NOTES FOR

ADVANCE DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

SUB: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

(23112)

SAHYADRI COLLEGE OF FIRE ENGINEERING & SAFETY

MANAGEMENT
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1
SR. NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
Environmental management system: EMS Audits ISO
14001:2015 , Aspects and impact of Environment management ,
Environmental policy Environment management programs ,
Administrative procedure for Environmental clearances,
Environmental impact assessment (EIA),Process for methodologies
, Air pollution and control measures , water pollution and control
1 measures, soil pollution and control measures, plastic pollution and 3
control measures, Ecosystem and their components of ecosystem.
Concept of common efficient treatment plants (CETP): Floating
aquatic plants system and us design and operation, sludge
characteristics and disposal methods, design and operation of
sludge drying bed, design and operation of treatment plants, trouble
shooting and trouble free operation.
Environmental important Regulations: Water and air acts and
rules, Environment protection acts and rules, public liability acts
and rules, Role of state pollution control board under the water and
air acts.
Environmental Monitoring: Environmental related terms/
2 definitions, Principles and practices for monitoring for air pollution, 36
water pollution and solid waste management ,cleaner technologies ,
ambient air quality , Environmental Noise pollution, Stack
monitoring, efficient monitoring , efficient treatment , plant key
process, air pollution control devices , scrubber system , parameters
of efficient monitored.
Waste Management: Statutory provisions for bio medical wastes,
E- waste management, battery waste management , treatment ,
transportation and disposal . hazardous waste management ,
hazardous waste , PCB requirements and transportation of
3 hazardous wastes, Manifest , TREM card , solid waste management 146
, ETP and STP , Management of hazardous waste by industries , six
R- concepts Rethink , Refuse , Reduce, Recycle, Reuse and
Reprocessing co-processing of waste.
Global warming :Global emission atmospheric gases , Greenhouse
gases ,Kyoto protocol , acid rains , effect on human being , wild life
and natures mitigation measures of global warming ,Deforestation
4 Tree plantation , Bio-diversity , carbon credit , ozone depleting 161
substances and its impact on the environment , Restrictions for
development in coastal zone as per CRZ regulation.
Energy conservation: Key element of energy management system
ISO 50001, use of clean technologies, energy conservation
measures , water conservation and recycling, harvesting, power
5 saving measures , raw material saving , depletion of natural 185
resources, renewable energy, life cycle assessment (LCA),product
stewardship, green supply chain, Eco friendly environment , good
practices and innovations.
Sustainability Reporting :Elements of sustainability reports
,Purpose and advantages of sustainability reporting, global
6 reporting initiative (GRI), G4 guideline , Eco systems, concept and 209
structure , Monitoring and analysis of industrial effluents, Green
building concept( GBC)

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 CHAPTER: 1
Environmental management system:
WHAT IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
values. The ISO 14001 standard states that an environmental policy is the organisation's overall
environmental performance intentions and direction formally expressed by top management.
What are the benefits of developing an environmental policy?
An organisation can publicly advertise that it has considered its environmental performance and has
adopted best practice or is working towards improving its environmental performance. It's all
relative to the organisation and the type of industry but the environmental policy can advertise the
environmental status and environmental objectives of the organisation to all stakeholders.
Current An environmental policy is a statement about an organisation's environmental position and
and potential clients can read the statement and are able to determine whether they would like to
continue or start business with the organisation. It also can provide clear direction to all
stakeholders about the organisation's environmental values.
WHO SHOULD DEVELOP AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
A senior manager or managing team should endorse the environmental policy but not necessarily be
directly responsible for developing the policy. They should appoint someone talented, familiar with
the organisation and who has the ability of writing interesting factual statements.
There are already too many meaningless, unrealistic and dry environmental policies out there so
choose someone which can inspire and communicate the true environmental policy of the
organisation. When an organisation doesn't have any environmental programs to describe then
perhaps they could develop them or develop an environmental management system so it has
something meaningful to discuss within the environmental policy.
WHAT IS THE USUAL PROCEDURE FOR MAINTAINING AN ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY?
Similar to an environmental management system environmental policies should be regularly be
reviewed. When there has been change or change is planned, or when there has been a significant
performance issue the environmental policy should be reviewed. Otherwise, more general reviews
should be occur periodically (e.g. annually).
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
The ISO 14001 standard is probably the best reference standard for the development of an
environmental policy. In summary, an environmental policy must be:
appropriate to the organisation;
include a commitment for continual improvement and prevention of pollution;
include a commitment to comply to relevant legal and other requirements; and,
provide the framework for setting and reviewing environmental objectives and targets.
Also, consideration should be given to the reader's expectations. From a customer perspective they
would like to clearly know:
WHAT THE ORGANISATION DOES AND HOW IT DOES IT (E.G. DO THEY FOLLOW
BEST PRACTICE AND EMBRACE CLEANER PRODUCTION, IF SO HOW?);
 Understand whether the organisation is greener or browner than similar organisations;
 Understand whether the organisation presents a direct environmental risk to their operations;
 Understand whether the organisation presents a risk to public perception if they are engaged;
 Understand whether the organisation present an environmental risk by not understanding and not
complying with legal & other requirements; and,
 Understand whether the organisation has any environmental programs to their reduce
environmental impact and improve their environmental performance.
 The level of detail is up to the organisation. Consideration however should be given to making it
meaningful as first impressions last.

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WHAT SHOULD BE EXCLUDED FROM AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
Really uninteresting or untruthful statements! The purpose is for the environmental policy to be
read and understood, not for the readers to turn off or to be misled.
Organisations should think about what the environmental policy says about it and if it's untrue or
cannot be proved it should be left out. Organisations should be prepared to be able to demonstrate
statements such as comply with legal requirements, reducing energy usage, no longer using toxic
chemicals in its products, etc. At the end of the day, organisations could be prosecuted for
misleading and untrue statements when it comes to their environmental performance and its
activities, products and services. (Having an effective ISO 14001 environmental management
system should help organisations prove that the environmental policy is truthful and current.)
Organisations should think about who their readers are such as customers, blue and white collar
personnel, the EPA if it causes damage to the environment and runs the risk of prosecution, the
public who are interested in a new development in their neighbourhood, etc. The environmental
policy should be written for them as well as providing internal direction for the organisation.
If it's too long then it should be cut down. Out of experience anything longer than three quarters of a
page should be redeveloped and reduced, otherwise the messages can be lost by its readers. Also
don't be afraid of redeveloping or even tearing up your existing environmental policy and starting
from scratch.
WHAT DO YOU NEED TO DO IF YOU REQUIRE HELP?
Developing a good environmental policy can be difficult. Have a read of other organisations'
environmental policies found on the internet and discover yourself what makes a good
environmental policy and what doesn't. Experienced and talented Environmental Consultants could
assist your organisation with developing a suitable environmental policy.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
EU environment policy rests on the principles of precaution, prevention and rectifying pollution at
source, and on the ‘polluter pays’ principle. The precautionary principle is a risk management tool
that may be invoked when there is scientific uncertainty about a suspected risk to human health or
to the environment emanating from a certain action or policy. For instance, should doubts arise
about the potentially harmful effects of a product, and should — following an objective scientific
evaluation — uncertainty persist, instructions may be given to stop the distribution of the product or
to remove it from the market. Such measures must be non-discriminatory and proportionate, and
must be reviewed once more scientific information is available.
The ‘polluter pays’ principle is implemented by the Environmental Liability Directive, which aims
to prevent or otherwise remedy environmental damage to protected species or to natural habitats,
water and soil. Operators of certain occupational activities such as the transport of dangerous
substances, or of activities that imply discharge into waters, have to take preventive measures in
case of an imminent threat to the environment. If damage has already occurred, they are obliged to
take the appropriate measures to remedy it and pay for the costs. The scope of the directive has been
broadened three times to include the management of extractive waste, the operation of geological
storage sites, and the safety of offshore oil and gas operations respectively.
Furthermore, integrating environmental concerns into other EU policy areas has become an
important concept in European politics since it first arose from an initiative of the European
Council held in Cardiff in 1998 (the ‘Cardiff process’). In recent years, environmental policy
integration has made significant progress, for instance, in the field of energy policy, as reflected in
the parallel development of the EU’s climate and energy package or in the Roadmap for moving to
a competitive low-carbon economy by 2050. It shows how the sectors responsible for Europe’s
emissions — power generation, industry, transport, buildings and construction, as well as
agriculture — can make the transition to a low-carbon economy over the coming decades.
Basic framework
A.The Environment Action Programmes

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Since 1973, the Commission has issued multiannual Environment Action Programmes (EAPs)
setting out forthcoming legislative proposals and goals for EU environment policy. In 2013, the
Council and Parliament adopted the 7th EAP for the period up to 2020, under the title ‘Living well,
within the limits of our planet’. Building on a number of strategic initiatives, the programme sets
out nine priority objectives, including: the protection of nature; stronger ecological resilience;
sustainable, resource-efficient and low-carbon growth; and the fight against environment-related
threats to health. The programme also stresses the need for better implementation of EU
environment law, state-of-the-art science, investment, and integration of environmental aspects into
other policies.
B.Horizontal strategies
In 2001, the EU introduced its Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS), thus complementing the
earlier Lisbon Strategy for promoting growth and jobs with an environmental dimension. Renewed
in 2006 to combine the internal and international dimensions of sustainable development, the
revised EU SDS strives for the constant improvement of the quality of life through fostering
prosperity, environmental protection and social cohesion. In line with these goals, the Europe 2020
strategy for growth aims at shaping ‘smart, inclusive and sustainable growth’. Under its umbrella,
the ‘flagship initiative for a resource-efficient Europe’ points the way towards sustainable growth
and supports a shift towards a resource-efficient, low-carbon economy. Furthermore, in 2011 the
EU committed itself to halting the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services by 2020 (EU
biodiversity strategy).
C.Environmental impact assessment and public participation: Certain projects (private or
public) that are likely to have significant effects on the environment, e.g. the construction of a
motorway or an airport, are subject to an environmental impact assessment (EIA). Equally, a range
of public plans and programmes (e.g. concerning land use, transport, energy, waste or agriculture)
are subject to a similar process called a strategic environmental assessment (SEA). Here,
environmental considerations are already integrated at the planning phase, and possible
consequences are taken into account before a project is approved or authorised so as to ensure a
high level of environmental protection. In both cases, consultation with the public is a central
aspect. This goes back to the Aarhus Convention, a multilateral environmental agreement under the
auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) which entered into
force in 2001 and to which the EU and all its Member States are parties. It guarantees three rights to
the public: public participation in environmental decision-making, access to environmental
information held by public authorities (e.g. on the state of the environment or human health where
affected by the latter), and the right of access to justice where the other two rights have been
disregarded.
D.International environmental cooperation
The EU plays a key role in international environmental negotiations. It is a party to numerous
global, regional or sub-regional environmental agreements on a wide range of issues, such as nature
protection and biodiversity, climate change, and transboundary air or water pollution. For instance,
at the 10th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Nagoya
(Japan) in 2010, the EU made a major contribution to achieving an agreement on a global strategy
to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2020. Likewise, the Union participated in the decision to develop
the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for all countries which emerged from the
Rio+20 conference on sustainable development held in 2012. Traditionally, the EU has also set
standards during international climate negotiations under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The EU also acceded to the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) to pursue its fight against wildlife crime at the
international level.
E.Implementation, enforcement and monitoring

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EU environmental law has been built up since the 1970s. Several hundred directives, regulations
and decisions are in force today in this field. However, the effectiveness of EU environmental
policy is largely determined by its implementation at national, regional and local levels, and
deficient application and enforcement remain an important issue. Monitoring is crucial — both of
the state of the environment and of the level of implementation of EU environmental law.

EIA (ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT)

EIA is a tool for decision-makers to identify potential environmental impacts of proposed
projects, to evaluate alternative approaches, and to design and incorporate appropriate prevention,
mitigation, management and monitoring measures.
Environmental impact assessment cannot be divorced from social impact of the project,
hence the latter is considered as a key dimension of the EIA process.
EIA PROCESS
• The environmental impact assessment (EIA) process is an interdisciplinary and multistep
procedure to ensure that environmental considerations are included in decisions regarding
projects that may impact the environment.
• The purpose of the EIA process is to inform decision-makers and the public of the
environmental consequences of implementing a proposed project.
• The EIA document itself is a technical tool that identifies, predicts, and analyzes impacts on
the physical environment, as well as social, cultural, and health impacts.

1. Identifying and Defining the Project or Activity:-

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  This step may seem relatively simple; defining a “project” for the purposes of an EIA can
become complex and even controversial if a mining project is large, has several phases, or
involves multiple sites.
 The goal of this step is to define the project with enough specificity to accurately determine
the zone of possible impacts and to include activities that are closely connected with the
proposal so that the entire scope of environmental impacts is evaluated.
2. Screening:
 The screening process determines whether a particular project warrants preparation of an
EIA.
 The threshold requirements for an EIA vary from country to country – some laws provide a
list of the types of activities or projects that will require an EIA, others require an EIA for
any project that may have a significant impact on the environment or for projects that
exceed a certain monetary value
3. Scoping:
 Scoping is a stage, usually involving the public and other interested parties, that identifies
the key environmental issues that should be addressed in an EIA.
 Scoping may also reveal similar or connected activities that may be occurring in the vicinity
of a project, or identify problems that need to be mitigated or that may cause the project to
be canceled.
4. Preparing Terms of Reference:-
 The Terms of Reference serve as a roadmap for EIA preparation and should ideally
encompass the issues and impacts that have been identified during the scoping process.
5. Preparing Draft EIA :-
 A draft EIA is prepared in accordance with the Terms of Reference and the range of issues
identified during the scoping process.
 The draft EIA must also meet the content requirements of the overarching EIA law or
regulations.
6. Public Participation:
 Best EIA practice involves and engages the public at numerous points throughout the
process with a two-way exchange of information and views.
 Public participation may consist of informational meetings, public hearings, and
opportunities to provide written comments about a proposed project.
7. Preparing Final EIA:

 This step produces a final impact assessment report that addresses the viewpoints and
comments of the parties that reviewed the draft EIA.
 These comments may prompt revisions or additions to the text of the draft EIA.
8. Decision:
 A decision to approve or reject a mining project is generally based on the final EIA, but in
some instances, an environmental clearance may be just one step in the mine permitting
process.
 The decision may be accompanied by certain conditions that must be fulfilled, such as
posting a reclamation bond or filing an Environmental Management Plan.
9. Administrative or Judicial Review:
 Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be opportunities for a party to seek administrative
and judicial review of the final decision and the EIA process.
10. Project Implementation:

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  Provided all regulatory requirements are met and permits are obtained, mine development
will proceed following the project decision and once opportunities for administrative and
judicial review are exhausted.
11. Monitoring:
 Monitoring serves three purposes:
 Ensuring that required mitigation measures are being implemented.
 Evaluating whether mitigation measures are working effectively.
 Validating the accuracy of models or projections that were used during the impact
assessment process.
BENEFITS OF THE EIA PROCESS:
 Potentially screens out environmentally-unsound projects
 Proposes modified designs to reduce environmental impacts
 Identifies feasible alternatives
 Predicts significant adverse impacts
 Identifies mitigation measures to reduce, offset, or eliminate major impacts
 Engages and informs potentially affected communities and individuals
 Influences decision-making and the development of terms and conditions.
EIA Methodology:
 “EIA is necessary to understand the link between Environment and development.”

 It is used according to the two principal functions i.e.

 Planning tool to minimize adverse impacts caused by development activity &

 A decision making instrument to decide the acceptability of a project based on its

environmental costs.

 To approaches developed to identify , predict and value change of action.

 Reflected in the sequence of activities, steps as well on the range of environmental

issues.

 The use of this method and techniques to quantify or to qualify those changes.

Objective:

• Understand the nature and location of the project.

• Preliminary identification of impacts and scoping.
• Baseline studies and evaluation in the project.
• Prediction and assessment of impacts .
• Monitoring and impacts management.

Matrices:
 In this methods identify interaction between various action and environmental parameters.
 Functions:
o Preliminary identification of impacts (scoping).
o Comparative analysis of alternatives.
o Impact assessment.

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 o Presentation of evaluation results.
 To identify indirect impacts, cumulative impacts or contributions to mitigation measures.
 It’s better to use colour codes and graphical symbols in Matrices.
 The development of a matrix does not imply that it needs to be used in the report.
 It may simply be an element of work.
Checklist:
 This is standard list of the type of impacts associated with a particular type of project.
 It is extensive and complete method which the main function is identify all possible
consequences of the proposal.
 This are 4 type :-

Simple Descriptive Scaling Scaling Weighting

A list of environmental Identification of Same to a descriptive Addition information

parameter: how they are environmental parameter checklist but addition for the subjective
to be measured and and guideline for measure information on evaluation of each
interpreted. data on the particular subjective scaling of parameter with
parameter. the parameter. respect to all the
other parameter.

Advantages of checklist :-
 Structured list of key potential factors for analysis or key impacts.
 The result from experts judgement published by public / international organizations.
 Enable interdisciplinary discussions.
 Preparatory stage for matrix assessment.
Network:
• Network method is to study relationship of project activities and environmental
characteristics.
• It is useful in identification secondary impacts and
impact hypothesis..
• To developing a network diagram the 1st step is to
identify first order changes in environmental
components.
• 2nd step is result from 1st order changes then
identified.
• 3rd step is result from secondary changes is identified.
 Advantages:-
• Useful in simplified form for checking the secondary
impacts.
• Handles direct and indirect impacts.
• Disadvantage :-
• it become very complex .
• This method is explained overlays approach to
impact assessment to identify, predict, and assign
relative significance in geographical reference.
Overlay method
• This method is explained overlays approach to impact assessment to identify, predict, assign
relative significance in geographical reference.

9
 • This overlay method approach can accommodate both qualitative and quantitative data.
• The computer base method is more expensive and require more time to design.
GIS Method
• It maps the impact and display the pictorially.
• The construction or real world models based on digital data.
• GIS show the how the natural resource will affected by a decision.
• Environment can be assessed by integrating data on land use with topographic and geological
information.

Elements of EIA:
 Proposal: in every project there is a need to clarify that every objective must be directed for the
decision making but in major activities of government actions higher expenditure is require for
that such as public works development, for public lands there is development and management of
plans and requirement of permits for development and its insurance.
 Exclusion: in each and every sector of government: there is exclusion of actions from process in
administration, judicial and legislative. For example, recreation of minor projects such as
maintenance of roadways.
 Assessment of Environment: every proposal of a projects
and its local environment requires depth examination and
research by reducing adverse impacts from mitigation
such as barriers of noise.
 Screening: decision to require EI made by only authority.
No consultation requirement at this stage. Developer can
apply for ruling as to whether ES required or not
required. Reasons must be given for decision not to
require EIA only if interested party requests.
 Scoping: there is determination of initial meetings of
stakeholders who are available and decision makers:
jurisdiction: it shows availability of subsisted data: need
of required research in particular field, responsibilities of
work pressure. For designation of documents of EIA for
this there is responsibility of lead agency situated.
 Draft EIS (DEIS) – description of the proposed actions
which is included in documents those are preliminary,
and its available alternatives (one of available alternative is that action which is none), upon the
life of the particular project, assessment of the major impacts of environment and baseline.
 Comment: substantive critique which declared by all parties those are affected by it and all
participants those are accomplished this particular study from their side, there is a requirement of
a statement which should be in the form of public hearing or written manner. Assessment of the
sufficiency of the data is the main aim of it, analysis and alternative. Thus there is no chance of
opinion poll.
 Final EIS (FEIS) – in the period of comment there is introduction of the all issues those are
substantive and its responses and there is excess of additional research material and study. In the
FEIS there is identification which is presented by the lead agency only in that case where it is not
the DEIS.
 Decisions and its Record – on behalf of the explained clarification which is based on the law of
agency, resources which are available and available information through the process of the EIA,
the formal public decisions have made.

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Key problems of EIA:
• In modern environment the process of EIA is widely accepted and regarding the use of this
decision making tool various issues are associated in entire process and with its results. These
issues consist of ; confusion of public, questioner step regarding the prediction of future,
occurrence of environmental cost and its effectiveness in entire process and for the decision
making process role of internet.
• The EIA process can be defined as a policy of information not as a substantive regulatory like
law of pollution. In the decision making process, various types of problems occurs then public
become confused when the process of EIA produces negative impact. At the beginning of the
process of EIA, it lacks when public take decision and also lack in collection of information for
the decision making process.
• Individual ability is limited in the prediction of the future. In contrast after the direction of law
of pollution and authorities, in most of the EIS system, the impact of the forecast and projection
of entire process which presents numerical data, graphical representation and drawing of maps
and on behalf of that there is lack in quality factor in information which is available for the
public and decision makers. In the artificial presentation of the many EIAs, scientists,
environmentalists and decision makers always fells mistrust in that.
• There is very bad understanding available from outcomes which have obtained in terms of
socio-economic and actual physical from it. Instead of depth study of actual short and long
terms environmental outdoor, the main focus has given on outcomes that is available in terms of
documentary evidence. There is relation between the impact and effectiveness if mitigation and
serious questioner part in the EIS which is able to create new habit.
• There is no involvement of enforcement in the typical process of EIA. For further movement of
the process of EIA and its dimensions and decisions are based on the functions of internet.
There is no emergence of decision process which is transparent with full of potential and
distance collaborative and use of information technology. The major revolution has taken place
because of data evaluation, modeling which is interactive, during the draft review, sharing of
comments and because of the use of 3-D technology and visualization of action.
WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION?
Air pollution (say: po-loo-shun) occurs when gases, dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or
odour are introduced into the atmosphere in a way that makes it harmful to humans, animals and
plant. This is because the air becomes dirty (contaminated or unclean). The Earth is surrounded by a
blanket of air (made up of various gases) called the atmosphere. The atmosphere helps protect the
Earth and allow life to exist. Without it, we would be burned by the intense heat of the sun during
the day or frozen by the very low temperatures at night. Any additional gas, particles or odours that
are introduced into the air (either by nature or human activity) to distort this natural balance and
cause harm to living things can be called air pollution.
Things that pollute the air are called pollutants. Examples of pollutants include nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxides, hydrocarbons, sulphur oxides (usually from factories), sand or dust
particles, and organic compounds that can evaporate and enter the atmosphere.
There are two types of pollutants:
Primary pollutants: are those gases or particles that are pumped into the air to make it unclean.
They include carbon monoxide from automobile (cars) exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the
combustion of coal.
Secondary pollutants: When pollutants in the air mix up in a chemical reaction, they form an even
more dangerous chemical. Photochemical smog is an example of this, and is a secondary pollutant.
What causes air pollution?
Air pollution can result from both human and natural actions. Natural events that pollute the air
include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic
compounds and natural radioactivity. Pollution from natural occurrences is not very often.

