues, and organs.
Minerals: used by the body for many different jobs, including building bones, making hormones, and
regulating the heartbeat.
Proteins: building blocks of life. These are needed to help the body repair cells and make new ones.
These are also important for growth and development.
Fats: give energy; help the body absorb vitamins.
Metal and Non-metal Oxides
Non-metal oxides (sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide) are responsible for acid rain.
Acidic oxides – oxides of non-metals; react with water to form acids
Basic oxides – oxides of metals; react with water to form hydroxides
Colligative Properties of a solution (non-volatile):
1. Boiling point – higher than that of a pure solvent.
2. Vapor Pressure – less than that of a pure solvent.
3. Freezing point – lower than that of a pure solvent.
Ortho- and para-directing activators
NH2, OCH3, OH, benzene (weakly-activating), and phenol (strongly-activating)
Ortho- and para-directing deactivators
Halogens
Meta-directing deactivators
Ketone, ester, NO2, SO3H, nitric acid, and carboxylic acids
Substitution: AB + CD  AC + BD
Synthesis: two or more simple compounds combine to form a more complicated compound
Cracking: when a compound splits into different products
Combustion: where oxygen combines with another compound to form water and carbon dioxide.
Exothermic reaction because it produces heat
Polymerization: a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form
polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.