11
Human activities that result in air pollution include:
1. Emissions from industries and manufacturing activities : Consider a typical manufacturing
plant: You will notice that there are long tubes (called chimneys) erected high into the air, with lots
of smoke and fumes coming out of it. Waste incinerators, manufacturing industries and power
plants emit high levels of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air. This
happens almost everywhere that people live. Petroleum refineries also release lots of hydrocarbons
into the air.
2. Burning Fossil Fuels: After the industrial age, transportation has become a key part of our lives.
Cars and heavy duty trucks, trains, shipping vessels and airplanes all burn lots of fossil fuels to
work. Emissions from automobile engines contain both primary and secondary pollutants. This is a
major cause of pollution and one that is very difficult to manage. This is because humans rely
heavily on vehicles and engines for transporting people, good and services.
Fumes from car exhausts contain dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide, oxides of
nitrogen, hydrocarbons and particulates. On their own, they cause great harm to people who breathe
them. Additionally, they react with environmental gases to create further toxic gases.
3. Household and Farming Chemicals
Crop dusting, fumigating homes, household cleaning products or painting supplies, over the
counter insect/pest killers, fertilizer dust emit harmful chemicals into the air and cause pollution. In
many cases, when we use these chemicals at home or offices with no or little ventilation, we may
fall ill if we breathe them.
What are the common air pollutants around...?

 Carbon Monoxide (CO): Pollutants facts fuel combustion from vehicles and engines.
Pollutants facts reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the body’s organs and tissues;
aggravates heart disease, resulting in chest pain and other symptoms.
 Ground-level Ozone (O3): Pollutants facts secondary pollutant formed by chemical reaction
of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and NOx in the presence of sunlight. Pollutants facts
decreases lung function and causes respiratory symptoms, such as coughing and shortness of
breath, and also makes asthma and other lung diseases get worse.
 Lead (Pb): Pollutants facts Smelters (metal refineries) and other metal industries; combustion
of leaded gasoline in piston engine aircraft; waste incinerators (waste burners), and battery
manufacturing. Pollutants facts Damages the developing nervous system, resulting in IQ loss
and impacts on learning, memory, and behavior in children. Cardiovascular and renal effects
in adults and early effects related to anaemia.

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 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): Pollutants facts Fuel combustion (electric utilities, big industrial
boilers, vehicles) and wood burning. Pollutants facts Worsens lung diseases leading to
respiratory symptoms, increased susceptibility to respiratory infection.
 Particulate Matter (PM): Pollutants facts This is formed through chemical reactions, fuel
combustion (e.g., burning coal, wood, diesel), industrial processes, farming (plowing, field
burning), and unpaved roads or during road constructions. Pollutants facts Short-term
exposures can worsen heart or lung diseases and cause respiratory problems. Long-term
exposures can cause heart or lung disease and sometimes premature deaths.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Pollutants factsSO2 comes from fuel combustion (especially high-
sulfur coal); electric utilities and industrial processes as well as natural occurrences like
volcanoes. Pollutants facts aggravate asthma and makes breathing difficult. It also contributes
to particle formation with associated health effects.
Air pollution prevention, monitoring and solution:
Solution efforts on pollution is always a big problem. This is why prevention interventions
are always a better way of controlling air pollution. These prevention methods can either come from
government (laws) or by individual actions. In many big cities, monitoring equipment has been
installed at many points in the city. Authorities read them regularly to check the quality of air. Let's
see more below:
 Government (or community) level prevention : Pollutants facts: Governments throughout the
world have already taken action against air pollution by introducing green energy. Some
governments are investing in wind energy and solar energy, as well as other renewable
energy, to minimize burning of fossil fuels, which cause heavy air pollution.
 Governments are also forcing companies to be more responsible with their manufacturing
activities, so that even though they still cause pollution, they are a lot controlled.
 Car manufacturing companies are also building more energy efficient cars, which pollute less
than before.
 Individual Level Prevention: Encourage your family to use the bus, train or bike when
commuting. If we all do this, there will be fewer cars on the road and less fumes produced.
 Energy (light, water, boiler, kettle and fire woods) wisely. This is because lots of fossil fuels
are burned to generate electricity, and so if we can cut down the use, we will also cut down
the amount of pollution we create.
 Recycle and re-use things. This will minimize the dependence of producing new things.
Remember manufacturing industries create a lot of pollution, so if we can re-use things like
shopping plastic bags, clothing, paper and bottles, it can help.
WATER POLLUTION
What is water pollution?
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater), very often by human activities.
Water pollution: Water pollution occur when pollutants (particles, chemicals or substances
that make water contaminated) are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without
enough treatment to get rid of harmful compounds. Pollutants get into water mainly by human
causes or human factors. Water pollution can be a Point-source, Non Point-source, or Trans
boundary in nature (Click here to learn more). Water pollution is the second most imperative
environmental concern along with air pollution.
Any change or modification in the physical, chemical and biological properties of water that
will have a detrimental consequence on living things is water pollution. The water pollution
problem Water covers over 70% of the Earth’s surface. It is a very important resource for people
and the environment. Water pollution affects drinking water, rivers, lakes and oceans all over the

13
world. In many developing countries, it is usually a leading cause of death, by people drinking from
polluted water sources.
More to this, water pollution affects not only individual living species but also populations
and entire functioning ecosystems that exist in the waters. Humans have now realized the
importance of clean water as a foundation for life. In recent time, more and more organizations and
councils are working hard to educate, protect, restore waterways and encourage practices that help
keep waters from contamination, and also to preserve water ecosystems from destruction. In this
lesson, we shall learn all about water pollution, the types of water pollution, causes of water
pollution, effects and some preventive practices that we can all use to help deal with water
pollution. Use the menus on your left to learn more. Enjoy.
Prevention of water pollution.
 Dealing with water pollution is something that everyone (including governments and local
councils) needs to get involved with. Here are a few things you can do to help. Learning
about the issue (like you are doing) is the greatest and most important step to take. Here are
a few more:
 Never throw rubbish away anyhow. Always look for the correct waste bin. If there is none
around, please take it home and put it in your trash can. This includes places like the beach,
riverside and water bodies.
 Use water wisely. Do not keep the tap running when not in use. Also, you can reduce the
amount of water you use in washing and bathing. If we all do this, we can significantly
prevent water shortages and reduce the amount of dirty water that needs treatment.
 Do not throw chemicals, oils, paints and medicines down the sink drain, or the toilet. In
many cities, your local environment office can help with the disposal of medicines and
chemicals. Check with your local authorities if there is a chemical disposal plan for local
residents.
 Buy more environmentally safe cleaning liquids for use at home and other public places.
They are less dangerous to the environment.
 If you use chemicals and pesticides for your gardens and farms, be mindful not to overuse
pesticides and fertilizers. This will reduce runoffs of the chemical into nearby water sources.
Start looking at options of composting and using organic manure instead.
 If you live close to a water body, try to plant lots of trees and flowers around your home, so
that when it rains, chemicals from your home does not easily drain into the water.
 Governments, local councils and lawsMany governments have very strict laws that help
minimize water pollution. These laws are usually directed at industries, hospitals, schools
and market areas on how to dispose, treat and manage sewage. Do you know the laws in
your country? This is the time to find out.Local authorities must be vigilant and quick and to
deal with water issues of their community to prevent danger. HERE is a serious example
from Flint, Michigan in the USA.
 In many developed cities, waste or sewage treatment is very efficient, and designed to
minimise pollution of water bodies. (The next page explains that process)
 There are also lots of organizations and groups that help educate people on the dangers of
water pollution. It is always great to join these groups, because they regularly encourage
other members of their communities to have a better attitude towards water.
SOIL POLLUTION - TYPES, EFFECTS, SOURCES AND CONTROL OF SOIL
POLLUTION
Soil pollution: It is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may
cause harmful effect on living organisms”.
Composition of soil is listed below:
COMPONENT %

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  Organic mineral matter 45%
 Organic matter 05%
 Soil water 25%
 Soil air 25%
TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution mainly occurs due to the following:
 Industrial wastes
 Urban wastes
 Agricultural practices
 Radioactive pollutants
 Biological agents

 Industrial wastes – Disposal of Industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution
 Sources: Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from various origins such as pulp and
paper mills, chemical fertilizers, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel,
distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement,
petroleum and engineering industries etc.
o Effect: These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of
soil. As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil
or water, disturb the biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on living
organisms.
 Urban wastes – Urban wastes comprise of both commercial and domestic wastes consisting
of dried sludge and sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.
Constituents of urban refuse: This refuse consists of garbage and rubbish materials like
plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves,
containers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded manufactured products. Urban domestic
wastes though disposed off separately from industrial wastes, can still be dangerous. This
happens because they are not easily degraded.
 Agricultural practices – Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent.
With the advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides
and weedicides are added to increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes, manure,
slurry, debris, soil erosion containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported to cause soil
pollution.
 Radioactive pollutants/ - Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear
testing laboratories and industries giving rise to nuclear dust radioactive wastes, penetrate
the soil and accumulate giving rise to land/soil pollution. Ex: Radio nuclides of Radium,
Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and Carbon (C-14) are commonly found
in soil, rock, water and air. Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include
neutron, proton reactions by which Nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This C-14 participates
in Carbon metabolism of plants which is then into animals and human beings. Radioactive
waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine-129, Cesium-137 and
isotopes of Iron which are most injurious. Strontium get deposited in bones and tissues
instead of calcium.
 Biological agents – Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta which
constitute a major source of land pollution by biological agents. Ex: 1. Heavy application of
manures and digested sludge can cause serious damage to plants within a few years.
Control measures of soil pollution:
 Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices. Ex: Planting trees
on barren slopes

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  Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also helps
arrest soil erosion in the long term.
 Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a disposal
problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled
tipping is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or
sports field.
 Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical
pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers.
Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare compost manure instead of
throwing them wastefully and polluting the soil.
 Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary habits. Ex:
Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
 Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to
educate people on health hazards by environmental education. Ex: Mass media, Educational
institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
 Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper,
plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be
recycled and reused. Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated
waste treatment methods should be adopted.
 Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT,
BHC, etc. which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal
of radioactive wastes should be banned.
PLASTIC POLLUTION: MEANING, CAUSES, EFFECTS AND SOLUTIONS
Meaning of Plastic Pollution
Plastic pollution is the introduction of plastic products into the environment which then
upset the existing ecosystems in different ways. These pollutants cause environmental degradation
and also affect different living organisms and their habitats negatively.
When plastic products accumulate in the environment, they begin to cause problems for wildlife,
humans, and other living organisms. They create conditions that are not favorable for healthy living
and proper growth. This is what is essentially referred to as plastic pollution. Plastic pollution is
similar to any other type of environmental degradation, the only major difference here being that
the major pollutants are made from plastic. It can be prevented and the effects minimized when the
right measures are put in place. To know just how much this type of pollution is dangerous, we can
first of all look at the meaning of plastic and what it’s made up of.
WHAT IS PLASTIC?
A material that is made from plastic can easily be shaped or deformed. Plastics are synthetic
materials that are made from synthetic resins or organic polymers. Examples of these polymers
include nylon, PVC, and polyethylene. Plastics are categorized into two groups, those that go
through a chemical change process in their constituents when subjected to heat (thermosetting
polymers) and those that do not (thermoplastics). Examples of thermoplastics include
polypropylene and polyethylene. They are the most common types of plastics because they are
usually produced in large quantities but at very low costs. Most disposable items are packaged in
these. Supermarkets and a lot of other retail stores also use them to package goods bought. Plastics
are mainly composed of petrochemicals that when burnt or melted, cause environmental pollution.
Plastic pollutants can also be classified in terms of size. This creates three categories of pollutants
namely micro, meso, and macro debris.
How does Plastic Pollution Occur? These pollutants can build up in water sources and make
it difficult for marine life to move around freely in their habitat. They can also reduce the flow of
air within water bodies, a factor that endangers the lives of organisms that reside in these habitats.

16
Some marine organisms ingest micro debris made of plastics and suffer from poisoning because of
the chemical components. On the other hand, plastics can be an eyesore when they are strewn all
over the place. They can also trap water and act as breeding places for disease-causing organisms
like mosquitoes. Plastics that degrade in water sources can cause pollution by making the water
obtained from such places unfit for human consumption. The burning of materials made of plastic
also causes pollution. These are some of the ways in which plastic pollution occurs in the
environment.
Common Causes of Plastic Pollution
There are many reasons why plastic pollution takes place. The biggest contributing factor
has to be human activities because they are the ones that manufacture plastics and then introduce
them into the environment. Some of the common causes of this type of pollution include:
1. Plastic bags from shopping: When you buy items from the retail store, chances are that they’ll
be packaged in plastic bags. Most of them are thermoplastics that are produced in large quantities.
When these plastics have been used, they are usually thrown away or discarded because the next
time you go back to the store, your items will be packaged in new plastic bags. Many people shop
regularly and that means that the amount of plastic bags introduced into the environment also
increase at a faster pace. Since most of the plastics are also low cost and thin, they can only be used
a couple of times before they tear. These shopping bags are major polluters of the environment and
it’s common to see them thrown around.
2. Plastic Toys: Most toys are usually made of plastic. This is usually taken as a safety measure
because kids can easily injure themselves with metallic toys. As we all know, these young fellas are
not very responsible people and the toys are usually damaged almost immediately after they’ve
been purchased. A kid can go through many toys in a month unless the parent just decides to let him
or her play with the broken one. There are also companies that sell products such as cereals and
include free toys as part of marketing. Parents then feel obliged to buy them because they come
with gifts for the kids. When all these are summed up, we have ecosystems full of plastic toys and
with no proper place or method to dispose of them. What happens next is environmental pollution.
3. Pet Bottles: Pet bottles are also common plastic pollutants. These bottles are normally used for
feeding or administering medication. They are changed regularly or when the one being used is
damaged. The damaged bottles are then disposed of and they end up polluting the environment in
one way or the other. Apart from the feeding bottles, there are also feeding plates or troughs made
of plastic.
4. Failure to recycle: Failure to recycle or reuse plastic materials is another major cause of plastic
pollution. As mentioned earlier, someone will use a plastic bag once and then throw it away
because he or she knows that she’ll get a new one on the next shopping trip. This results in so many
plastic papers in the environment. It doesn’t help that garbage collection companies do not also
encourage their clients to put recyclable waste separately from those that need to be disposed of.
The failure to recycle is one of the main reasons why plastic pollution is such a major concern the
world over because it seems that the more the world population increases, the bigger the problem
becomes.
5. Using Plastic Disposables: People who host parties and use plastic disposable cups, plates, forks
and knives are the main culprits here. As much as they make work easier because they eliminate the
need to wash utensils after the party, it’s also detrimental to the environment. These plastic
disposables are usually thrown away after the party and end up causing plastic pollution in several
ways.
6. Plastic Fishing Nets: Commercial fishing is a very important economic activity. This is because
fish is a source of white meat with numerous health benefits. Individuals, companies, and even
nations engage in commercial fishing because it is an important source of income and revenue. The
only problem is that in large scale fishing especially in trolling operations, the nets are usually made

17
of plastic materials. They remain submerged for long periods and leak toxins into the ocean waters.
They can also break apart and stay in the water causing more pollution in the process.
7. Poor Disposal of Plastic Waste: Plastics do not degrade easily because of the type of materials
that they are made of. That’s the reason why when you dispose of a plastic bottle or paper bag in
your compound, chances are that even one year down the line it will still be there. We can use lots
of materials made of plastic but when we properly dispose of them, pollution is reduced. Poor
plastic waste disposal is, therefore, a major cause of pollution. Many people are very careless with
the way they dispose of their plastic wastes and that has presented a big challenge as far as having a
clean planet is concerned.
Preventive and Control Measures
The number one instigator of pollution has always been mankind. Our actions introduce
plastics into the ecosystem and cause pollution. That means that we can also be proactive and
enforce preventive and control measures so that we do not have to deal with the bad effects. What
then can we do so that we avoid the negative effects of plastic pollution? Here are some of the
preventive and control measures that can help reduce this menace:
1. Find Alternatives to Plastics: We can reduce plastic pollution by using alternatives to plastics.
People can actually stop using plastic bags and disposable utensils. Instead of going to the retail
store and having your purchases packaged in plastic bags, you can choose to carry your own bag
that is large enough and reusable. The business community can also play a vital role by using other
alternatives to plastics when packaging goods. Using bags made of paper is a smart way to reduce
plastic pollution. When we stop using plastics and find alternatives, we reduce the risk of pollution
and make the environment cleaner. It’s all about everyone being proactive enough to do what needs
to be done to conserve the environment.
2. Making use of Reusable Water Bottles: Using disposable water bottles is a major cause of
plastic pollution. They are thrown away after use and that just adds dirt in the ecosystem because
more bottles will have to be manufactured. An ideal thing to do would be to make use of reusable
water bottles. When the water in the container has been used up, it is taken to the respective
company for a refill. In this way, less number of plastics are manufactured and the environment is
conserved. There shouldn’t be much debate around this because using these types of bottles also
saves you a lot of money as opposed to buying new ones from the store. With one move, you
conserve the environment and reduce your monthly expenses. That is a really smart way to live.
3. Proper Waste Disposal: We looked at one of the main causes of plastic pollution as lack of
proper waste disposal methods. People just throwing around plastic materials without much thought
about the consequences of their actions. To stop this from happening, we can adopt proper waste
disposal methods. Individuals should strive to dispose of plastic materials only in designated areas
like dustbins. This prevents several problems like drainage blockage and air pollution. Cultivating a
culture of being responsible goes a long way in reducing the effects of pollution.
4. Recycling: Garbage processing is actually one of the best ways to ensure that unnecessary waste
materials are not loaded into the environment. Instead of throwing away plastic bottles, we can
collect them and give them to companies that engage in the recycling of plastics. At home, people
can have separate bins for collecting wastes. One of those can be dedicated to the collection of
waste products for recycling. Companies can also offer incentives by paying for these types of
garbage so that people are motivated to give them out for recycling.
5. Government Policies: Every business person’s major concern is to make profits. What happens
is that companies manufacture very thin plastic bags that tear easily because they are low cost and
are bought in bulk. This is the type of business that gives them high profits. The government can
play its role by banning the manufacture of such plastic bags and putting in place policies that
promote a clean environment. Thick bags that do not tear easily are expensive and that will
encourage people to reuse them. Companies can be compelled to adhere to certain standards failure
to which there would be penalties. This would also lead to retail stores opting for alternative

18
packaging methods like papers. Policies to encourage the recycling of wastes and cleaning of the
environment can also be helpful.
6. Community Education: Knowledge is power. A person is more likely to conserve the
environment when he or she is made aware of the dangers of not doing so. Educating people about
the effects of plastic pollution and ways in which it can be prevented or controlled is a step in the
right direction because it raises awareness. This can be done by community-based organizations or
government agencies tasked with environmental conservation. Another way in which this can be
achieved is by running ads in the media or campaigns that aim at sensitizing people about the
benefits of conserving the environment. At the family level, parents and their children can educate
one another about plastic pollution. They can then do what is necessary to prevent or control it.
ECOSYSTEM:
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley to encompass the
interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment at a given site. The living and
non-living components of an ecosystem are known as biotic and abiotic components, respectively.
Ecosystem was defined in its presently accepted form by Eugene Odum as, “an unit that includes all
the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that
a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles, i.e.,
exchange of materials between living and non-living, within the system”.
Components of Ecosystem:

(A) Abiotic Components:

Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors on an ecosystem. The non-living
factors are either resources or conditions. Important abiotic components can be listed as follows:
1. Physical factors: They sustain and limit the growth of organisms in an ecosystem.
a) Light: Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems. It is the
energy that is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of

19
 photosynthesis; a process during which plants manufacture organic substances by combining
inorganic substances. The intensity of the light that reaches the earth varies according to the
latitude and season of the year and also effect geographical and seasonal vegetation distribution.
Many species of small plants (herbs and shrubs) growing in forests are adapted to photosynthesis
optimally under very low light conditions because they are constantly overshadowed by tall,
canopied trees. Many plants are also dependent on sunlight to meet their photoperiodic
requirement for flowering.
b) Temperature: The distribution of plants and animals is greatly influenced by extremes in
temperature.
c) Water: The life on earth originated in water and is unsustainable without water.
d) Atmospheric gases: The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. Oxygen is used by all living organisms during respiration. Carbon dioxide
is used by green plants during photosynthesis. Nitrogen is made available to plants by certain
bacteria and through the action of lightning.
e) Soil: Various characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size and aggregation
determine the percolation and water holding capacity of the soils. These characteristics along with
parameters such as pH, mineral composition and topography determine to a large extent the
vegetation in any area. This in turn dictates the type of animals that can be supported.
2. Organic compounds: They are the building blocks of living systems and therefore, make a link
between the biotic and abiotic components. Examples are: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
humid substances.
(B)Biotic components:

The biotic components in an ecosystem include the living organisms. They are grouped in to
3 classes based on the organism’s role in the flow of material and energy within the ecosystem:
1. Producers (autotrophs): Autotrophs produce organic compounds from carbon dioxide as a
carbon source. They take energy from the sun (or from inorganic sources in some cases) to convert
it into organic molecules or food, e.g., plants, algae, bacteria, etc. A portion of food synthesized, is
used by autotrophs for their growth and other biological functions and remaining is stored for future
use. This stored food in autotrophs is utilized as food by other organisms (called heterotrophs).
2. Consumers (heterotrophs): They are called heterotrophs and they consume food synthesized by
the autotrophs. Based on food preferences they can be grouped into three broad categories.
Herbivores (e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.) feed directly on plants, carnivores are animals which eat
other animals (eg. lion, cat, dog etc.) and omnivore’s organisms feeding upon both plants and
animals e.g. human, pigs and sparrow.
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3. Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms (often fungi or bacteria) that break down organic
materials to gain nutrients and energy. Decomposition is a natural process but decomposers
accelerate it. The role that decomposers perform in an ecosystem is extremely important. When an
organism dies, it leaves behind nutrients that are locked together. Decomposers unlock these
nutrient and release as raw nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium) in a form
which are usable for plants. Decomposers also convert organic carbon into Carbon dioxide, which
can be trapped by photosynthesizes.
CONCEPT OF CETP (COMMON EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT
(CETP)
The concept of effluent treatment, by means, of a collective effort, has assumed reasonable
gravity by being especially purposeful for cluster of small scale industrial units. Common effluent
treatment plant (CETP) not only helps the industries in easier control of pollution, but also act as a
step towards cleaner environment and service to the society at large. Small scale industries, by their
very nature of job cannot benefit much from economies of scale and therefore the burden of
installing pollution- control equipment, falls heavy on them. Realizing this practical problem, under
the policy statement for abatement of pollution the Govt. felt to extend the scheme for promoting
combined facilities for treatment of effluent and management of solid waste for clusters of small
scale industrial units and also to provide technical support to them. Accordingly, Ministry of
Environment & Forests, Govt. of India, had instructed various State Pollution Control Boards, to
examine the possibilities of establishing CETPs in various Industrial estates in the respective states.
The concerted approach of joint or common effluent treatment provisions has many advantages.
Wastewater of individual industries often contains significant concentration of pollutants; and to
reduce them by individual treatment up to the desired concentration, become techno-economically
difficult. The combined treatment provides a better and economical option because of the
equalization and neutralization taking place in the CETP. Other important issues for the merit of
common treatment include scarcity of land at the industry's level and a comparatively easier
availability of professional and trained staff for the operation of CETP, which can otherwise be
difficult, at the individual industry level. For the regulatory authorities also, common treatment
facility offers a comparatively easier means of ensuring compliance of stipulated norms. The
handling and disposal of solid- waste also becomes increasingly easier as the infrastructure is
created in the project itself. The concept of common treatment, based on feasibility, should be part
of the new industrial estates as essential component of infrastructure; In fact, the location of
industries should always be such that units with compatible nature of activity are located in a cluster
which inturn can facilitate in providing common treatment.
Floating Aquatic Plant Systems
Aquatic plant systems are engineered and constructed systems that use aquatic plants in the
treatment of industrial or domestic wastewater. They are designed to achieve a specific wastewater
treatment goal. Aquatic plant systems can be divided into two categories:
• Systems with floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth, duckweed, and pennywort
• Systems with submerged aquatic plants such as waterweed, water milfoil, and watercress
The use of aquaculture as a means of treating wastewater involves both natural and artificial
wetlands and the production of algae and higher plants (submersed and immersed) to remove
contaminants such as nitrogen compounds, BOD5, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals from the
wastewater. Floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and duckweed
(Lemna spp.) appear to be some of the most promising aquatic plants for the treatment of
wastewater and have received the most attention in this regard. Other plants are also being studied,
among them seaweed and alligator weed.
These systems are basically shallow ponds covered with floating plants that detain
wastewater at least one week. The main purpose of the plants in these systems is to provide a

21
suitable habitation for bacteria that remove the vast majority of dissolved nutrients. The design
features of such systems are summarized in Table 6.8.
These technologies are useful in areas where suitable plants are readily available. In areas
where they are not, any introduction of plants species must be undertaken with caution to minimize
the possibility of creating nuisance growth conditions. Even introducing them into constructed
enclosures should be done carefully, and with the foreknowledge that there is a strong likelihood
that they will enter natural water systems (especially because they must be harvested from the
treatment systems and disposed of). BOD COD TSS Nitrogen Phosphorus Source Reduction.

Sluge characteristics
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH): Sludges studied in this analysis did not show much variation
in pH, varying slightly from neutral. The average was 7.3 and ranged from 6.7 to 8.0
Electrical conductivity: Considerable variation was observed in electrical conductivity readings on
sludges studied (Table 2.3). A significant difference was evident between sludge digestion methods,
with the anaerobically digested sludge showing significantly higher conductivity than aerobically
digested sludge (Table 2.4). The average conductivity of al1 sludges was 4.7 mS cm-', with the
anaerobically digested sludge having an average of 6.2 mS cm-' white the aerobically digested
showed an average of 2.7 mS cm-'. Electrical conductivity showed a significant correlation with
many other parameters determined in this study
Nutrient content of sewage sludge: Sewage sludge contains considerable amounts of nitrogen and
phosphorus and has significant inorganic fertilizer replacement value for these major plant
nutrients. The origin and treatment of sewage sludge affects bath the quantity and availability of
nutrients for crop growth. Micronutrients are also present to a variable extent based on origin and
treatments of sludge.
Nitrogen in sewage sludge : As mentioned earlier, the average nitrogen content of sewage sludge
is around 3.8%, which includes ammonium, nitrate and organic forms. Amounts of each form
depend mostly on the extent of treatment, which can alter the forms drastically (Sommers 1977).
Sommers (1977) reported that 50-9O0/0 of total N could be in organic form, depending on the
solids content of the sludge. The composition of the organic N compounds in the sludge included
amino acids, hexoamines and proteinaceous material. A major portion of the organic form was
hydrolyzable. During aerobic digestion, organic nitrogen is transformed into ammonium, and
depending on treatment, a variable part of the ammonium is converted into nitrate. Volatilization
losses of N during the aerobic treatment process can consequently be considerable (Sommes 1977).
Losses of sewage sludge N can also be considerable after land application. Beuchamp et al. (1978)
measured 60% loss in inorganic N after surface application of anaerobically digested sludge in the
field. The fertilizer value of N from sewage sludge is variable depending on sludge treatment and
soi1 environment. Factors affecting utilization of nitrogen in soils are temperature, rainfall,
immobilization, and ammonia volatilization or denitrification processes.

22
Phosphorus in sewage sludge: In developed countries, annual P discharge into sewage systems is
about 1 kg per capita, largely from detergents (de Haan 1981). This number is likely to be much
higher in developing countries where rules for protection of the environment are not as strict as in
North America and Western Europe. With conventional treatment of sewage, up to 90% of P in the
treated effluent can be removed and ends up in the sludge. Precipitants used for sewage treatment
are mostly soluble salts of iron or aluminium, but also calcium [Ca(OH)2], or biological methods
can be used (Coker and Carlton-Smith 1986). Recent advances in sludge treatment have made
possible even more efficient P removal for recycling through advanced biological treatment and
subsequent chemical precipitation.
Total Solids content: solids were determined by drying sludge samples in an oven at 10S°C for 24
hrs (APHA, AWWA, WEF 1995). Representative samples (-120 g) were weighed into 500 mL
glass beakers and put in an oven previously set to desired temperature, and dried to a constant
weight.
Specific gravity: Specific gravity was determined using standard method for sludge (APHA,
AWWA, WEF 1995) by weighing out a known volume of sludge and cornparing it to the weight of
an equal volume of water at the same temperature.
Total carbon: Total C was determined using LECO SC-444 Sulphur and Carbon Analyzer (LECO
Corporation, St. Joseph, Mi.). Inorganic C was measured with the same instrument after overnight
(16 h) ashing of samples in a muffler furnace set at 475 OC.
SLUDGE DISPOSAL METHODS:
SLUDGE LAGOONS:
A lagoon is a shallow lake (or earth basin) usually located near a river or a sea. Lagooning
(disposal of sludge into lagoons) is a convenient method of sludge disposal if the treatment plant is
located at a remote place. In lagooning, the sludge is stabilized by anaerobic and aerobic
decomposition which is accompanied by release of objectionable odors. For this reason, lagoons
should be located away from dwelling areas and high ways to avoid nuisance conditions. The
stabilized solids of the sludge settle to the bottom of lagoon and accumulate. The sludge’s can be
stored indefinitely in lagoons or may be removed periodically.
Composting:
Composting basically involves the process of biological degradation of solid organic waste
material to stable end products. Although composting can be carried out under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions, aerobic composting is more frequently used. Thus, composting may be
considered as an aerobic microbiological process for converting solid organic wastes into stable
sanitary, nuisance free, humus like material that can be safely disposed into the environment.
Composting is a cost-effective and environment friendly process for stabilization and ultimate
disposal of sludge. The product of composting is useful for soil improvement and the production of
mushrooms. Thus, composting is ultimately helpful for reuse and recycling of organic waste
materials from domestic, agriculture and industry.

Organisms involved in composting:

A wide variety of organisms (both unicellular and multicellular) are involved in the process
composting. The bacteria make up 80-90% of the microorganisms found in the compost. These
bacteria possess a broad range of enzymes to degrade a wide range of organic compounds. The
other organisms actively involved in composting are actinomycetes (a filamentous type of bacteria),
fungi (molds, yeasts), and protozoa, besides earthworms, insects, mites and ants.
Anaerobic digestion:
Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial decomposition process that stabilises organic wastes and
produces a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide gas (biogas). The heat value of methane is the
same as natural petroleum gas, and biogas is valuable as an energy source. Anaerobic digestion is
usually carried out in a specially built digester, where the content is mixed and the digester

23
maintained at 35 oC by combusting the biogas produced. After digestion the sludge is passed to a
sedimentation tank where the sludge is thickened. Biogas is collected from the digester (Figure 33).
The thickened sludge requires further treatment prior to reuse or disposal.
Anaerobic digestion can also be carried out at a slower rate in an unmixed tank or pond. Covering
is usually by a UV resistant plastic sheet, because of the large area needed to be covered, and biogas
is collected from the top of the sheet. Storage of biogas can be in a cylindrical tank with a floating
roof. The cylindrical roof floats on water and its position is determined by the volume of the gas
stored under the pressure of the roof. Biogas can also be stored in a balloon, but only under low
pressure.
Stabilisation:
Faecal sludge collected from bucket or vault latrines has a very high biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) and is generally putrid and odorous. Primary and secondary sludges from an
activated sludge treatment plant also have a high BOD and may be difficult to dewater. Even sludge
from a septic tank, which has undergone bacterial decomposition over at least a year, still has a high
BOD. Stabilisation is the term used to denote the process of BOD reduction. The stabilisation
process can be carried out under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
Aerobic stabilisation of primary and secondary sludges can be carried out in an aeration tank in the
same manner as in an activated sludge process. Because of the high oxygen requirement, this
process is energy intensive and costs are high. Aerobic stabilisation requires less energy when
carried out as part of a composting process. For composting of sludge, its solids content should be
increased to at least 15 % so that it can be handled as a solid. Thickening and dewatering (see
below) of primary and secondary sludges are required to achieve the required solids content. Faecal
sludge may contain high enough solids. Mixing with dry materials such as dry sawdust may assist
with achieving the required solids content as well attaining the required carbon to nitrogen ratio for
composting.
Landfilling:
Landfilling is a method for the final disposal of sludge that is not useful any more. The
sanitary landfill method is most suitable for the disposal of solid domestic wastes. This involves a
low-cost anaerobic technology. In this method, the sludge or solid wastes are deposited in low-lying
and low value sites. The deposition is done almost daily and the deposits are covered with a layer of
soil (Fig. 58.4). With the coverage of the new waste deposits, nuisance conditions such as bad
odours and flies are minimized. It is desirable that the sludge is dewatered so that its transportation
becomes easy. Further, the generation of leachate (liquid that percolates out due to leaching) is
minimal from a dewatered sludge. At least two impermeable layers are built below the landfill to
prevent the leakage of leachate to the surrounding lands. The accumulated leachate can be taken out
and treated by appropriate methods. The complete filling of landfills may take several months or
even years, depending on the size of the site and the quantity of waste being deposited. Landfills
can be used for the generation of methane gas for commercial use. However, methane production
usually commences several months after the landfill is completely filled. In some countries, there
are strict regulations to use landfills for sewage disposal. These include the air- and water tight sites
to protect the environment.

SLUDGE DRYING BEDS DESIGN

24
 Sludge drying bed (SDB) is the most widely used method for sludge dewatering. Sludge
drying involves natural ways of drying to mechanical ways of removing water content. SDB is
generally used for small and medium sized communities (TCHOBANOGLOUS et al. 2003). The
selection of the technology will depend upon land availability, climatic factors, the quantity and
composition of the sludge. The construction of this is usually undertaken with civil structure.
The prediction of the drying rate is an empirical part of the designing the system. Drying of
the sludge can be divided in to two different stages, namely drainage and evaporation (CHAI 2007).
The design of SDB is based mainly on site specifications, as well as environmental and climatic
factors. The sizing of the sludge drying beds should be done considering the worst case scenario
(CERONIO et al. 1999). The loading is based on per capita basis or on a unit loading of pounds of
dry solids per square foot per year (TCHOBANOGLOUS et al. 2003).
There are mainly five types of sludge drying methods viz. conventional sand beds, paved
drying beds, artificial media beds, vacuum assisted and solar. The typical conventional SDB has
dimensions of 6 m width, 6 - 30 m length, with sand layer ranging from 230 – 300 mm depth. The
sand should have a uniformity coefficient of not over 4.0 and effective size of 0.3 to 0.75 mm. The
piping to the sludge drying beds should be designed for velocity of at-least 0.75 m/s
(TCHOBANOGLOUS et al. 2003). The sludge is placed on the bed in 20–30 cm layers and allowed
to dry. Sludge cake removal is manual by shovelling into wheel-barrows, trucks, scraper, or front-
end loader. The drying period is 10–15 days, and the moisture content of the cake is 60 – 70%.
Sludge loading rate is 100–300 kg dry solids/ m2 /year for uncovered beds.
Multiple Units: Multiple units should be provided. Staged digestion design may be used, provided
the units can be used in parallel as well as in series. Where multiple units are not provided, a lagoon
or storage tanks should be provided for emergency use so that digestion tanks may be taken out of
service without unduly interrupting plant operation. Means of returning sludge from the secondary
digester unit to the primary digester should be provided. In large treatment plants where digesters
are provided, separate digestion of primary sludges should be considered.
Depth: The proportion of depth to diameter should provide for the formation of supernatant liquor
with a minimum depth of 6 feet. Sidewall depth is generally about one-half the diameter of the
digester for diameters up to 60 feet, and decreases to about one-third the diameter for diameters
approaching 100 feet. Maintenance Provisions To facilitate emptying, cleaning, and maintenance,
the following features are required:
Slope: The tank bottom shall slope to drain toward the withdrawal pipe. A slope of between 1 inch
per foot and 3 inches per foot is recommended. (ii) Access Manholes At least two access manholes
should be provided in the top of the tank, in addition to the gas dome. One opening should be large
enough to permit the insertion of mechanical equipment to remove scum, grit, and sand. A separate
side wall manhole should be provided at ground level.

25
Safety: Nonspeaking tools, rubber-soled shoes, safety harness, gas detectors for flammable and
toxic gasses and the hose type or self-contained type breathing apparatus shall be provided. e. Pre-
thickening of sludge may be advantageous, but the solids content shall be less than 8% to ease
mixing problems.
Sludge Inlets and Outlets: Multiple sludge inlets and draw-offs and multiple recirculation suction
and discharge points should be provided to facilitate flexible operation and effective mixing of the
digester contents, unless adequate mixing facilities are provided within the digester. One inlet
should discharge above the liquid level and be located at approximately the center of the tank to
assist in scum breakup. Raw sludge inlet points should be located to minimize short-circuiting to
the supernatant draw off
TANK CAPACITY
a. General: Two cultures of bacteria are primarily involved in anaerobic digestion: acid formers
and methane formers. Capacity of the digester tank shall be based on the growth rate of the
methane-formers, as they have extremely slow growth rates.
b. Solids Basis: Where the composition of the sewage has been established, tank capacity should be
computed from the volume and character of sludge to be digested. The total digestion tank capacity
should be determined by rational calculations based upon factors such as volume of sludge added,
it’s percent solids and character, volatile solids loading, temperature to be maintained in the
digesters, and the degree or extent of mixing to be obtained. These detailed calculations shall be
submitted to justify the basis of design. Where composition of the sewage has not been established,
the minimum combined digestion tank capacity outlined below shall be provided. Such
requirements assume that the raw sludge is derived from ordinary domestic wastewater; a digestion
temperature is maintained in the range of 85° to 100° F, there is 40 to 50 percent volatile matter in
the digested sludge, and that the digested sludge will be removed frequently from the process.
Gas Collection System
a. General: All portions of the gas system, including the space above the tank liquor, storage
facilities, and piping shall be so designed that under all normal operating conditions, including
sludge withdrawal, the gas will be maintained under positive pressure. All enclosed areas where any
gas leakage might occur shall be adequately ventilated.
b. Safety Equipment: All necessary safety facilities shall be included where gas is produced.
Pressure and vacuum relief valves and flame traps, together with automatic safety shutoff valves,
are essential. Water-seal equipment shall not be installed on gas piping.
c. Gas Piping and Condensate Gas piping: It shall be of adequate diameter and shall slope to
condensation traps at low points. The use of float-controlled condensate traps is not permitted.
Condensation traps shall be placed in accessible locations for daily servicing and draining. Cast
iron, ductile iron, and/or stainless steel piping should be used.
d. Electrical Fixtures and Equipment: Electrical fixtures and equipment in enclosed places where
gas may accumulate shall comply with the National Board of Fire Underwriters' specifications for
hazardous conditions. Explosion-proof electrical equipment shall be provided in sludge-digestion
tank galleries containing digested sludge piping or gas piping and shall be provided in any other
hazardous location where gas or digested sludge leakage is possible.
e. Waste Gas: Waste gas burners shall be readily accessible and should be located at least 50 feet
away from any plant structure, if placed near ground level, or may be located on the roof of the
control building if sufficiently removed from the tank. Waste gas burners shall not be located on top
of the digester. The waste gas burner should be sized and designed to ensure complete combustion
to eliminate odors.
f. Ventilation and Cover: any underground enclosures connecting with digestion tanks or
containing sludge or gas piping or equipment shall be provided with forced ventilation. Tightly
fitting, self-closing doors shall be provided at connecting passageways and tunnels to minimize the

26
spread of gas. A floating cover should be provided instead of a fixed cover for increased operational
flexibility and safety.
g. Metering Gas meters: with bypasses should be provided to meter total gas production and
utilization.
H. Pressure Indication Gas piping lines: It is used for anaerobic digesters should be equipped
with closed-type pressure indicating gauges. These gauges should read directly in inches of water.
Normally, three gauges should be provided, one to measure the main line pressure, a second to
measure the pressure upstream of gas-utilization equipment, and the third to measure pressure to
waste burners. Gas-tight shutoff and vent cocks shall be provided. The vent piping shall be
extended outside the building, and the opening shall be screened to prevent entrance by insects and
turned downward to prevent entrance of rainwater. All piping shall be protected with safety
equipment.
i. Gas Utilization Equipment: Gas-burning boilers, engines, and other gas utilization equipment
should be located at or above ground level in well-ventilated rooms. Gas lines to these units shall be
provided with suitable flame traps.
Aerobic Sludge Digestion: Mixing and Aeration Aerobic sludge digestion tanks shall be designed
for effective mixing and aeration. Minimum mixing requirements of 20 cubic feet per minute per
1,000 cubic feet for air systems and 0.5 horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet for mechanical systems are
recommended. Aeration requirements may be more or less than the mixing requirements, depending
on system design and actual solids loading. Approximately 2.0 pounds of oxygen per pound volatile
solids are needed for aeration. If diffusers are used, types should be provided to minimize clogging
and designed to permit removal for inspection, maintenance, and replacement without dewatering
the tanks, if only one digester is proposed.
Size and Number of Tanks: The size and number of aerobic sludge digestion tank or tanks should
be determined by rational calculations based upon such factors as volume of sludge added, it’s
percent solids and character, the degree of volatile solids reduction required and the size of
installation with appropriate allowance for sludge and supernatant storage. Generally, 40 to 50
percent volatile solids destruction is obtained during aerobic digestion. To ensure a stabilized
sludge which will not emit odors, the volatile solids content should be less than 60 percent in the
digested sludge. Calculations shall be submitted upon request to justify the basis of design. The
following design parameter ranges should be considered the minimum in designing aerobic
digestion facilities. a. Hydraulic Detention Time Hydraulic detention time at 20°C should be in the
range of 15 to 25 days, depending upon the type of sludge being digested. Activated sludge alone
requires the lower detention time and a combination of primary plus activated or trickling filter
sludges requires the high detention time. Detention times should be adjusted for operating
temperatures other than 20°C.
Volatile Solids: The volatile solids loading shall be in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 pound of volatile
solids per cubic foot per day. c. Dissolved Oxygen Design dissolved oxygen concentration should
be in the range of 1 to 2 mg/l. A minimum of 1.0 mg/l shall be maintained at all times.
Mixing Energy Energy input requirements for mixing should be in the range of 0.5 to 1.5
horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet where mechanical aerators are used; 20 to 35 standard cubic feet of
air per minute per 1,000 cubic feet of aeration tank where diffused air mixing is used on activated
sludge alone; and greater than 60 cubic feet per minute per 1,000 cubic feet for primary sludge
alone and primary plus activated sludge.
Storage Detention time should be increased for temperatures below 20°C. If sludge cannot be
withdrawn during certain periods, additional storage capacity should be provided. Plants smaller
than 75,000 gpd should have storage capacity of 2 cubic foot per population equivalent served.
Supernatant Separation Facilities should be provided for separation or decantation of
supernatant. Provisions for side stream treatment of supernatant should be considered.
SLUDGE DRYING BED OPERATION

27
 Thickening: Sludge contains a high concentration of solids, but its water content is still
high. Combined primary and secondary sludge from an activated sludge treatment plant contains
about 2 % solids and hence 98 % water. One kg of dry sludge is associated with 49 L of water.
Thickening to 5 % solids means one kg of dry solids is associated with 19 L of water, thus 30 L of
water has to be removed.
Thickening is carried out in a sedimentation tank or in a sedimentation pond (Figure 34). The latter
is advantageous if land area is available, because the sludge can be allowed to settle over a much
longer period and a higher solids content of the thickened sludge is achieved. The water removed
from thickening needs treatment. It can be returned to the inlet of an off-site wastewater treatment
plant, or in the case of sludge from on-site units by an aerobic treatment process such as lagooning.
Dewatering and drying: Dewatering aims to reduce the water content further so that the solids
content of the sludge is about 20 % (equivalent to 1 kg dry sludge with 4 L of water). The sludge
can then be handled like a solid. Dewatering can be done mechanically using a filter press
(employing pressure or vacuum), or a centrifuge. It can also be done using drying beds. A drying
bed consists of a 30 cm bed of sand with an under-drainage (Figure 35). Sludge is applied on the
sand bed and is allowed to dry by evaporation and drainage of excess water over a period of several
weeks depending on climatic conditions. Bacterial decomposition of the sludge takes place during
the drying process while moisture content is sufficiently high. During the rainy season the process
may take a longer time to complete and sizing the area of the drying beds should take this into
account.
Sludge reuse: Raw sludge from activated sludge treatment plants has been applied directly onto
agricultural land particularly in the United Kingdom. This practice is considered unsatisfactory
because of the presence of pathogens in the sludge in high numbers. There has been no thorough
study, however, which has shown that there is an increase in the risk of acquiring illnesses
associated with pathogens in the raw sludge when proper handling procedure and non-entry to the
land following application is observed.

Reuse of composted sludge as a soil conditioner in agriculture and horticulture returns carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus and elements essential for plant growth back to the soil. Less chemical
fertilizers are required and the organic carbon helps to improve soil structure for soil aeration, water
percolation and root growth. The nitrogen and phosphorus are also released gradually for plant
uptake compared to the more soluble chemical fertilizers. The potential of leaching of the nutrients
to ground or surface water by rainfall run-off is much reduced. Pathogens and heavy metals can,
however, limit the reuse of sludge.
Pathogens should be reduced to levels that do not pose health hazards to workers handling
the sludge, potential health hazards from the spreading of helminth eggs and from horticultural
produce contaminated by pathogens. Composting of the sludge to attain a temperature of 55oC for

28
two weeks followed by windrow maturation produces compost that meets these conditions.
Stabilised sludge, which has been dewatered and dried on sand beds to attain low moisture content,
can meet the same conditions.
Heavy metals and toxic chemicals are difficult to remove from sludge. Preventing these chemicals
from entering the wastewater or sludge should be the aim of wastewater management for sludge
intended for reuse in agriculture or horticulture. Reuse may still be possible for purposes such as
mine site rehabilitation, highway landscaping or for landfill cover. Sludge that has been conditioned
for reuse is called ‘biosolids•E/p>
Conversion of sludge, which is heavily contaminated by heavy metals or toxic chemicals, to oil is
technically feasible (Enersludge process). A full-scale plant is operating in Perth, Western Australia
(Bridle et al., 2000). The conversion is by a pyrolysis process, heating dried sludge to a high
temperature in the absence of oxygen or with a controlled amount of oxygen. Capital and running
costs of oil from sludge process are high.
Sludge disposal
Final or ultimate disposal of sludge, which cannot be reused, is by landfilling or
incineration. Since sludge for landfilling usually contains heavy metals or toxic chemicals, lining of
the landfill with clay or plastic liner may be required to prevent contamination of groundwater.
Incineration of sludge is by a multiple hearth furnace or fluidised bed furnace. Energy input is
required to dry the sludge before combustion is self-sustaining. Combustion flue gases usually need
treatment to meet air pollution control standards. Investment and operating costs are high.
Effluent Treatment Plant
Effluent Treatment Plant or ETP is one type of waste water treatment method which is
particularly designed to purify industrial waste water for its reuse and its aim is to release safe water
to environment from the harmful effect caused by the effluent.
Industrial effluents contain various materials, depending on the industry. Some effluents
contain oils and grease, and some contain toxic materials (e.g., cyanide). Effluents from food and
beverage factories contain degradable organic pollutants. Since industrial waste water contains a
diversity of impurities and therefore specific treatment technology called ETP is required.
The ETP Plant works at various levels and involves various physical, chemical, biological
and membrane processes to treat waste water from different industrial sectors like chemicals, drugs,
pharmaceutical, refineries, dairy, ready mix plants & textile etc.
Benefits of ETP:
1. To clean industry effluent and recycle it for further use
2. To reduce the usage of fresh water in industries
3. To preserve natural environment against pollution
4. To meet the standards for emission of pollutants set by the Government & avoid heavy penalty
5. To reduce expenditure on water acquisition
2. Industrial Effluent Treatment Process:
The treatment of different effluents varies with the type of effluent. Wastewater enters the
effluent or sewage treatment plant and goes through several processes before effluent goes into the
environment. Industrial effluent treatment plant process includes the following stages:
a. Preliminary Treatment: Its objective is physical separation of large sized contaminants. For
example cloth, paper, plastics, wood logs etc. This level/process includes:
 Screening: This is the first unit operation that occurs in waste water treatment plants. A
screen is a device with uniform openings and its purpose is to remove large floating solids.
 Sedimentation: It is a physical water treatment process using gravity to remove suspended
solids from water.
 Grit Chamber: The wastewater that moves into the grit chamber removes the dense
inorganic solids such as gravel, metal fragments and sand which have made their way into
the sewers. Removal of grit can prevent damaging of pumps & operational difficulties.
29
  Clarifiers: These are tanks built with mechanical means for continuous removal of solids
being deposited by sedimentation before biological treatment.
b. Primary Treatment: Its aim is removal of floating and settleable materials such as suspended
solids and organic matter. In this treatment both physical and chemical methods are used. It
includes:
 Flocculation: Flocculation is a physical process and does not involve the neutralization of
charge. It involves the addition of destabilized particles together into large aggregates so
that they can be easily separated from the water.
 Coagulation: is a process in which coagulants are added for the purpose of rapid settlement
of minute solid particles in a liquid into larger mass. It permits particle removal by
sedimentation and for filtration.
 Neutralization: The main purpose of this process helps in maintaining the pH range of 6-9
to meet the requirements of different processing units in ETP system.
 Primary Clarifiers: These are used to slow the velocity of the water to a point where
organic solids will settle to the bottom of the tank and it contain an equipment that is used to
remove floating solids and greases from the surface.
c. Secondary or Biological Treatment: The objective of this treatment is the further treatment of
the effluent from primary treatment to remove the suspended solids and residual organics. In this
step biological and chemical processes are involved.
 Activated Sludge Process: This is used for treating industrial waste water using air and a
biological floc composed of bacteria.
 Aerated Lagoons: Is a treatment pond provided with artificial aeration to promote he
biological oxidation of waste water.
 Trickling Filters: Trickling filters, also known as sprinkling filters, are commonly used for
the biological treatment of domestic sewage and industrial waste water.
 Rotating Biological Contactor: It involves allowing the wastewater to come in contact
with a biological medium in order to remove pollutants in the wastewater before discharge
of the treated wastewater to the environment.
d. Tertiary/advanced/disinfection treatment: The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a
final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality to the desired level before it is reused, recycled or
discharged to the environment.
 Chemical Coagulation and sedimentation: It is used to increase the removal of solids
from effluent after primary and secondary treatment.
 Filtration: The clarified wastewater is first passed through the adjacent filtration plant
which contains large filter blocks to ensure high quality water.
 Reverse Osmosis: In this process, pressure is used to force effluent through a membrane
that retains contaminants on one side and allows the clean water to pass to the other side.
 UV Disinfection: It is considered as an ideal disinfectant for industrial waste water. It
leaves no residual disinfectant in the water by ensuring the water quality. It does not
produce any disinfection by-products.
STP (Sewage Treatment Plant Process)
Sewage Treatment Plant Process
Sewage is water that is discharged after residences, institutions, hospitals, industrial and
commercial use. Sewage treatment refers to the process of removing contaminants, micro-
organisms and other types of pollutants from wastewater influent. The main objective of sewage
treatment is to produce an effluent (treated waste water) and a solid waste/sludge suitable for
discharge into the natural environment. Treatment of sewage or wastewater protects public health
and prevents pollution, disease as well as hazards from sewage contaminants. Hence, sewage
treatment is required

30
 Sewage Treatment Process:
 Pretreatment: Pretreatment removes all materials that can be easily collected from the raw sewage
before they damage or clog the pumps and sewage lines of primary treatment clarifiers. Objects
commonly removed during pretreatment include trash, tree limbs, leaves, branches, and other large
objects.
The influent in sewage water passes through a bar screen to remove all large objects like
cans, rags, sticks, plastic packets etc. carried in the sewage stream.[6] This is most commonly done
with an automated mechanically raked bar screen in modern plants serving large populations, while
in smaller or less modern plants, a manually cleaned screen may be used. The raking action of a
mechanical bar screen is typically paced according to the accumulation on the bar screens and/or
flow rate. The solids are collected and later disposed in a landfill, or incinerated. Bar screens or
mesh screens of varying sizes may be used to optimize solids removal. If gross solids are not
removed, they become entrained in pipes and moving parts of the treatment plant, and can cause
substantial damage and inefficiency in the process.

 Grit removal: Pretreatment may include a sand or grit channel or chamber, where the velocity of
the incoming sewage is adjusted to allow the settlement of sand, grit, stones, and broken glass.
These particles are removed because they may damage pumps and other equipment. For small
sanitary sewer systems, the grit chambers may not be necessary, but grit removal is desirable at
larger plants. Grit chambers come in 3 types: horizontal grit chambers, aerated grit chambers and
vortex grit chambers. The process is called sedimentation.
 Flow equalization: Clarifiers and mechanized secondary treatment are more efficient under
uniform flow conditions. Equalization basins may be used for temporary storage of diurnal or wet-
weather flow peaks. Basins provide a place to temporarily hold incoming sewage during plant
maintenance and a means of diluting and distributing batch discharges of toxic or high-strength
waste which might otherwise inhibit biological secondary treatment (including portable toilet
waste, vehicle holding tanks, and septic tank pumpers). Flow equalization basins require variable

31
 discharge control, typically include provisions for bypass and cleaning, and may also include
aerators. Cleaning may be easier if the basin is downstream of screening and grit removal.
 Fat and grease removal: In some larger plants, fat and grease are removed by passing the sewage
through a small tank where skimmers collect the fat floating on the surface. Air blowers in the base
of the tank may also be used to help recover the fat as froth. Many plants, however, use primary
clarifiers with mechanical surface skimmers for fat and grease removal.
 Primary Treatment: In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large tanks,
commonly called "pre-settling basins", "primary sedimentation tanks" or "primary clarifiers". The
tanks are used to settle sludge while grease and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off.
Primary settling tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually
drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank where it is pumped to sludge
treatment facilities. Grease and oil from the floating material can sometimes be recovered for
saponification (soap making).
Secondary treatment :
Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the
sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority of
municipal plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. To be effective,
the biota require both oxygen and food to live. The bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable
soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind
much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed-film
or suspended-growth systems.
Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters, constructed wetlands, bio-towers,
and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over
its surface. The fixed-film principle has further developed into Moving Bed Biofilm Reactors
(MBBR) and Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge (IFAS) processes. An MBBR system
typically requires a smaller footprint than suspended-growth systems.
Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the
sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than trickling filters that treat the same amount of
water. However, fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of
biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids
than suspended growth systems. Some secondary treatment methods include a secondary clarifier to
settle out and separate biological floc or filter material grown in the secondary treatment bioreactor.
 Tertiary treatment
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to further improve the
effluent quality before it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, wet lands,
ground, etc.). More than one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If
disinfection is practised, it is always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing."
Filtration: Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated
carbon, also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins.
 Biological nutrient removal: Biological nutrient removal (BNR) is regarded by some as a type of
secondary treatment process, and by others as a tertiary (or "advanced") treatment process.
Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release to
the environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn
encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause
an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable and
eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of the
oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the
bacteria to decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins

32
 that contaminate drinking water supplies. Different treatment processes are required to remove
nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Nitrogen removal: Nitrogen is removed through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from
ammonia to nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen
gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of
bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by
Nitrosomonas spp. ("nitroso" referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite
oxidation to nitrate (NO3−), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. (nitro
referring the formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the
environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp.
 Phosphorus removal: Every adult human excretes between 200 and 1000 grams of
phosphorus annually. Studies of United States sewage in the late 1960s estimated mean per capita
contributions of 500 grams in urine and feces, 1000 grams in synthetic detergents, and lesser
variable amounts used as corrosion and scale control chemicals in water supplies. Source control
via alternative detergent formulations has subsequently reduced the largest contribution, but the
content of urine and feces will remain unchanged. Phosphorus removal is important as it is a
limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water systems. (For a description of the negative
effects of algae, see Nutrient removal). It is also particularly important for water reuse systems
where high phosphorus concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream equipment such as
reverse osmosis.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus
removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs),
are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20
percent of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated
water, these bio solids have a high fertilizer value.
 Disinfection: The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to substantially reduce
the number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment for the later
use of drinking, bathing, irrigation, etc. The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of
the water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the
disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental variables. Cloudy water will
be treated less successfully, since solid matter can shield organisms, especially from ultraviolet
light or if contact times are low. Generally, short contact times, low doses and high flows all
militate against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine,
ultraviolet light, or sodium hypochlorite. Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used
in the treatment of waste water because of its persistence. After multiple steps of disinfection, the
treated water is ready to be released back into the water cycle by means of the nearest body of
water or agriculture. Afterwards, the water can be transferred to reserves for everyday human uses.
 Chlorination: Chlorination remains the most common form of waste water disinfection in North
America due to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that
chlorination of residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be
carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable
of chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual
chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated,
adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.
 Ultraviolet (UV) light: Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other
chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms
that later consume it, as may be the case with other methods. UV radiation causes damage to the
genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction.
The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and

33
 replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are
not shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect
microorganisms from the UV light). In the United Kingdom, UV light is becoming the most
common means of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in
chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving
water. Some sewage treatment systems in Canada and the US also use UV light for their effluent
water disinfection.
 Ozone (O3): Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a high voltage potential
resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and
reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many
pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine
which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is
generated on-site as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than
chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation
equipment and the requirements for special operators.
 Fourth treatment stage
Micro pollutants such as pharmaceuticals, ingredients of household chemicals, chemicals
used in small businesses or industries, environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant (EPPP) or
pesticides may not be eliminated in the conventional treatment process (primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment) and therefore lead to water pollution. Although concentrations of those
substances and their decomposition products are quite low, there is still a chance to harm aquatic
organisms. For pharmaceuticals, the following substances have been identified as "toxicologically
relevant": substances with endocrine disrupting effects, genotoxic substances and substances that
enhance the development of bacterial resistances. They mainly belong to the group of
environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. Techniques for elimination of micro pollutants
via a fourth treatment stage during sewage treatment are being tested in Germany, Switzerland
[citation needed] and the Netherlands. However, since those techniques are still costly, they are not
yet applied on a regular basis. Such process steps mainly consist of activated carbon filters that
adsorb the micropollutants. Ozone can also be applied as an oxidative method. Also the use of
enzymes such as the enzyme laccase is under investigation. A new concept which could provide an
energy-efficient treatment of micro pollutants could be the use of laccase secreting fungi cultivated
at a wastewater treatment plant to degrade micro pollutants and at the same time to provide
enzymes at a cathode of a microbial biofuel cells. Microbial biofuel cells are investigated for their
property to treat organic matter in wastewater. To reduce pharmaceuticals in water bodies, also
"source control" measures are under investigation, such as innovations in drug development or
more responsible handling of drugs.
Odor control: Odors emitted by sewage treatment are typically an indication of an anaerobic or
"septic" condition. Early stages of processing will tend to produce foul-smelling gases, with
hydrogen sulfide being most common in generating complaints. Large process plants in urban areas
will often treat the odors with carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses of
chlorine, or circulating fluids to biologically capture and metabolize the noxious gases.[30] Other
methods of odor control exist, including addition of iron salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate,
etc. to manage hydrogen sulfide levels. High-density solids pumps are suitable for reducing odors
by conveying sludge through hermetic closed pipework.
Energy requirements: For conventional sewage treatment plants, around 30 percent of the annual
operating costs is usually required for energy. The energy requirements vary with type of treatment
process as well as wastewater load. For example, constructed wetlands have a lower energy
requirement than activated sludge plants, as less energy is required for the aeration step. Sewage
treatment plants that produce biogas in their sewage sludge treatment process with anaerobic
digestion can produce enough energy to meet most of the energy needs of the sewage treatment

34
plant itself. In conventional secondary treatment processes, most of the electricity is used for
aeration, pumping systems and equipment for the dewatering and drying of sewage sludge.
Advanced wastewater treatment plants, e.g. for nutrient removal, require more energy than plants
that only achieve primary or secondary treatment.
Sludge treatment and disposal: The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must
be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the
amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids.
The most common treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and
composting. Incineration is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree.
Sludge treatment depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific
conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic digestion for mid-
sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale operations. The sludge is sometimes
passed through a so-called pre-thickener which de-waters the sludge. Types of pre-thickeners
include centrifugal sludge thickeners rotary drum sludge thickeners and belt filter presses.
Dewatered sludge may be incinerated or transported offsite for disposal in a landfill or use as an
agricultural soil amendment.

35
 CHAPTER: 2

THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT,

1974
An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring
of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes
aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring on and
assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith.

WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the
maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying
out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution and for
conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto;
AND WHEREAS Parliament has no power to make laws for the States with respect to any of the
matters aforesaid except as provided in articles 249 and 250 of the Constitution;
AND WHEREAS in pursuance of clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution resolutions have been
passed by all the Houses of the Legislatures of the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura
and West Bengal to the effect that the matters aforesaid should be regulated in those States by
Parliament by law;
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Twenty-fifth year of Republic of India as follows:-

CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY

1. SHORT TITLE, APPLICATION AND COMMENCEMENT.

(1) This Act may be called the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

(2) It applies in the first instance to the whole of the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West
Bengal and the Union Territories; and it shall apply to such other State which adopts this Act by resolution
passed in that behalf under clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution.
(3) It shall come into force, at once in the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and
in the Union territories, and in any other State which adopts this Act under clause (1) of article 252 of the
Constitution on the date of such adoption and any reference in this Act to the commencement of this Act
shall, in relation to any State or Union territory, mean the date on which this Act comes into force in such
State or Union territory.

2. DEFINITIONS.

In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,-

(a) "Board" means the Central Board or a State Board;

1
[(b) "Central Board" means the Central Pollution Control Board Constituted under section 3;]

1
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 2 for cls. (b), (d) and (h).

36
(c) "member" means a member of a Board and includes the chairman thereof;
2
[(d) "occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means the person who has control over the affairs of
the factory or the premises, and includes, in relation to any substance, the person in possession of the
substance;]
3
[(dd) "outlet" includes any conduit pipe or channel, open or closed carrying sewage or trade effluent or any
other holding arrangement which causes or is likely to cause, pollution;]
(e) "pollution" means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or biological
properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid
substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may, or is likely to, create a nuisance or render such
water harmful or injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or
other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms;
(f) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act by the Central Government or, as the case
may be, the State Government;
(g) "sewage effluent" means affluent from any sewerage system or sewage disposal works and includes
sullage from open drains;
4
[(gg) "sewer" means any conduit pipe or channel, open or closed, carrying sewage or trade effluent;]
5
[(h) "State Board" means a State Pollution Control Board constituted under section 4];

(i) "State Government" in relation to a Union territory means the Administrator thereof appointed under
article 239 of the Constitution;

(j)"stream" includes-
(i) river;
(ii) water course (whether flowing or for the time being dry);
(iii) inland water (whether natural or artificial);
(iv) sub-terranean waters;
(v) sea or tidal waters to such extent or, as the case may be, to such point as the State Government
may, by notification in the Official Gazette, specify in this behalf;
(k) "trade effluent" includes any liquid, gaseous or solid substance which is discharged from any premises
used for carrying on any 6[Industry, operation or process, or treatment and disposal system], other than
domestic sewage.

CHAPTER II
THE CENTRAL AND STATE BOARDS FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WATER
POLLUTION

3. CONSTITUTION OF CENTRAL BOARD.

(1) The Central Government shall, with effect from such date (being a date not later than six months
of the commencement of this Act in the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and in the
Union territories) as it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a Central Board to be

2
Ins. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 2.
3
Subs by Act 53 of 1988, s. 2, for "trade or industry".

4
Ins. by Act 44 of 1978 s. 2.
5
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 2 for cls. (b), (d) and (h).

6
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 2 or “trade or industry”.

37
called the 7[Central Pollution Control Board] to exercise the powers conferred on and perform the functions
assigned to that Board under this Act.
(2) The Central Board shall consist of the following members, namely:-
(a) a full-time chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in
respect of 8[matters relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and
experience in administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the
Central Government;
(b) 9[such number of officials, not exceeding five] to be nominated by the Central
Government to represent that Government;
(c) such number of persons, not exceeding five to be nominated by the Central Government,
from amongst the members of the State Boards, of whom no exceeding two shall be from those
referred to in clause (c) of sub-section (2) of section 4;
(d) 10[such number of non-officials, not exceeding three,] to be nominated by the Central
Government, to represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or any other interest
which, in the opinion of the Central Government, ought to be represented;
(e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned, controlled or managed
by the Central Government, to be nominated by that Government;
11
[(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be appointed by the Central
Government.]
(3) The Central Board shall be a body corporate with the name aforesaid having perpetual
succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire, hold and dispose
of property and to contract, and may, by the aforesaid name, sue or be sued.
4. CONSTITUTION OF STATE BOARDS.
(1) The State Government shall, with effect from such date 12*** as it may, by notification in the
[Act 6 of 1974]
Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a 13[State Pollution Control Board], under such name as may be
specified in the notification, to exercise the powers conferred on and perform the functions assigned to that
Board under this Act.
(2) A State Board shall consist of the following members, namely:-
(a) a 14[*** chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in
respect of 15[matters relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and
experience in administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the
State Government:
16
[Provided that the chairman may be either whole-time or part-time as the State
Government may think fit;]
7
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 3 for certain words.
8
Subs by Act 44 of 1978, s. 3 for Certain words.
9
Subs. by s. 3, ibid., for "five officials".

10
Subs by s. 3, ibid., for "three non-officials".

11
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 3, for cl. (f).

12
Certain words omitted by Act 44 of 1978, s. 4

13
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 4, for "State Board".

14
The word "full-time" omitted by Act 44 of 1978, s. 4.

15
Subs. by s. 4, ibid., for Certain words.

16
Ins. by s. 4, ibid.

38
 (b) 17[such number of officials, not exceeding five,] to be nominated by the State
Government to represent that Government;

(c) 18[such number of persons, not exceeding five,] to be nominated by the State
Government from amongst the members of the local authorities functioning within the State;

(d) 19[such number of non-officials, not exceeding three] to be nominated by the State
Government to represent the interest of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or any other interest
which, in the opinion of the State Government, ought to be represented;

(e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned, controlled or managed by
the State Government, to be nominated by that Government;
20
[(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be appointed by the State
Government.]

(3) Every State Board shall be a body corporate with the name specified by the State Government in
the notification under sub-section (1), having perpetual succession and a common seal with power, subject to
the provisions of this Act, to acquire, hold and dispose of property and to contract, and may, by the said
name, sue or be sued.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in this section, no State Board shall be constituted for a
Union territory and in relation to a Union territory; the Central Board shall exercise the powers and
perform the functions of a State Board for that Union territory:
Provided that in relation to an Union territory the Central Board may delegate all or any of its
powers and functions under this sub-section to such person or body of persons as the Central Government
may specify.
5. TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF SERVICE OF MEMBERS.
(1) Save as otherwise provided by or under this Act, a member of a Board, other than, a member-
secretary, shall hold office for a term of three years from the date of his nomination:
Provided that a member shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office
until his successor enters upon his office.
21
[(2) The term of office of a member of a Board nominated under clause (b) or clause (e) of sub-
section (2) of Section 3 or clause (b) or clause (e) of sub-section (2) of section 4 shall come to an end as soon
as he ceases to hold the office under the Central Government or the State Government or, as the case may be,
the company or corporation owned, controlled or managed by the Central Government or the State
Government, by virtue of which he was nominated.]
(3) The Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government may, if it thinks fit,
remove any member of a Board before the expiry of his term of office, after giving him a reasonable
opportunity of showing cause against the same.
(4) A member of a Board, other than the member-secretary, may at any time resign his office by
writing under his hand addressed—

17
Subs. by s. 4 ibid., for "five officials"
18
Subs. by s. 4, ibid., for "five persons".

19
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 4, for "three non-officials".

20
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 4, for cl. (f).

21
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 5, for sub-section (2).

39
[Act 6 of 1974]

(a) in the case of chairman, to the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State
Government; and
(b) in any other case, to the chairman of the Board; and the seat of the chairman or such
member shall thereupon become vacant.
(5) A member of a Board, other than the member-secretary, shall be deemed to have vacated his
seat if he is absent without reason, sufficient in the opinion of the Board, from three consecutive
meetings of the Board, 22[or where he is nominated under clause (c) or clause (e) of sub-section (2) of section
(3) or under clause (c) or clause (e) of sub-section (2) of section 4, if he ceases to be a member of the State
Board or of the local authority or, as the case may be, of the company or corporation owned, controlled or
managed by the Central Government or the State Government and such vacation of seat shall, in either case,
take effect from such date as the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, specify.]
(6) A casual vacancy in a Board shall be filled by a fresh nomination and the person nominated to
fill the vacancy shall hold office only for the remainder of the term for which the member in a whose place
he was nominated.
(7) A member of a Board 23[shall be eligible for renomination].
(8) The other terms and conditions of service of a member of a Board, other than the chairman and
member-secretary, shall be such as may be prescribed.
(9) The other terms and conditions of service of the chairman shall be such as may be prescribed.

6. DISQUALIFICATIONS.
(1) No person shall be a member of a Board, who-
(a) is, or at any time has been adjudged insolvent or has suspended payment of his debts or
has compounded with his creditors, or
(b) is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court, or
(c) is, or has been, convicted of an offence which, in the opinion of the Central Government
or, as the case may be, of the State Government, involves moral turpitude, or
(d) is, or at any time has been, convicted of an offence under this Act, or
(e) has directly or indirectly by himself or by any partner, any share or interest in any firm or
company carrying on the business of manufacture, sale or hire of machinery, plant, equipment,
apparatus or fittings for the treatment of sewage or trade effluents, or
(f) is a director or a secretary, manager or other salaried officer or employee of any company
or firm having any contract with the Board, or with the Government constituting the Board, or with a
local authority in the State, or with a company or corporation owned, controlled or managed by the
Government, for the carrying out of sewerage schemes or for the installation of plants for the
treatment of sewage or trade effluents, or
(g) has so abused, in the opinion of the Central Government or as the case may be, of the
State Government, his position as a member, as to render his continuance on the Board detrimental
to the interest of the general public.
(2) No order of removal shall be made by the Central Government or the State Government, as the
case may be, under this section unless the member concerned has been given a reasonable opportunity of
showing cause against the same.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) and (7) of section 5, a member who has
been removed under this section shall not be eligible for renomination as a member.
7. VACATION OF SEAT BY MEMBERS.
If a member of a Board becomes subject to any of the disqualifications specified in section 6, his
seat shall become vacant.

22
Subs. by s. 5, ibid, for certain words.

23
Subs by Act 53 of 1988, s. 5, for "shall not be eligible for renomination for more than two terms".

40
8. MEETINGS OF BOARDS.
A Board shall meet at least once in every three months and shall observe such rules of procedure in
regard to the transaction of business at its meetings as may be prescribed:
Provided that if, in the opinion of the chairman, any business of an urgent nature is to be transacted,
he may convene a meeting of the Board at such time as he thinks fit for the aforesaid purpose.
9. CONSTITUTION OF COMMITTEES.
(1) A Board may constitute as many committees consisting wholly of members or wholly of other
persons or partly of members and partly of other persons, and for such purpose or purposes as it may think
fit.
(2) A committee constituted under this section shall meet at such time and at such place, and shall
observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings, as may be prescribed.
(3) The members of a committee (other than the members of Board) shall be paid such fees and
allowances, for attending its meetings and for attending to any other work of the Board as may be prescribed.

10. TEMPORARY ASSOCIATION OF PERSONS WITH BOARD FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES.

(1) A Board may associate with itself in such manner, and for such purposes, as may be prescribed
any person whose assistance or advice it may desire to obtain in performing any of its functions under this
Act.
(2) A person associated with the Board under sub-section (1) for any purpose shall have a right to
take part in the discussions of the Board relevant to that purpose, but shall not have a right to vote at a
meeting of the Board, and shall not be a member for any other purpose.
24
[(3) A person associated with the Board under sub-section (1) for any purpose shall be paid such
fees and allowances, for attending its meetings and for attending to any other work of the Board, as may be
prescribed.]
11. VACANCY IN BOARD NOT TO INVALIDATE ACTS OR PROCEEDINGS.
No act or proceeding of a Board or any committee thereof shall be called in question on the ground
merely of the existence of any vacancy in, or any defect in the constitution of, the Board or such committee,
as the case may be.
25
[11A.DELEGATION OF POWERS TO CHAIRMAN.
The chairman of a Board shall exercise such powers and perform such duties as may be prescribed
or as may, from time to time, be delegated to him by the Board.]

12. MEMBER-SECRETARY AND OFFICERS AND OTHER EMPLOYEES OF BOARD.

(1) Terms and conditions of service of the member-secretary shall be such as may be prescribed.

(2) The member-secretary shall exercise such powers and perform such duties as may be prescribed or as
may, from time to time, be delegated to him by the Board or its chairman.
(3) Subject to such rules as may be made by the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State
Government in this behalf, a Board may appoint such officers and employees as it considers necessary for
the efficient performance of its functions.
26
[* * *
27
[(3A) The method of recruitment and the terms and conditions of service (including the scales of
pay) of the officers (other than the member-secretary) and other employees of the Central Board or a State
Board shall be such as may be determined by regulations made by the Central Board or, as the case may be,
by the State Board:

24
Ins. by Act 44 of 1978. s. 6.

25
Ins. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 7.
26
Certain words omitted by s. 8, ibid

27
Ins. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 8.

41
 Provided that no regulation made under this sub-section shall take effect unless, –
(a) in the case of a regulation made by the Central Board, it is approved by the Central
Government; and
(b) in the case of a regulation made by a State Board, it is approved by the State
Government.]
28
[(3B) The Board may, by general or special order, and subject to such conditions and limitations, if
any, as may be specified in the order, delegate to any officer of the Board such of its powers and functions
under this Act as it may deem necessary.]
(4) Subject to such conditions as may be prescribed, a Board may from time to time appoint any
qualified person to be a consulting engineer to the Board and pay him such salaries and allowances and
subject him to such other terms and conditions of service as it thinks fit.

CHAPTER III
JOINT BOARDS

13. CONSTITUTION OF JOINT BOARD.

(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, an agreement may be entered into-

(a) by two or more Governments of contiguous States, or

(b) by the Central Government (in respect of one or more Union territories) and one or more
Government of State Government contiguous to such Union territory or Union territories, to be in
force for such period and to be subject to renewal for such further period if any, as may be specified
in the agreement to provide for the constitution of a Joint Board, –
(i) in a case referred to in clause (a), for all the participating States, and
(ii) in a case referred to in clause (b), for the participating Union territory or Union
territories and the State or States.
(2) An agreement under this section may --
(a) provide, in a case referred to in clause (a) of sub-section (1), for the apportionment
between the participating States and in a case referred to in clause (b) of that sub-section, for the
apportionments between the Central Government and the participating State Government or State
Governments, of the expenditure in connection with the Joint Board;

(b) determine, in a case referred to in clause (a) of sub-section (1), which of the participating
State Governments and in a case referred to in clause (b) of that sub-section, whether the Central
Government or the participating State Government (if there are more than one participating State,
also which of the participating State Governments) shall exercise and perform the several powers
and functions of the State Government under this Act and the references in this Act to the State
Government shall be construed accordingly;

(c) provide for consultation, in a case referred to in clause (a) of sub-section (1), between the
participating State Governments and in a case referred to in clause (b) of that sub-section, between
the Central Government and the participating State Government or State Governments either
generally or with reference to particular matters arising under this Act;-

(d) make such incidental and ancillary provisions, not inconsistent with this Act, as may be
deemed necessary or expedient for giving effect to the agreement.

(3) An agreement under this section shall be published, in a case referred to in clause (a) of sub-
section (1), in the Official Gazette of the participating States and in a case referred to in clause (b) of that

28
Ins. by Act 53 of 1988; s. 6.

42
sub-section, in the Official Gazette of participating Union territory or Union territories and participating
State or States.
14. COMPOSITION OF JOINT BOARDS.

(1) A Joint Board constituted in pursuance of an agreement entered into under clause (a) of sub-
section (1) of section 13 shall consist of the following members, namely:-
(a) a full-time chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in
[Act 6 of 1974]
29
respect of [matters relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and
experience in administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the
Central Government;
(b) two officials from each of the participating States to be nominated by the concerned
participating State Government to represent that Government;
(c) one person to be nominated by each of the participating State Governments from
amongst the members of the local authorities functioning within the State concerned;
(d) one non-official to be nominated by each of the participating State Governments to
represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade in the State concerned or any other
interest which, in the opinion of the participating State Government, is to be represented;
(e) two persons to be nominated by the Central Government to represent the companies or
corporations owned, controlled or managed by the participating State Government;
30
[(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be appointed by the Central
Government.]
(2) A Joint Board constituted in pursuance of an agreement entered into under clause (b) of sub-
section (1) of section 13 shall consist of the following members, namely:-
(a) a full-time chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in
respect of 31[matters relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and
experience in administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the
Central Government;
(b) two officials to be nominated by the Central Government from the participating Union
territory or each of the participating union territories, as the case may be, and two officials to be
nominated, from the participating State or each of the participating States, as the case may be by the
concerned participating State Government;
(c) one person to be nominated by the Central Government from amongst the members of
the local authorities functioning within the participating Union territory or each of the participating
Union territories, as the case may be and one person to be nominated, from amongst the members of
[Act 6 of 1974]
the local authorities functioning within the participating State or each of the participating States, as
the case may be, by the concerned participating State Government;

(d) one non-official to be nominated by the Central Government and one person to be
nominated by the participating State Government or State Governments to represent the interests of
agriculture, fishery or industry or trade in the Union territory or in each of the Union territories or
the State or in each of the States, as the case may be, or any other interest which in the opinion of the
Central Government or, as the case may be, of the State Government is to be represented.

29
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 9, for certain words.

30
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 7 for cl. (f).

31
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 9, for certain words.

43
 (e) two persons to be nominated by the Central Government to represent the companies or
corporations owned, controlled or managed by the Central Government and situate in the
participating Union territory or territories and two persons to be nominated by Central Government
to represent the companies or corporations owned, controlled or managed by the participating State
Governments;
32
[(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be appointed by the Central
Government.]
(3) When a Joint Board is constituted in pursuance of an agreement under clause (b) of sub-section
(1) of section 13, the provisions of sub-section (4) of section 4 shall cease to apply in relation to the Union
territory for which the Joint Board is constituted.
(4) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (3), the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 4 and
sections 5 to 12 (inclusive) shall apply in relation to the Joint Board and its member-secretary as they apply
in relation to a State Board and its member-secretary.
(5) Any reference in this Act to the State Board shall, unless the context otherwise requires, be
construed as including a Joint Board.
15. SPECIAL PROVISION RELATING TO GIVING OF DIRECTIONS.
Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act where any Joint Board is constituted under section 13, -
(a) the Government of the State for which the Joint Board is constituted shall be competent
to give any direction under this Act only in cases where such direction relates to a matter within the
exclusive territorial jurisdiction of the State;
(b) the Central Government alone shall be competent to give any direction under this Act
where such direction relates to a matter within the territorial jurisdiction of two or more States or
pertaining to a Union territory.
CHAPTER IV
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF BOARDS
16. FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BOARD.
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the main function of the Central Board shall be to promote
cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing function, the Central Board
may perform all or any of the following functions, namely:--
(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of
water pollution;
(b) co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;
(c) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
(d) plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for
the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central
Board may specify;
(e) organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and
control of water pollution;
33
[(ee) perform such of the functions of any State Board as may be specified in an order
made under sub-section (2) of section 18];
(f) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and
the measures devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or guides
relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate information
connected therewith;

32
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 7, for cl. (f).

33
Ins. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 8.

44
 (g) lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned, the
standards for a stream or well:
Provided that different standards may be laid down for the same stream or well or for
different streams or wells, having regard to the quality of water, flow characteristics of the stream or
well and the nature of the use of the water in such stream or well or streams or wells;
(h) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
(i) perform such other functions as may be prescribed.
(3) The Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to perform
its functions under this section efficiently, including the analysis of samples of water from any stream or well
or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.

17. FUNCTIONS OF STATE BOARD.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the functions of a State Board shall be --
(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution
of streams and wells in the State and to secure the execution thereof;
(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to water pollution and the prevention,
control or abatement thereof;
(d) to encourage, conduct and participate in investigations and research relating to problems
of water pollution and prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;
(e) to collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged or to
be engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of water pollution and to
organise mass education programmes relating thereto;
(f) to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works and plants for the treatment of sewage and
trade effluents and to review plans, specifications or other data relating to plants set up for the
treatment of water, works for the purification thereof and the system for the disposal of sewage or
trade effluents or in connection with the grant of any consent as required by this Act;
(g) lay down, modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents and for
the quality of receiving waters (not being water in an inter-State stream) resulting from the discharge
of effluents and to classify waters of the State;
(h) to evolve economical and reliable methods of treatment of sewage and trade effluents,
having regard to the peculiar conditions of soils, climate and water resources of different regions and
more especially the prevailing flow characteristics of water in streams and wells which render it
impossible to attain even the minimum degree of dilution;
(i) to evolve methods of utilisation of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture;
(j) to evolve efficient methods of disposal of sewage and trade effluents on land, as are
necessary on account of the predominant conditions of scant stream flows that do not provide for
major part of the year the minimum degree of dilution;
(k) to lay down standards of treatment of sewage and trade effluents to be discharged into
any particular stream taking into account the minimum fair weather dilution available in that stream
and the tolerance limits of pollution permissible in the water of the stream, after the discharge of
such effluents;
(l) to make, vary or revoke any order --
(i) for the prevention, control or abatement of discharge of waste into streams or
wells;
(ii) requiring any person concerned to construct new systems for the disposal of
sewage and trade effluents or to modify, alter or extend any such existing system or to adopt
such remedial measures as are necessary to prevent control or abate water pollution;
(m) to lay down effluent standards to be complied with by persons while causing discharge
of sewage or sullage or both and to lay down, modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage and
trade effluents;

45
 (n) to advice the State Government with respect to the location of any industry the carrying
on of which is likely to pollute a stream or well;
(o) to perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government.
(2) The Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to perform
its functions under this section efficiently, including the analysis of samples of water from any stream or well
or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.
18. POWERS TO GIVE DIRECTIONS.
34
[1)] In the performance of its functions under this Act --
(a) the Central Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Board may
give to it; and
(b) every State Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Board or
the State Government may give to it:
Provided that where a direction given by the State Government is inconsistent with the direction
given by the Central Board, the matter shall be referred to the Central Government for its decision.
35
[(2) Where the Central Government is of the opinion that the State Board has defaulted in
complying with any directions given by the Central Board under sub-section (1) and as a result of such
default a grave emergency has arisen and it is necessary or expedient so to do in the public interest, it may,
by order, direct the Central Board to perform any of the functions of the State Board in relation to such area
for such period and for such purposes, as may be specified in the order.
(3) Where the Central Board performs any of the functions of the State Board in pursuance of a
direction under sub-section (2), the expenses, if any, incurred by the Central Board with respect to
performance of such functions may, if the State Board is empowered to recover such expenses, be recovered
by the Central Board with interest (at such reasonable rate as the Central Government may, by order, fix)
from the date when a demand for such expenses is made until it is paid from the person or persons concerned
as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
(4) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that any directions to perform the functions of
any State Board given under sub-section (2) in respect of any area would not preclude the State Board from
performing such functions in any other area in the State or any of its other functions in that area].
CHAPTER V
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
19. POWER OF STATE GOVERNMENT TO RESTRICT THE APPLICATION OF THE ACT TO
CERTAIN AREAS.
(1) Notwithstanding contained in this Act, if the State Government, after consultation with, or on
the recommendation of, the State Board, is of opinion that the provisions of this Act need not apply to the
entire State, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, restrict the application of this Act to such area or
areas as may be declared therein as water pollution, prevention and control area or areas and thereupon the
provisions of this Act shall apply only to such area or areas.
(2) Each water pollution, prevention and control area may be declared either by reference to a map
or by reference to the line of any watershed or the boundary of any district or partly by one method and
partly by another.
(3) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,-
(a) alter any water pollution prevention and control area whether by way of extension or
reduction; or
(b) define a new water pollution, prevention and control area in which may be merged one
or more water pollution, prevention and control areas, or any part or parts thereof.
20. POWER TO OBTAIN INFORMATION.
(1) For the purpose of enabling a State Board to perform the function conferred on it by or under
this Act, the State Board or any officer empowered by it in that behalf, may make surveys of any area and
gauge and keep records of the flow or volume and other characteristics of an stream or well in such area, and
may take steps for the measurement and recording of the rainfall in such area or any part thereof and for the

34
S. 18 renumbered as sub-section (1) thereof by Act 53 of 1988, s. 9.
35
Ins. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 9,

46
installation and maintenance for those purposes of gauges or other apparatus and works connected therewith,
and carry out stream surveys and may take such other steps as may be necessary in order to obtain any
information required for the purposes aforesaid.
(2) A State Board may give directions requiring any person who in its opinion is abstracting water
from any such stream or well in the area in quantities which are substantial in relation to the flow or volume
of that stream or well or is discharging sewage or trade effluent into any such stream or well, to give such
information as to the abstraction or the discharge at such times and in such form as may be specified in the
directions.
(3) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (2), a State Board may, with a view to
preventing or controlling pollution of water, give directions requiring any person in charge of any
establishment where any 36[industry, operation or process, or treatment and disposal system] is carried on, to
furnish to it information regarding the construction, installation or operation of such establishment or of any
disposal system] or of any extension or addition thereto in such establishment and such other particulars as
may be prescribed.
21. POWER TO TAKE SAMPLES OF EFFLUENTS AND PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED IN
CONNECTION THEREWITH.
(1) A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take for the
purpose of analysis samples of water from any stream or well or samples of any sewage or trade effluent
which is passing from any plant or vessel or from or over any place into any such stream or well.
(2) The result of any analysis of a sample of any sewage or trade effluent taken under sub-section
(1) shall not be admissible in evidence in a legal proceeding unless the provisions of sub-sections (3), (4) and
(5) are complied with.
(3) Subject to the provisions of sub-sections (4) and (5), when a sample (composite or otherwise as
may be warranted by the process used) of any sewage or trade effluent is taken for analysis under sub-section
(1), the person taking the sample shall --
(a) serve on the person in charge of, or having control over, the plant or vessel or in
occupation of the place (which person is hereinafter referred to as the occupier) or any agent of such
occupier, a notice, then and there in such form as may be prescribed of his intention to have it so
analysed;
(b) in the presence of the occupier or his agent, divide the sample into two parts;
(c) cause each part to be placed in a container which shall be marked and sealed and shall
also be signed both by the person taking the sample and the occupier or his agent;
(d) send one container forthwith,--
(i) in a case where such sample is taken from any area situated in a Union territory,
to the laboratory established or recognised by the Central Board under section 16; and
(ii) in any other case, to the laboratory established or recognised by the State Board
under section 17;
(e) on the request of the occupier or his agent, send the second container.-
(i) in a case where such sample is taken from any area situated in a Union territory,
to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section (1) of section 51; and
(ii) in an other case, to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section (1)
of section 52.
37
[(4) When a sample of any sewage or trade effluent is taken for analysis under sub-section (1) and
the person taking the sample serves on the occupier or his agent, a notice under clause (a) of sub-section (3)
and the occupier or his agent wilfully absents himself, then, -
(a) the sample so taken shall be placed in a container which shall be marked and sealed and
shall also be signed by the person taking the sample and the same shall be sent forthwith by such
person for analysis to the laboratory referred to in sub-clause (i) or sub-clause (ii), as the case may
be, of clause (e) of sub-section (3) and such person shall inform the Government analyst appointed
under sub-section (1) or sub-section (2), as the case may be, of section 53, in writing about the wilful
absence of the occupier or his agent; and

36
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988 s. 10 for "industry or trade"

37
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 10, for sub-section (4).

47
 (b) the cost incurred in getting such sample analysed shall be payable by the occupier or his agent and in case
of default of such payment, the same shall be recoverable from the occupier or his agent, as the case may be,
as an arrear of land revenue or of public demand:
Provided that no such recovery shall be made unless the occupier or, as the case may be, his agent has been
given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in the matter.]
(5) When a sample of any sewage or trade effluent is taken for analysis under sub-section (1) and the person
taking the sample serves on the occupier or his agent a notice under clause (a) of sub-section (3) and the
occupier or his agent who is present at the time of taking the sample does not make a request for dividing the
sample into two parts as provided in clause (b) of sub-section (3), then, the sample so taken shall be placed in
a container which shall be marked and sealed and shall also be signed by the person taking the sample and
the same shall be sent forthwith by such person for analysis to the laboratory referred to in sub-clause (i) or
sub-clause (ii), as the case may be, of clause (d) of sub-section (3).
22. REPORTS OF THE RESULTS OF ANALYSIS ON SAMPLES TAKEN UNDER SECTION 21.
(1) Where a sample of any sewage or trade effluent has been sent for analysis to the laboratory
established or recognised by the Central Board or, as the case may be, the State Board, the concerned Board
analyst appointed under sub-section (3) of section 53 shall analyse the sample and submit a report in the
prescribed form of the result of such analysis in triplicate to the Central Board or the State Board, as the case
may be.
(2) On receipt of the report under sub-section (1), one copy of the report shall be sent by the Central
Board or the State Board, as the case may be, to the occupier or his agent referred to in section 21, another
copy shall be preserved for production before the court in case any legal proceedings are taken against him
and the other copy shall be kept by the concerned Board.
(3) Where a sample has been sent for analysis under clause (e) of sub-section (3) or sub-section (4)
of section 21 to any laboratory mentioned therein, the Government analyst referred to in that sub-section
[Act 6 of 1974]
shall analyse the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of the result of the analysis in triplicate to
the Central Board or, as the case may be, the State Board which shall comply with the provisions of sub-
section (2).
(4) If there is any inconsistency or discrepancy between, or variation in the results of, the analysis
carried out by the laboratory established or recognised by the Central Board or the State Board, as the case
may be, and that of the laboratory established or specified under section 51 or section 52, as the case may be,
the report of the latter shall prevail.
(5) Any cost incurred in getting any sample analysed at the request of the occupier or his agent shall
be payable by such occupier or his agent and in case of default the same shall be recoverable from him as
arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
23. POWER OF ENTRY AND INSPECTION.
(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf
shall have a right at any time to enter, with such assistance as he considers necessary, any place--
(a) for the purpose of performing any of the functions of the Board entrusted to him;
(b) for the purpose of determining whether and if so in what manner, any such functions are
to be performed or whether any provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder of an notice,
order, direction or authorisation served, made, given, or granted under this Act is being or has been
complied with;
(c) for the purpose of examining any plant, record, register, document or any other material
object or for conducting a search of any place in which he has reason to believe that an offence
under this Act or the rules made thereunder has been or is being or is about to be committed and for
seizing any such plant, record, register, document or other material object, if he has reason to believe
that it may furnish evidence of the commission of an offence punishable under this Act or the rules
made thereunder:
Provided that the right to enter under this sub-section for the inspection of a well shall be
exercised only at reasonable hours in a case where such well is situated in any premises used for
residential purposes and the water thereof is used exclusively for domestic purposes.

48
 (2) The provisions of 38[the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973] (2 of 1974), or, in relation to the
State of Jammu and Kashmir, the provisions of any corresponding law in force in that State, shall, so far as
may be, apply to any search or seizure under this section as they apply to any search or seizure made under
the authority of a warrant issued under 39[section 94] of the said Code, or, as the case may be, under the
corresponding provisions of the said law.
Explanation.- For the purposes of this section, "place" includes vessel.
24. PROHIBITION ON USE OF STREAM OR WELL FOR DISPOSAL OF POLLUTING
MATTER, ETC.
(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, -
(a) no person shall knowingly cause or permit any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter determined in
accordance with such standards as may be laid down by the State Board to enter (whether directly or
indirectly) into any 40[stream or well or sewer or on land]; or
(b) no person shall knowingly cause or permit to enter into any stream any other matter which may tend,
either directly or in combination with similar matters, to impede the proper flow of the water of the
stream in a manner leading or likely to lead to a substantial aggravation of pollution due to other causes or
of its consequences.
(2) A person shall not be guilty of an offence under sub-section (1), by reason only of having done or caused
to be done any of the following acts, namely;-
(a) constructing, improving or maintaining in or across or on the bank or bed of any stream any building,
bridge, weir, dam, sluice, dock, pier, drain or sewer or other permanent works which he has a right to
construct, improve or maintain;
(b) depositing any materials on the bank or in the bed of any stream for the purpose of reclaiming land or for
supporting, repairing or protecting the bank or bed of such stream provided such materials are not capable
of polluting such stream;
(c) putting into an stream any sand or gravel or other natural deposit which has flowed from or been
deposited by the current of such stream;
(d) causing or permitting, with the consent of the State Board, the deposit accumulated in a well, pond or
reservoir to enter into any stream.
(3) The State Government may, after consultation with, or on the recommendation of, the State Board,
exempt, by notification in the Official Gazette, any person from the operation of sub-section (1) subject to
such conditions, if any, as may be specified in the notification and any condition so specified may by a
like notification and be altered, varied or amended.
25. RESTRICTIONS ON NEW OUTLETS AND NEW DISCHARGES.
41
[(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the previous consent of the
State Board,--
(a) establish or take any steps to establish any industry, operation or process, or any
treatment and disposal system or an extension or addition thereto, which is likely to discharge
sewage or trade effluent into a stream or well or sewer or on land (such discharge being hereafter in
this section referred to as discharge of sewage); or
(b) bring into use any new or altered outlets for the discharge of sewage; or
(c) begin to make any new discharge of sewage;
Provided that a person in the process of taking any steps to establish any industry, operation
or process immediately before the commencement of the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Amendment Act, 1988, for which no consent was necessary prior to such commencement,
may continue to do so for a period of there months from such commencement or, if he has made an
application for such consent, within the said period of three months, till the disposal of such
application.

38
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 11, for "Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (5 of 1898) ."

39
Subs. by s. 11, ibid, for "section 98".

40
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s.11, for "stream or well".

41
Subs. by s. 12, Act 53 of 1988, for sub-sections (1) and (2).

49
 (2) An applications for consent of the State Board under sub-section (1) shall be made in such form,
contain such particulars and shall be accompanied by such fees as may be prescribed.]
(3) The State Board may make such inquiry as it may deem fit in respect of the application for
consent referred to in sub-section (1) and in making any such inquiry shall follow such procedure as may be
prescribed.
42
[(4) The State Board may --
(a) grant its consent referred to in sub-section (1), subject to such conditions as it may
impose, being--
(i) in cases referred to in clauses (a) and (b) of sub-section (1) of section 25, conditions as to
the point of discharge of sewage or as to the use of that outlet or any other outlet for discharge of
sewage;
(ii) in the case of a new discharge, conditions as to the nature and composition, temperature,
volume or rate of discharge of the effluent from the land or premises from which the discharge or
new discharge is to be made; and
(iii) that the consent will be valid only for such period as may be specified in the order,
and any such conditions imposed shall be binding on any person establishing or taking any steps to
establish any industry, operation or process, or treatment and disposal system or extension or
addition thereto, or using the new or altered outlet, or discharging the effluent from the land or
premises aforesaid; or
(b) refuse such consent for reasons to be recorded in writing.
(5) Where, without the consent of the State Board, any industry operation or process, or any
treatment and disposal system or any extension or addition thereto, is established, or any steps for such
establishment have been taken or a new or altered outlet is brought into use for the discharge of sewage or a
new discharge of sewage is made, the State Board may serve on the person who has established or taken
steps to establish any industry, operation or process, or any treatment and disposal system or any extension
or addition thereto, or using the outlet, or making the discharge, as the case may be, a notice imposing any
such conditions as it might have imposed on an application for its consent in respect of such establishment,
such outlet or discharge.
(6) Every State Board shall maintain a register containing particulars or conditions imposed under
this section and so much of the register as relates to any outlet, or to any effluent, from any land or premises
shall be open to inspection at all reasonable hours by any person interested in, or affected by such outlet,
land or premises, as the case may be, or by any person authorised by him in this behalf and the conditions so
contained in such register shall be conclusive proof that the consent was granted subject to such conditions.]
(7) The consent referred to in sub-section (1) shall, unless given or refused earlier, be deemed to
have been given unconditionally on the expiry of a period of four months of the making of an application in
this behalf complete in all respects to the State Board.
(8) For the purposes of this section and sections 27 and 30,-
(a) the expression "new or altered outlet" means any outlet which is wholly or partly
constructed on or after the commencement of this Act or which (whether so constructed or not) is
substantially altered after such commencement;
(b) the expression "new discharge" means a discharge which is not, as respects the nature
and composition, temperature, volume, and rate of discharge of the effluent substantially a
continuation of a discharge made within the preceding twelve months (whether by the same or
different outlet), so however that a discharge which is in other respects a continuation of previous
discharge made as aforesaid shall not be deemed to be a new discharge by reason of any reduction of
the temperature or volume or rate of discharge of the effluent as compared with the previous
discharge.

26. PROVISION REGARDING EXISTING DISCHARGE OF SEWAGE OR TRADE EFFLUENT.

Where immediately before the commencement of this Act any person was discharging any sewage
or trade effluent into a 43[stream or well or sewer or on land], the provisions of section 25 shall, so far as may

42
Subs. by s. 12, Act 53 of 1988,for sub-sections (4), (5) and (6).
43
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 13, for "stream or well"

50
be, apply in relation to such person as they apply in relation to the person referred to in that section subject to
the modification that the application for consent to be made under sub-section (2) of that section 44[shall be
made on or before such date as may be specified by the State Government by notification in this behalf in the
Official Gazette.]
27. REFUSAL OR WITHDRAWAL OF CONSENT BY STATE BOARD.
45
[(1) A State Board shall not grant its consent under sub-section (4) of section 25 for the
establishment of any industry, operation or process, or treatment and disposal system or extension or
addition thereto, or to the bringing into use of a new or altered outlet unless the industry, operation or
process, or treatment and disposal system or extension or addition thereto, or the outlet is so established as to
comply with an conditions imposed by the Board to enable it to exercise its right to take samples of the
effluent.
46
[(2) A State Board may from time to time review --
47
[(a) any condition imposed under section 25 or section 26 and may serve on the person to
whom a consent under section 25 or section 26 is granted a notice making any reasonable variation
of or revoking any such condition.
(b) the refusal of any consent referred to in sub-section (1) of section 25 or section 26 or the
grant of such consent without any condition, and may make such orders as it deemed fit.]
(3) Any conditions imposed under section 25 or section 26 shall be subject to any variation made
under sub-section (2) and shall continue in force until revoked under that sub-section.
28. APPEALS.
(1) Any person aggrieved by an order made by the State Board under Section 25, section 26 or
section 27 may within thirty days from the date on which the order is communicated to him, prefer an appeal
to such authority (hereinafter referred to as the appellate authority) as the State Government may think fit to
constitute:
Provided that the appellate authority may entertain the appeal after the expiry of the said period of
thirty days if such authority is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from filing the
appeal in time.
48
[(2) An appellate authority shall consist of a single person or three persons as the State
Government may think fit, to be appointed by that Government.]
(3) The form and manner in which an appeal may be preferred under sub-section (1), the fees
payable for such appeal and the procedure to be followed by the appellate authority shall be such as may be
prescribed.
(4) On receipt of an appeal preferred under sub-section (1), the appellate authority shall, after giving
the appellants and the State Board an opportunity of being heard, dispose of the appeal as expeditiously as
possible.
(5) If the appellate authority determines that any condition imposed, or the variation of any
condition, as the case may be, was unreasonable, then,--
(a) where the appeal is in respect of the unreasonableness of any condition imposed, such
authority may direct either that the condition shall be treated as annulled or that there shall be
substituted for it such condition as appears to it to be reasonable;
(b) where the appeal is in respect of the unreasonableness of any variation of a condition,
such authority may direct either that the condition shall be treated as continuing in force unvaried or
that it shall be varied in such manner as appears to it to be reasonable.

44
Subs. by s. 13, ibid., for certain words.

45
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s 13, for sub-section (1).

46
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 14 for sub-section (2).

47
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 13, for cl. (a).
48
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s 15. for sub-section (2).

51
29. REVISION.
(1) The State Government may at any time either of its own motion or on an application made to it in
[Act 6 of 1974]
this behalf, call for the records of any case where an order has been made by the State Board under section
25, section 26 or section 27 for the purpose of satisfying itself as to the legality or propriety of any such
order and may pass such order in relation thereto as it may think fit :
Provided that the State Government shall not pass any order under this sub-section without affording
the State Board and the person who may be affected by such order a reasonable opportunity of being heard in
the matter.
(2) The State Government shall not revise any order made under section 25, section 26 or section 27
where an appeal against that order lies to the appellate authority, but has not been preferred or where an
appeal has been preferred such appeal is pending before the appellate authority.

30. POWER OF STATE BOARD TO CARRY OUT CERTAIN WORKS.

49
[(1) Where under this Act, any conditions have been imposed on any person while granting consent
under section 25 or section 26 and such conditions require such person to execute any work in connection
therewith and such work has not been executed within such time as may be specified in this behalf, the State
Board may serve on the person concerned a notice requiring him within such time (not being less than thirty
days) as may be specified in the notice to execute the work specified therein.]
(2) If the person concerned fails to execute the work as required in the notice referred to in sub-
section (1), then, after the expiration of the time specified in the said notice, the State Board may itself
execute or cause to be executed such work.
(3) All expenses incurred by the State Board for the execution of the aforesaid work, together with
interest, at such rate as the State Government may, by order, fix, from the date when a demand for the
expenses is made until it is paid, may be recovered by that Board from the person concerned, as arrears of
land revenue, or of public demand.
31. FURNISHING OF INFORMATION TO STATE BOARD AND OTHER AGENCIES IN
CERTAIN CASES.
50
[(1) If at any place where any industry, operation or process, or any treatment and disposal system
or any extension or addition thereto is being carried on, due to accident or other unforeseen act or event, any
poisonous, noxious or polluting matter is being discharged, or is likely to be discharged into a stream or well
or sewer or on land and, as a result of such discharge, the water in any stream or well is being polluted, or is
likely to be polluted, then the person incharge of such place shall forthwith intimate the occurrence of such
accident, act or event to the State Board and such other authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.]
(2) Where any local authority operates any sewerage system or sewage works the provisions of sub-
section (1) shall apply to such local authority as they apply in relation to the person in charge of the place
where an industry or trade is being carried on.
32. EMERGENCY MEASURES IN CASE OF POLLUTION OF STREAM OR WELL.
(1) Where it appears to the State Board that any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter is present in
51
[any stream or well or on land by reason of the discharge of such matter in such stream or well or on such
land] or has entered into that stream or well due to any accident or other unforeseen act or event, and if the
Board is of opinion that it is necessary or expedient to take immediate action, it may for reasons to be
recorded in writing, carry out such operations as it may consider necessary for all or any of the following
purposes, that is to say --
(a) removing that matter from the 52[stream or well or on land] and disposing it of in such manner as
the Board considers appropriate;
(b) remedying or mitigating any pollution caused by its presence in the stream or well;

49
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 14, for sub-section (1).
50
Subs. by s. 15, ibid., for sub-section (1).
51
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 16, for "any stream or well"
52
Subs. by s, 16, ibid., for "stream or well".

52
(c) issuing orders immediately restraining or prohibiting the persons concerned from discharging any
poisonous, noxious or polluting matter 53[into the steam or well or on land] or from making in sanitary use of
the stream or well.
(2) The power conferred by sub-section (I) does not include the power to construct any works other
than works of a temporary character which are removed on or before the completion of the operations.
33. POWER OF BOARD TO MAKE APPLIATION TO COURTS FOR RESTRAINING
APPREHENDED POLLUTION OF WATER IN STREAMS OR WELLS.
54
[(1) Where it is apprehended by a Board that the water in any stream or well is likely to be polluted by
reason of the disposal or likely disposal of any matter in such stream or well or in any sewer, or on any land,
or otherwise, the Board may make an application to a court, not inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate
or a Judicial Magistrate of the first class, for restraining the persons who is likely to cause such pollution
from so causing.]
(2) On receipt of an application under sub-section (I) the court make such order as it deems fit.
(3) Where under sub-section (2) the court makes an order restraining any person from polluting the water in
any stream or well, it may in that order-
(i) direct the person who is likely to cause or has caused the pollution of the water in the stream or
well, to desist from taking such action as is likely to cause pollution or, as the case may be, to
remove such stream or well, such matter, and
(ii) authorise the Board, if the direction under clause (i) (being a direction for the removal of any
matter from such stream or well) is not complied with by the person to whom such direction is
issued, to undertake the removal and disposal of the matter in such manner as may be specified by
the court.
(4) All expenses incurred by the Board in removing any matter in pursuance of the authorisation under
clause (ii) of sub-section (3) or in the disposal of any such matter may be defrayed out of any money
obtained by the Board from such disposal and any balance outstanding shall be recoverable from the person
concerned as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
55
[33A. POWER TO GIVE DIRECTIONS.
Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law, but subject to the provisions of this Act, and to
any directions that the Central Government may give in this behalf, a Board may, in the exercise of its
powers and performance of its functions under this Act, issue any directions in writing to any person, officer
or authority, and such person, officer or authority shall be bound to comply with such directions.
Explanation.-For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions under this
section includes the power to direct-
(a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or
(b) the stoppage or regulation of supply of electricity, water or any other service.]

CHAPTER VI

FUNDS, ACCOUNTS AND AUDIT

34. CONTRIBUTIONS BY CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.

The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law in this behalf,
make in each financial year such contributions to the Central Board as it may think necessary to enable the
Board to perform its functions under this Act.
35. CONTRIBUTIONS BY STATE GOVERNMENT.: The State Government may, after due
appropriation made by the Legislature of the State by law in this behalf, make in each financial year such

53
Subs. by s. 16, ibid., for "into the stream or well".

54
Subs. by s. 17, ibid., for sub-section (1).
55
Ins. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 18.

53
contributions to the State Board as it may think necessary to enable that Board to perform its functions under
this Act.
36. FUND OF CENTRAL BOARD.
(1) The Central Board shall have its own fund, and all sums which may, from time to time, be paid
to it by the Central Government and all other receipts (by way of gifts, grants, donations, benefactions
56
[fees] or otherwise) of that Board shall be carried to the fund of the Board and all payments by the Board
shall be made therefrom.
(2) The Central Board may expend such sums as it thinks fit for performing its functions under this
Act, 57[and, where any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention, control of abatement or air
pollution provides for the performance of any function under such law by the Central Board, also for
performing its functions under such law] and such sums shall be treated as expenditure payable out of the
funds of that Board.
37. FUND OF STATE BOARD.
(1) The State Board shall have its own fund, and the sums which may, from time to time, be paid to
it by the State Government and all other receipts (by way of gifts, grants, donations, benefactions 1[fees] or
otherwise) of that Board shall be carried to the fund of the Board and all payments by the Board shall be
made therefrom.
(2) The State Board may expend such sums as it thinks fit for performing its functions under this
Act,2[and, where any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution provides for the performance of any function under such law by the State Board, also for
performing its functions under such law] and such sums shall be treated as expenditure payable out of the
fund of that Board.
58
[37A. BORROWING POWERS OF BOARD.
A Board may, with the consent of, or in accordance with, the terms of any general or special
authority given to it by the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government, borrow money
from any source by way of loans or issue of bonds, debentures or such other instruments, as it may deem fit,
for the performance of all or any of its functions under this Act.]
38. BUDGET.
The Central Board or, as the case may be, the State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare,
in such form and at such time as may be prescribed, a budget in respect of the financial year next ensuing
showing the estimated receipt and expenditure, and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the Central
Government, or as the case may be, the State Government.
39. ANNUAL REPORT.
59
[(1) The Central Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such form as may be
prescribed, an annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous financial
year and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the Central Government within four months from the last date
of the previous financial year and that Government shall cause every such report to be laid before both
Houses of Parliament within nine months from the last date of the previous financial year.
(2) Every State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such form as may be prescribed,
an annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous financial year and
copies thereof shall be forwarded to the State Government within four months from the last date of the
previous financial year and that Government shall cause every such report to be laid before the State
legislature within a period of nine months from the last date of the previous financial year.]
40. ACCOUNT AND AUDIT.
(1) Every Board shall maintain proper accounts and other relevant records and prepare an annual
statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by the Central Government or, as the case may be,
the State Government.

56
Ins. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 16
57
Ins. by s. 17, ibid.
58
Ins. by Act 53 of l988, s 19.
59
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 20, for s. 39.

54
(2) The accounts of the Board shall be audited by an auditor duly qualified to act as an auditor of companies
under section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956).
(3) The said auditor shall be appointed by the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State
Government on the advice of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
(4) Every auditor appointed to audit the accounts of the Board under this Act shall have the right to demand
the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers and other documents and papers and to inspect any of
the offices of the Board.
(5) Every such auditor shall send a copy of his report together with an audited copy of the accounts to the
Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.
(6) The Central Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under sub-section
(5), cause the same to be laid before both Houses of Parliament.
(7) The State Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under sub-section (5),
cause the same to be laid before the State Legislature.

CHAPTER VII
PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE
60
[41. FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH DIRECTIONS UNDER SUB-SECTION (2) OR SUB-
SECTION (3) OF SECTION 20, OR ORDERS ISSUED UNDER CLAUSE (c) OF SUB-SECTION (1)
OF 32 OR DIRECTIONS ISSUED UNDER SUB-SECTION (2) OF SECTION 33 OR SECTION 33A.
(1) Whoever fails to comply with any direction given under sub-section (2) or sub-section (3) of section 20
within such time as may be specified in the direction shall, or conviction, be punishable with imprisonment
for a term which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with
both and in case the failure continues, with an additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for
every day during which such failure continues after the conviction for the first such failure.
(2) Whoever fails to comply with any order issued under clause (c) of sub-section (1) of section 32 or any
direction issued by a court under sub-section (2) of section 33 or any direction issued under section 33A
shall, in respect of each such failure and on conviction, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which
shall not be less than one year and six months but which may extend to six years and with fine, and case the
failure continues, with an additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during
which such failure continues after the conviction for the first such failure.
(3) If the failure referred to in sub-section (2) continues beyond a period of one year after the date of
conviction, the offender shall, on conviction, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be
less than two years but which may extend to seven years and with fine.]
42. PENALTY FOR CERTAIN ACTS.
(1) Whoever --
(a) destroys, pulls down, removes, injures or defaces any pillar, post or stake fixed in the ground or any
notice or other matter put up, inscribed or placed, by or under the authority of the Board, or
(b) obstructs any person acting under the orders or directions of the Board from exercising his powers and
performing his functions under this Act, or
(c) damages any works or property belonging to the Board, or
(d) fails to furnish to any officer or other employee of the Board any information required by him for the
purpose of this Act, or
(e) fails to intimate the occurrence of an accident or other unforeseen act or even under section 31 to the
Board and other authorities or agencies as required by that section, or
(f) in giving any information which he is required to give under this Act, knowingly or willfully makes a
statement which is false in any material particular, or
(g) for the purpose of obtaining any consent under section 25 or section 26, knowingly or willfully makes a
statement which is false in any material particular,
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with fine which may
extend to 61[ten thousand rupees] or with both.

60
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 21, for s. 41.

61
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 22, for "one thousand rupees"

55
(2) Where for the grant of a consent in pursuance of the provisions of section 25 or section 26 the use of a
meter or gauge or other measure or monitoring device is required and such device is used for the purposes of
those provision, any person who knowingly or willfully alters or interferes with that device so as to prevent it
from monitoring or measuring correctly shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend
to three months or with fine which may extend to 1[ten thousand rupees] or with both.

43. PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF PROVISIONS OF SECTION 24.

Whoever contravenes the provisions of section 24 shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which
shall not be less than 62[one year and six months] but which may extend to six years and with fine.
44. PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF SECTION 25 OR SECTION 26.
Whoever contravenes the provision of section 25 or section 26 shall be punishable with imprisonment for a
term which shall not be less than 1[one year and six months] but which may extend to six years and with fine.
45. ENHANCED PENALTY AFTER PREVIOUS CONVICTION.
If any person who has been convicted of any offence under section 24 or 25 or section 26 is again found
guilty of an offence involving a contravention of the same provision, he shall, on the second and on every
subsequent conviction, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than 63[two years]
but which may extend to seven years and with fine:
Provided that for the purpose of this section no cognizance shall be taken of any conviction made more than
two years before the commission of the offence which is being punished.
45A. PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF CERTAIN PROVISIONS OF THE ACT.
64
[Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or fails to comply with any order or direction given
under this Act, for which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this Act, shall be punishable with
imprisonment which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or
with both and in the case of a continuing contravention or failure, with an additional fine which may extend
to five thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention or failure continues after conviction
for the first such contravention or failure.]
46. PUBLICATION OF NAMES OF OFFENDERS.
If any person convicted of an offence under this Act commits a like offence afterwards it shall be lawful for
the court before which the second or subsequent conviction takes place to cause the offender's name and
place of residences, the offence and the penalty imposed to be published at the offender's expense in such
newspapers or in such other manner as the court may direct and the expenses of such publication shall be
deemed to be part of the cost attending the conviction and shall be recoverable in the same manner as a fine.
47. OFFENCES BY COMPANIES.
(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who at the time the
offence was committed was in charge of, and was responsible to the company for the conduct of, the
business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to the guilty of the offence and shall be
liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable to any punishment
provided in this Act if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge for that he exercised
all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has been
committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the consent or
connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other
officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of
that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
Explanation--For the purpose of this section,--
(a) "company" means any body corporate, and includes a firm or other association of individuals; and
(b) "director" in relation to a firm means a partner in the firm.
48. OFFENCES BY GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

1
Sub. by Act 53 of 1988, s.23, for “six months” .

63
Subs. by s. 24, ibid., for "one year".
64
Ins. by s. 25, ibid.,

56
 Where an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of Government, the Head
of the Department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and
punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the Department liable to
any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all
due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
49. COGNIZANCE OF OFFENCES.
65
[(1) No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by--
(a) a Board or any officer authorised in this behalf by it; or
(b) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner prescribed, of the alleged
offence and of his intention to make a complaint, to the Board or officer authorised as aforesaid,
and no court inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the first class shall try
any offence punishable under this Act.]
66
[(2) Where a complaint has been made under clause (b) of sub-section (1), the Board shall, on demand by
such person, make available the relevant reports in its possession to that person:
Provided that the Board may refuse to make any such report available to such person if the same is, in its
opinion, against the public interest.]
67
[(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in section 29 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973], (2 of
1974) it shall be lawful for any 68[Judicial Magistrate of the first class or for any Metropolitan Magistrate] to
pass a sentence of imprisanment for a term exceeding two years or of fine exceeding two thousand rupees on
any person convicted of an offence punishable under this Act.
50. MEMBERS, OFFICERS AND SERVANTS OF BOARD TO BE PUBLIC SERVANTS.
All members, officers and servants of a Board when acting or purporting to act in pursuance of any
of the provisions of this Act (45 of 1860) and the rules made thereunder shall be deemed to be public
servants within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code.
CHAPTER VIII
MISCELLANEOUS
51. CENTRAL WATER LABORATORY.
(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,-
(a) establish a Central Water Laboratory; or
(b) specify any laboratory or institute as a Central Water Laboratory, to carry out the functions entrusted to
the Central Water Laboratory under this Act.
(2) The Central Government may, after consultation with the Central Board, make rules prescribing--
(a) the functions of the Central Water Laboratory;
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said laboratory of samples of water or of sewage or trade
effluent for analysis or tests, the form of the laboratory's report thereunder and the fees payable in
respect of such report;
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that laboratory to carry out its functions.
52. STATE WATER LABORATORY.
(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,-
(a) establish a State Water Laboratory; or
(b) specify any State laboratory or institute as a State Water Laboratory, to carry out the functions
entrusted to the State Water Laboratory under this Act.
(2) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, make rules prescribing --

65
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s. 26 for sub-section (1).

66
Ins by s. 26, ibid.

67
Sub-section (2) renumbered as sub-section (3) by s. 26, ibid.

68
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 19, for certain words.

57
(a) the functions of the State Water Laboratory;
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said laboratory of samples of water or of sewage or trade effluent
for analysis or rests, the form of the laboratory's report thereon and the fees payable in respect of such report;
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that laboratory to carry out its functions.
53. ANALYSTS.
(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette appoint such persons as it
thinks fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be Government analysts for the purpose of analysis of
samples of water or of sewage or trade effluent sent for analysis to any laboratory established or specified
under sub-section (1) of section 51.
(2) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint such persons as it
thinks fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be Government analysts for the purpose of analysis of
water or of sewage or trade effluent sent for analysis to any laboratory established or specified under sub-
section (1) of section 52.
(3) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 12, the Central Board or, as the
case may be, the State Board may, by notification in the Official Gazette, and with the approval of the
Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be, appoint such persons as it thinks fit and
having the prescribed qualifications to be Board analysts for the purpose of analysis of samples of water or
of sewage or trade effluent sent for analysis to any laboratory established or recognised under section 16, as
the case may be, under section 17.
54. REPORTS OF ANALYSTS.
Any document purporting to be report signed by a Government analyst or, as the case may be, a
Board analyst may be used as evidence of the facts stated therein in any proceeding under this Act.
55. LOCAL AUTHORITIES TO ASSIST.
All local authorities shall render such help and assistance and furnish such information to the Board
as it may require for the discharge of its functions, and shall make available to the Board for inspection and
examination such records, maps, plans and other documents as may be necessary for the discharge of its
functions.
56. COMPULSORY ACQUISITION OF LAND FOR THE STATE BOARD.
Any land required by a State Board for the efficient performance of its function under this Act shall
be deemed to be needed for a public purpose and such land shall be acquired for the State Board under the
provisions of the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 (1 of 1894), or under any other corresponding law for the time
being in force.
57. RETURNS AND REPORTS.
The Central Board shall furnish to the Central Government, and a State Board shall furnish to the
State Government and to the Central Board such reports, returns, statistics, accounts and other information
with respect to its fund or activities as that government, or, as the case may be, the Central Board may, from
time to time, require.
58. BAR OF JURISDICTION.
No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of any matter
which an appellate authority constituted under this Act is empowered by or under this Act to determine, and
no injunction shall be granted by any court or other authority in respect of any action taken or to be taken in
pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.
59. PROTECTION OF ACTION TAKEN IN GOOD FAITH.
No suit or other legal proceedings shall lie against the Government or any officer of Government or
any member or officer of a Board in respect of anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in
pursuance of this Act or the rules made thereunder.
60. OVERRIDING EFFECT.
The provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith
contained in any enactment other than this Act.
61. POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO SUPERSEDE THE CENTRAL BOARD AND
JOINT BOARDS.
(1) If at any time the Central Government is of opinion --

58
(a) that the Central Board or any Joint Board has persistently made default in the performance of the
functions imposed on it by or under this Act; or
(b) that circumstances exist which render it necessary in the public interest so to do,
the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, supersede the Central Board or such
Joint Board, as the case may be, for such period not exceeding one year, as may be specified in the
notification:
Provided that before issuing a notification under this sub-section for the reasons mentioned in clause (a), the
Central Government shall give a reasonable opportunity to the Central Board or such Joint Board, as the case
may be, to show cause why it should not be superseded and shall consider the explanations and objections if
any, of the Central Board or such Joint Board, as the case may be.
(2) Upon the publication of notification under sub-section (1) superseding the Central Board or any Joint
Board.
(a) all the members shall, as from the date of supersession vacate their offices as such;
(b) all the powers, functions and duties which may, by or under this Act, be exercised, performed or
discharged by the Central Board or such Joint Board, shall until the Central Board or the Joint Board, as the
case may be, is reconstituted under sub-section (3) be exercised performed or discharged by such person or
persons as the Central Government may direct;
(c) all property owned or controlled by the Central Board or such Joint Board shall until the Central Board or
the Joint Board, as the case may be, is reconstituted under sub-section (3) vest in the Central Government.
(3) On the expiration of the period of supersession specified in the notification issued under sub-section (1),
the Central Government may -
(a) extend the period of supersession for such further term, not exceeding six months, as it may consider
necessary; or
(b) reconstitute the Central Board or the Joint Board as the case may be, by fresh nomination or
appointment, as the case may be, and in such case any person who vacated his office under clause (a) of sub-
section (2) shall not be deemed disqualified for nomination or appointment:
Provided that the Central Government may at any time before the expiration of the period of supersession,
whether originally specified under sub-section (1) or as extended under this sub-section, take action under
clause (b) of this sub-section.
62. POWER OF STATE GOVERNMENT TO SUPERSEDE STATE BOARD.
(1) If at any time the State Government is of opinion -
(a) that the State Board has persistently made default in the performance of the functions imposed on
it by or under this Act; or
(b) that circumstances exist which render it necessary in the public interest so to do,
the State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, supersede the State Board for such
period, not exceeding one year, as may be specified in the notification.
Provided that before issuing a notification under this sub-section for the reasons mentioned in clause (a), the
State Government shall give a reasonable opportunity to the State Board to show cause why it should not be
superseded and shall consider the explanation and objections, if any, of the State Board.
(2) Upon the publication of a notification under sub-section (1) superseding the State Board, the provisions
of sub-section (2) and (3) of section 61 shall apply in relation to the supersession of the State Board as they
apply in relation to the supersession of the Central Board or a Joint Board by the Central Government.
63. POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO MAKE RULES.
(1) The Central Government may, simultaneously with the constitution of the Central Board, make rules in
respect of the matters specified in sub-section (2);
Provided that when the Central Board has been constituted, no such rule shall be made, varied,
amended or repealed without consulting the Board.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for
all or any of the following matters, namely : -
(a) the terms and conditions of service of the members (other than the chairman and member –secretary ) of
the Central Board under sub-section (8) of section 5;
(b) the intervals and the time and place at which meetings of the Central Board or of any committee thereof
consitituted under this Act, shall be held and the procedure to be followed at such meetings, including the
quorum necessary for the transaction of business under section 8, and under sub-section (2) of section 9;

59
(c) the fees and allowances to be paid to such members of a committee of the Central Board as are not
members of the Board under sub-section (3) of section 9;
69
[(d) the manner in which and the purposes for which persons may be associated with the Central Board
under sub-section (1) of section 10 and the fees and allowances payable to such persons;]
(e) the terms and conditions of service of the chairman and the member secretary of the Central Board under
sub-section (9) of section 5 and under sub-section (1) of section 12;
(f) conditions subject to which a person may be appointed as a consulting engineer to the Central Board
under sub-section (4) of section 12;
(g) the powers and duties to be exercised and performed by the chairman and member secretary of the
Central Board;
70
* * *
(j) the form of the report of the Central Board analyst under sub-section (1) of section 22;
(k) the form of the report of the Government analyst under sub-section (1) of section 22;
71
[(l) the form in which the time within which the budget of the Central Board may be prepared and
forwarded to the Central Government under section 38;
(ll) the form in which the annual report of the Central Board may be prepared under Section
39;]
(m) the form in which the accounts of the Central Board may be maintained under section 40;
72
[(mm) the manner in which notice of intention to make a compliant shall be given to the Central Board or
officer authorized by it under Section 49;]
(n) any other matter relating to the Central Board, including the powers and functions of that Board in
relation to Union Territories;
(o) any other matter which has to be, or may be prescribed.
(3) Every rule made by the Central Government under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is
made, before each House of Parliament while it is in session for a total period of thirty days which may be
comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, 73[before the expiry of the session
immediately following the session or the successive session aforesaid], both Houses agree in making any
modification in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not be made, the rule shall thereafter have
effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be ; so, however, that any such
modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything previously done under that
rule.
64. POWER OF STATE GOVERNMENT TO MAKE RULES.
(1) The State Government may, simultaneously with the constitution or the State Board, make rules to carry
out the pruposes of this Act in respect of matters not falling within the purview of section 63;
Provided that when the State Board has been constituted, no such rule shall be made, varied
amended or repealed without consulting that Board.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for
all or any of the following matters, namely : -
(a) the terms and conditions of service of the members (other than the chairman and the member–
secretary ) of the State Board under sub-section (8) of section 5;
(b) the time and place of meetings of the State Board or of any committee of that Board constituted
under this Act and the procedure to be followed at such meeting, including in quorum necessary for the
transaction of business under section 8 and under sub-section (2) of Section 9;
(c) the fees and allowances to be paid to such members of a committee of the State Board as are not
members of the Board under sub-section (3) of section 9;

69
Subs. by act 44 of 1978, s.20, for cl .(d).

70
Cls (h) and (i) omitted by s. 20, ibid

71
Subs. by Act 53 of 1988, s.27
72
Ins. by s.27, ibid.
73
Subs. by Act 44 of 1978, s.20, for certain words

60
 (d) the manner in which and the purposes for which persons may be associated with the State Board under sub-
section (1) of section 10 74[and the fees and allowances payable to such persons];
(e) the terms and conditions of service of the Chairman and member secretary of the State Board under sub-
section (9) of section 5 and under sub-section (1) of section 12;
(f) the conditions subject to which a person may be appointed as a consulting engineer to the State Board under
sub-section (4) of section 12;
(g) the powers and duties to be exercised and discharged by the chairman and member secretary of the State
Board;
(h) the form of the notice referred to in section 21;
(i) the form of the report of the State Board analyst under sub-section (3) of section 22;
(j) the form of the report of the Government analyst under sub-section (3) of section 22;
(k) the form of application for the consent of the State Board under sub-section (2) of section 25 and the
particular it may contain;
(l) the manner in which inquiry under sub-section (3) of section 25may be made in respect of an application for
obtaining consent of the State Board and the matters to be taken in to account in granting or refusing such
consent;
(m) the form and manner in which appeals may be filed, the fees payable in respect of such appeals and the
procedure to be allowed by the appellate authority in disposing of the appeals under sub-section (3) of
section 28;
75
[(n) the form in which and the time within which the budget of the State Board may be prepared and forwarded
to the State Government under section 38;
(nn) the form in which the annual report of the State Board may be prepared under section 39;]
(o) the form in which the accounts of the State Board may be maintained under sub-section (1) of section 40;
76
[(oo) the manner in which notice of intention to make a complaint shall be given to the State Board or
officer authorised by it under section 49;]
(p) any other matter which has to be, or may be, prescribed.
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
1. SHORT TITLE, EXTENT AND COMMENCEMENT.
(1) This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
(2) It extends to the whole of India.
(3) It shall come into force on such date 1 as the Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, appoint.
2. DEFINITIONS.
In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, -
(a) “air pollution” means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance 1(including noise) present in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment;
(b) “air pollution” means the presence in the atmosphere of any air pollutant;
(c) “approved appliance” means any equipment or gadget used for the burning of any combustible
material or for generating or consuming any fume, gas or particulate matter and approved by the
State Board for the purposes of this Act;
(d) “approved fuel” means any fuel approved by the State Board for the purposes of this Act;

74
Ins. by Act 44 of 1978, s. 21

75
Sub. by Act 53 of 1988, s.28 for cl. (n)

76
Ins. by s. 28, ibid.

61
(e) “automobile” means any vehicle powered either by internal combustion engine or by any
method of generating power to drive such vehicle by burning fuel;
(f) “Board” means the Central Board or a State Board;
(g) “Central Board” means the 2Central Pollution Control Board constituted under Section 3 of the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974);
(h) “Chimney” includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or through which any air
pollutant may be emitted;
(i) “Control equipment” means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to control the quality
and manner of emission of any air pollutant and includes any device used for securing the efficient
operation of any industrial plant;
(j) “Emission” means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney, duct or
flue or any other outlet;
(k) “Industrial plant” means any plant used for any industrial or trade purposes and emitting any air
pollutant into the atmosphere;
(l) “Member” means a member of the Central Board or a State Board, as the case may be, and
includes the Chairman thereof;
3(m) “Occupier”, in relation to any factory or premises, means the person who has control over the

affairs of the factory or the premises, and includes, in relation to any substance, the person in
possession of the substance;
(n) “Prescribed” means prescribed by rules made under this Act by the Central Government or, as
the case may be, the State Government;
(o) “State Board” means, -
(i) In relation to a State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of
1974), is in force and the State Government has constituted for that State State Pollution Control
Board under Section 4 of that Act, the said State Board; and
(ii) In relation to any other State, the State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
constituted by the State Government under Section 5 of this Act.
COMMENTS
Air Pollution
The Supreme Court in a case of leakage of Oleum gas from the Caustic Chlorine plant affecting
several persons due to air pollution directed the management to resume production on compliance
of specific stringent conditions. It is pertinent to mention that this was a public interest litigation
and the Supreme Court held that but for this case there would have been no improvement in the
design, structure and quality of the machinery and equipment in the Caustic Chlorine plant nor
would any proper and adequate safety devices and instruments have been installed nor would there
have been any pressure on the management to observe safety standards and procedures. In token
appreciation of the work done by the petitioner the Supreme Court directed the respondent to pay
Rs. 10,000 by way of costs to the petitioner; M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, AIR 1987 SC 965.
Noise Pollution
The disturbance produced in our environment by the undesirable sound of various kind is ‘Noise
Pollution’; In re: Noise Pollution –
Implementation of Laws for Restricting use of Loudspeakers and High Volume Producing Sound
Systems, AIR 2005 SC 3136.
3. CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD.
1The Central Pollution Control Board constituted under Section 3 of the Water (Prevention and

Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), shall, without prejudice to the exercise and
performance of its powers and functions under that Act, exercise the powers and perform the
functions of the Central Pollution Control Board for the prevention and control of air pollution
under this Act.

62
“3. Central Board for the prevention and control of Air pollution.—The Central Board for the
Prevention and control of Water Pollution constituted under section 3 of the Water (Prevention and
Control Pollution) Act, 1974, shall, without prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers
and functions under that Act, exercise the powers and perform the functions of the Central Board
for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act.

4. State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution to be State Boards for the
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution.—In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1974, is in force and the State Government has constituted for that State a State
Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution under section 4 of that Act, such State
Board shall be deemed to be the State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
constituted under section 5 of this Act and accordingly that State Board for the Prevention and
Control of Water Pollution shall, without prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers
and functions under that Act, exercise the powers and perform the functions of the State Board for
the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act.”

4. STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD CONSTITUTED UNDER SECTION 4 OF

ACT 6 OF 1974 TO BE STATE BOARDS UNDER THIS ACT.
In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, is in force and the
State Government has constituted for that State a State Pollution Control Board under Section 4 of
that Act such State Board shall be deemed to be the State Board for the Prevention and Control of
Air Pollution constituted under Section 5 of this Act, and accordingly that State Pollution Control
Board shall, without prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers and functions under
that Act, exercise the powers and perform the functions of the State Board for the prevention and
control of air pollution under this Act.

5. CONSTITUTION OF STATE BOARDS.

(1) In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), is
not in force, or that Act is in force but the State Government has not constituted a 1State Pollution
Control Board under that Act, the State Government shall, with effect from such date as it may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State Board for the Prevention and Control
of Air Pollution under such name as may be specified in the notification, to exercise the powers
conferred on, and perform the functions assigned to, that Board under this Act.
(2) A State Board constituted under this Act shall consist of the following members, namely :-
(a) a Chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of
matters relating to environmental protection, to be nominated by the State Government :
Provided that the Chairman may be either whole-time or part-time as the State Government may
think fit;
(b) such number of officials, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government to represent that Government;
(c) such number of persons, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government from amongst the members of the local authorities functioning
within the State;
(d) such number of non-official, not exceeding three, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government to represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or industry or
trade or labour or any other interest which, in the opinion of that Government, ought to be
represented;
(e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned, controlled or managed by the
State Government, to be nominated by that Government;

63
2(f) a full-time member-secretary having such qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control as may be prescribed, to be
appointed by the State Government :
Provided that the State Government shall ensure that not less than two of the members are persons
having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of matters relating to the improvement
of the quality of air or the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
(3) Every State Board constituted under this Act shall be a body corporate with the name specified
by the State Government in the notification issued under sub-section (1), having perpetual
succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire and
dispose of property and to contract, and may by the said name sue or be sued.
6. CENTRAL BOARD TO EXERCISE THE POWERS AND PERFORM THE FUNCTIONS
OF A STATE BOARD IN THE UNION TERRITORIES.
No State Board shall be constituted for a Union territory and in relation to a union territory, the
Central Board shall exercise the powers and perform the functions of a State Board under this Act
for that Union Territory :
Provided that in relation to any Union territory the Central Board may delegate all or any of its
powers and functions under this section to such person or body of persons as the Central
Government may specify.

7. TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF SERVICE OF MEMBERS.

(1) Save as otherwise provided by or under this Act, a member of a State Board constituted under
this Act, other than the member-secretary, shall hold office for a term of three years from the date
on which his nomination is notified in the Official Gazette :
Provided that a member shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office
until his successor enters upon his office.

(2) The term of office of a member of a State Board constituted under this Act and nominated under
clause (b) or clause (e) of sub-section (2) of Section 5 shall come to an end as soon as he ceases to
hold the office under the State Government or, as the case may be, the company or corporation
owned, controlled or managed by the State Government, by virtue of which he was nominated.
(3) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act, other than the member-secretary, may at
any time resign his office by writing under his hand addressed, -
(a) in the case of the Chairman, to the State Government; and
(b) in any other case, to the Chairman, of the State Board, and the seat of the Chairman or such
other member shall thereupon become vacant.
(4) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act, other than the member-secretary, shall
be deemed to have vacated his seat, if he is absent without reason, sufficient in the opinion of the
State Board, from three consecutive meetings of the State Board or where he is nominated under
clause (c) of sub-section (2) of Section 5, he ceases to be a member of the local authority and such
vacation of seat shall, in either case, take effect from such date as the State Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, specify.
(5) A casual vacancy in a State Board constituted under this Act shall be filled by a fresh
nomination and the person nominated to fill the vacancy shall hold office only for the remainder of
the term for which the member whose place he takes was nominated.
(6) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act shall be eligible for re-nomination. 1[***]
(7) The other terms and conditions of service of the Chairman and other members (except the
member-secretary) of a State Board constituted under this Act shall be such as may be prescribed.

8. DISQUALIFICATIONS.
(1) No person shall be a member of a State Board constituted under this Act, who -

64
(a) Is, or at any time has been, adjudged insolvent; or
(b) Is of unsound mind and has been so declared by a competent court; or
(c) Is, or has been, convicted of an offence which, in the opinion of the State Government, involves
moral turpitude; or
(d) Is, or at any time has been, convicted of an offence under this Act; or
(e) Has directly or indirectly by himself or by any partner, any share or interest in any firm or
company carrying on the business of manufacture, sale or hire of machinery, industrial plant,
control equipment or any other apparatus for the improvement of the quality of air or for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution; or
(f) Is a director or a secretary, manager or other salaried officer or employee of any company or
firm having any contract with the Board, or with the Government constituting the Board or with a
local authority in the State, or with a company or corporation owned, controlled or managed by the
Government, for the carrying out of programmes for the improvement of the quality of air or for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution; or
(g) Has so abused, in the opinion of the State Government, his position as a member, as to render
his continuance on the State Board detrimental to the interests of the general public.
(2) The State Government shall, by order in writing, remove any member who is, or has become,
subject to any disqualification mentioned in sub-section (1) :
Provided that no order of removal shall be made by the State Government under this section unless
the member concerned has been given a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the same.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) or sub-section (6) of Section 7, a member
who has been removed under this section shall not be eligible to continue to hold office until his
successor enters upon his office, or, as the case may be, for re-nomination as a member.
9. VACATION OF SEATS BY MEMBERS.
If a member of a State Board constituted under this Act becomes subject to any of the
disqualifications specified in Section 8, his seat shall become vacant.
10. MEETINGS OF BOARD.
(1) For the purposes of this Act, a Board shall meet at least once in every three months and shall
observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings as may be
prescribed :
Provided that if, in the opinion of the Chairman, any business of an urgent nature is to be
transacted, he may convene a meeting of the Board at such time as he thinks fit for the aforesaid
purpose.
(2) Copies of the minutes of the meetings under sub-section (1) shall be forwarded to the Central
Board and to the State Government concerned.
11. CONSTITUTION OF COMMITTEES.
(1) A Board may constitute as many committees consisting wholly of members or partly of
members and partly of other persons and for such purpose or purposes as it may think fit.

(2) A committee constituted under this section shall meet at time and at such place, and shall
observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings, as may be
prescribed.

(3) The members of a committee other than the members of the Board shall be paid such fees and
allowances, for attending its meetings and for attending to any other work of the Board as may be
prescribed.

65
12. TEMPORARY ASSOCIATION OF PERSONS WITH BOARD FOR PARTICULAR
PURPOSES.
(1) A Board may associate with itself in such manner, and for such purposes, as may be prescribed,
any person whose assistance or advice it may desire to obtain in performing any of its functions
under this Act.
(2) A person associated with the Board under sub-section (1) for any purpose shall have right to
take part in the discussions of the Board relevant to that purpose, but shall not have a light to vote at
a meeting of the Board and shall not be a member of the Board for any other purpose.
(3) A person associated with a Board under sub-section (1) shall be entitled to receive such fees
and allowances as may be prescribed.
14. MEMBER-SECRETARY AND OFFICERS AND OTHERS EMPLOYEES OF STATE
BOARDS.
(1) The terms and conditions of service of the member-secretary of a State Board constituted under
this Act shall be such as may be prescribed.
1(2) the member-secretary of a State Board, whether constituted under this Act or not, shall exercise

such powers and performs such duties as may be prescribed, or as may, from time to time, be
delegated to him by the State Board or its Chairman.
(3) Subject to such rules as may be made by the State Government in this behalf, a State Board,
whether constituted under this Act or not, may appoint such officers and other employees as it
considers necessary for the efficient performance of its functions under this Act.
(4) The method of appointment, the conditions of service and the scales of pay of the officers
(other than member-secretary) and other employees of a State Board appointed under sub-section
(3) shall be such as may be determined by regulations made by the State Board under this Act.
(5) Subject to such conditions as may be prescribed, a State Board constituted under this Act may
from time to time appoint any qualified person to be a consultant to the Board and pay him such
salary and allowances or fees, as it thinks fit.
A State Board may, by general or special order, delegate to the Chairman or the member-secretary
or any other officer of the Board subject to such conditions and limitations, if any, as may be
specified in the order, such of its powers and functions under this Act as it may deem necessary.
Comments
The delegating authority, by the mere act of delegation, does not completely denude it
16. FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BOARD.
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its functions
under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), the main functions of
the Central Board shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution
in the country.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing functions, the Central
Board may -
(a) Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air
and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(b) Plan and cause to be executed a nationwide programme for the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
(c) Co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;

66
(d) Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of air-pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
1(dd) Perform such of the functions of any State Board as may be specified in an order made under

sub-section (2) of Section 18;

(e) Plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central Board
may specify;
(f) Organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(g) Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the
measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and prepare manuals, codes or
guides relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(h) Lay down standards for the quality of air;
(i) Collect and disseminate information is respect of matters relating to air pollution;
(j) Perform such other functions as may be prescribed.
(3) The Central Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Central
Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently.
(4) The Central Board may -
(a) Delegate any of its functions under this Act generally or specially to any of the committees
appointed by it;
(b) Do such other things and perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper
discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of this
Act.
17. FUNCTIONS OF STATE BOARDS.
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its functions,
if any, under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), the functions
of a State Board shall be -
(a) To plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution
and to secure the execution thereof;
(b) To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
(c) To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution;
(d) To collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged or to be
engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to organise
mass-education programme relating thereto;
(e) To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing
process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider necessary to take
steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(f) To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
qualify of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in such
areas;
(g) To lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for the
quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the
atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft :
Provided that different standards for emission may be laid down under this clause for different
industrial plants having regard to the quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere from such industrial plants;

67
(h) To advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location for
carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;

(i) To perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be entrusted
to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
(j) To do such other things and to perform such other acts as its may think necessary for the proper
discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of this
Act.
(2) A State Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the State Board
to perform its functions under this Section efficiently.
COMMENTS
The Supreme Court ordered the closure of limestone quarries which were causing imbalance to
ecology and hazard to public health and environment. However, in order to mitigate the hardship
caused by such closure to the lessee, Government of India and State of U.P. were directed to give
priority and send intimation whenever any other area was allotted for grant of limestone or dolomite
quarrying to the displaced lessees; Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra Dehradun v. State of
U.P., AIR 1985 SC 651.
18. POWER TO GIVE DIRECTIONS. .
1In the performance of its functions under this Act -

(a) the Central Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Government may
give to it; and
(b) every State Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Board or the State
Government may give to it :
Provided that where a direction given by the State Government is inconsistent with the direction
given by the Central Board, the matter shall be referred to the Central Government for its decision.
2(2) Where the Central Government is of the opinion that any State Board has defaulted in

complying with any directions given by the Central Board under sub-section (1) and as a result of
such default a grave emergency has arisen and it is necessary or expedient so to do in the public
interest, it may, by order, direct the Central Board to perform any of the functions of the State
Board in relation to such area, for such period and for such purposes, as may be specified in the
order.
(3) Where the Central Board performs any of the functions of the State Board in pursuance of a
direction under sub-section (2), the expresses, if any, incurred by the Central Board with respect to
the performance of such functions may, if the State Board is empowered to recover such expenses,
be recovered by the Central Board with interest (at such reasonable rate as the Central Government
may, by order, fix) from the date when a demand for such expenses is made until it is paid from the
person or persons concerned as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
(4) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that any direction to perform the functions of
any State Board given under sub-section (2) in respect of any area would not preclude the State
Board from performing such functions in any other area in the State or any of its other functions in
that area.

19. POWER TO DECLARE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL AREAS.

(1) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the
Official Gazette, declare in such manner as may be prescribed, any area or areas within the State as
air pollution control area or areas for the purposes of this Act.
(2) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the
Official Gazette, -
(a) Alter any air pollution control area whether by way of extension or reduction;

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 (b) Declare a new air pollution control area in which may be merged one or more existing air
pollution control areas or any part or parts thereof.
(3) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion that the use of any
fuel, other than an approved fuel, in any air pollution control area or part thereof, may cause or is
likely to cause air pollution, it may by notification in the Official Gazette, prohibit the use of such
fuel in such area or part thereof with effect from such date (being not less than three months from
the date of publication of the notification) as may be specified in the notification.
(4) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the
Official Gazette, direct that with effect from such date as may be specified therein, no appliance,
other than an approved appliance, shall be used in the premises situated in an air pollution control
area : Provided that different dates may be specified for different parts of an air pollution control
area or for the use of different appliances.
(5) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion that the burning
of any material (not being fuel) in any air pollution control area or part thereof may cause or is
likely to cause air pollution, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, prohibit the burning of
such material in such area or part thereof.
COMMENTS
Power of authority, when not to cease
The power which vests in an authority would not cease to exist simply for the reason that the rules
have not been framed or the manner of exercise of the power has not been prescribed; Orissa State
Prevention and Control of Pollution Board v. Orient Paper Mills, AIR 2003 SC 1966.
20. POWER TO GIVE INSTRUCTIONS FOR ENSURING STANDARDS FOR EMISSION
FROM AUTOMOBILES.
With a view to ensuring that the standards for emission of air pollutants from automobiles laid
down by the State Board under clause (g) of sub-section (1) of Section 17 are compiled with, the
State Government shall, in consultation with the State Board, give such instructions as may be
deemed necessary to the concerned authority in charge of registration of motor vehicles under the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 (4 of 1939), and such authority shall, notwithstanding anything contained
in that Act or the rules made there under be found to comply with such instructions.
COMMENTS
The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, inter alia, provides for prevention and control of air pollution from
automobiles which constitute a major source of pollution everywhere, especially in the congested
metropolis. Sub-section (1) of section 110 of the said Act inter alia lays down that the Central
Government may make rules regulating the construction, equipment and maintenance of motor
vehicles and trailers with respect to all or any of the following matters:—
(i) the emission of smoke, visible vapour, sparks, ashes, grit or oil;
(ii) the reduction of noise emitted by or caused by vehicles;
(iii) standards for emission of air pollutants.
21. RESTRICTIONS ON USE OF CERTAIN INDUSTRIAL PLANTS.
1(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the previous consent of the

State Board, establish or operate any industrial plant in an air pollution control area :
Provided that a person operating any industrial plant in any air pollution control area immediately
before the commencement of Section 9 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Amendment Act, 1987, for which no consent was necessary prior to such commencement, may
continue to do so for a period of three months from such commencement or, if he has made an
application for such consent within the said period of three months, till the disposal of such
application.
(2) An application for consent of the State Board under sub-section (1) shall be accompanied by
such fees as may be prescribed and shall be made in the prescribed form and shall contain the
particulars of the industrial plant and such other particulars as may be prescribed :

69
Provided that where any person, immediately before the declaration of any area as an air pollution
control area, operates in such area any industrial plant 2such person shall make the application
under this sub-section within such period (being not less than three months from the date of such
declaration) as may be prescribed and where such person makes such application, he shall be
deemed to be operating such industrial plant with the consent of the State Board until the consent
applied for has been refused.
(3) The State Board may make such inquiry as it may deem fit in respect of the application for
consent referred to in sub-section (1) and in making any such inquiry, shall follow such procedure
as may be prescribed.
(4) Within a period of four months after the receipt of the application for consent referred to in sub-
section (1), the State Board shall, by order in writing, 3and for reasons to be recorded in the order,
grant the consent applied for subject to such conditions and for such period as may be specified in
the order, or refuse such consent :
4Provided that it shall be open to the State Board to cancel such consent before the expiry of the

period for which it is granted or refuse further consent after such expiry if the conditions subject to
which such consent has been granted are not fulfilled :
Provided further that before cancelling a consent or refusing a further consent under the first
proviso, a reasonable opportunity of being heard shall be given to the person concerned.
(5) Every person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under sub-section (4), shall
comply with the following conditions, namely :-
(i) The control equipment of such specifications as the State Board may approved in this behalf
shall be installed and operated in the premises where the industry is carried on or proposed to be
carried on :
(ii) The existing control equipment, if any, shall be altered or replaced in accordance with the
directions of the State Board;
(iii) The control equipment referred to in clause (i) or clause (ii) shall be kept at all times in good
running condition;
(iv) Chimney, wherever necessary, of such specifications as the State Board may approve in this
behalf shall be erected or re-erected in such premises;
(v) Such other conditions as the State Board may specify in this behalf; and
(vi) The conditions referred to in clauses (i), (ii) and (iv) shall be complied with within such period
as the State Board may specify in this behalf :
Provided that in the case of a person operating any industrial plant 5in an air pollution control area
immediately before the date of declaration of such area as an air pollution control area, the period
so specified shall not be less than six months :
Provided further that -
(a) After the installation of any control equipment in accordance with the specifications under
clause (i), or
(b) After the alteration or replacement of any control equipment in accordance with the directions of
the State Board under clause (ii), or
(c) After the erection or re-erection of any chimney under clause (iv), no control equipment or
chimney shall be altered or replaced or, as case may be, erected or re-erected except with the
previous approval of the State Board.
(6) If due to any technological improvement or otherwise the State Board is of opinion that all or
any of the conditions referred to in sub-section (5) require or requires variation (including the
change of any control equipment, either in whole or in part), the State Board shall, after giving the
person to whom consent has been granted an opportunity of being heard, vary all or any of such
conditions and thereupon such person shall be bound to comply with the conditions as so varied.
(7) Where a person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under sub-section (4)
transfers his interest in the industry to any other person, such consent shall be deemed to have been

70
granted to such other person and he shall be bound to comply with all the conditions subject to
which it was granted as if the consent was granted to him originally.
COMMENTS
Where a notification was issued under section 19(1) of the Act by the Central Government in
consultation with the Central Board placing the Union territory of Delhi within the control area of
air pollution, any plant if established has to take permission from the Central Board. In the present
case the Sriram Plants of Delhi fell under the schedule of the industries specified in the Act, and
had to obtain consent order under section 21 thereof. Accordingly if the Central Board at any stage
found that the conditions in the consent order relating to power plant were not complied with and
the particular matter emitted by the stacks of the boilers was more than 150 mg/Nm3 it could take
whatever action as was warranted by law; M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, (1986) 2 SCC 176.

22. PERSONS CARRYING ON INDUSTRY, ETC., NOT TO ALLOW EMISSION OF AIR

POLLUTANTS IN EXCESS OF THE STANDARDS LAID DOWN BY STATE BOARD.
No person 1[***]operating any industrial plant, in any air pollution control area shall discharge or
cause or permit to be discharged the emission of any air pollutant in excess of the standards laid
down by the State Board under clause (9) of sub-section (1) of Section 17.
COMMENTS
When polluting plant to be removed
It has been held that manufacturing of medicines by installing a boiler in a residential area which
causes emission of smoke is detrimental to the physical comfort and health of the public at large. In
such a case removal of factory ordered by the SDM was valid; Krishna Gopal v. State of Uttar
Pradesh, 1986 Cr LR 11 (MP).
Imposition of stringent conditions
The Supreme Court has held that since chlorine gas is dangerous to the life and health of the general
public after any leakage from a storage tank, cylinder or any other point during its production, the
health and welfare of the workers and public at large living in surrounding areas may be put to risk.
Accordingly the Foods & Fertilizer Industries were imposed stringent conditions to carry on such
production so that such an eventuality may be prevented; M.C. Mehta v. Union of India , AIR 1987
SC 965.
22A. POWER OF BOARD TO MAKE APPLICATION TO COURT FOR RESTRAINING
PERSONS FROM CAUSING AIR POLLUTION.
1 POWER OF BOARD TO MAKE APPLICATION TO COURT FOR RESTRAINING PERSONS

FROM CAUSING AIR POLLUTION.(1) Where it is apprehended by a Board that emission of any
air pollutant, in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board under clause (g) of sub-section
(1) of Section 17, is likely to occur by reason of any person operating an industrial plant or
otherwise in any air pollution control area, the Board may make an application to a court, not
inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the first class for restraining
such person from emitting such air pollutant.
(2) On receipt of the application under sub-section (1), the court may make such order as it deems
fit.
(3) Where under sub-section (2), the court makes an order restraining any person from discharging
or causing or permitting to be discharged the emission of any air pollutant, it may, in that order, -
(a) Direct such person to desist from taking such action as is likely to cause emission;
(b) Authorise the Board, if the direction under clause (a) is not complied with by the person to
whom such direction is issued, to implement the direction in such manner as may be specified by
the court.
(4) All expenses incurred by the Board in implementing the directions of the court under clause (b)
of sub-section (3) shall be recoverable from the person concerned as arrears of land revenue or of
public demand.

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23. FURNISHING OF INFORMATION TO STATE BOARD AND OTHER AGENCIES IN
CERTAIN CASES.
(1) Where in any area the emission of any 1air pollutant into the atmosphere in excess of the
standards laid down by the State Board occurs or is apprehended to occur due to accident or other
unforeseen act or event, the person in charge of the premises from where such emission occurs or is
apprehended to occur shall forthwith intimate the fact of such occurrence or the apprehension of
such occurrence to the State Board and to such authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.
(2) On receipt of information with respect to the fact or the apprehension of any occurrence of the
nature referred to in sub-section (1), whether through intimation under that sub-section or
otherwise, the State Board and the authorities or agencies shall, as early as practicable, cause such
remedial measures to be taken as are necessary to mitigate the emission of such air pollutants.

(3) Expenses, if any, incurred by the State Board, authority or agency with respect to the remedial
measures referred to in sub-section (2) together with interest (at such reasonable rate, as the State
Government may, by order, fix) from the date when a demand for the expenses is made until it is
paid, may be recovered by the Board, authority or agency from the person, concerned, as arrears of
land revenue, or of public demand.

COMMENTS
The measures envisaged in the Act are preventive in the case of industries yet to be established and
remedial in case of industries already in existence. The duty of the Board is to mitigate the emission
of air pollutants and action may be taken on violation thereof but the drastic measure of closing
down industry is neither warranted nor has the legal sanctity as paralysing the industry would
render a number of persons unemployed and the consequences may be more hazardous than air
pollution; Chaitanya Pulverising Industry v. Karnataka State Pollution Control Board, AIR 1987
Kant 82.
24. POWER OF ENTRY AND INSPECTION.
(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf
shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistance as he considers necessary,
any place -
(a) for the purpose of performing any of the functions of the State Board entrusted to him;
(b) for the purpose of determining whether and if so in what manner, any such functions are to be
performed or whether any provisions of this Act or the rules made there under or any notice, order,
direction or authorisation served, made, given or granted under this Act is being or has been
complied with;
(c) for the purpose of examining and testing any control equipment, industrial plant, record,
register, document or any other material object or for conducting a search of any place in which he
has reason to believe that an offence under this Act or the rules made there under has been or is
about to be committed and for seizing any such control equipment, industrial plant, record, register,
document or other material object if he has reasons to believe that it may furnish evidence of the
commission of an offence punishable under this Act or the rules made there under.
(2) Every person 1f1operating any control equipment or any industrial plant, in an air pollution
control area shall be bound to render all assistance to the person empowered by the State Board
under sub-section (1) for carrying out the functions under that sub-section and if he fails to do so
without any reasonable cause or excuse, he shall be guilty of an offence under this Act.
(3) If any person willfully delays or obstructs any person empowered by the State Board under sub-
section (1) in the discharge of his duties, he shall be guilty of an offence under this Act.
(4) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), or, in relation to the State
of Jammu and Kashmir, or any area in which that Code is not in force, the provisions of any
corresponding law in force in that State or area, shall, so far as may be, apply to any search or

72
seizure under this section as they apply to any search or seizure made under the authority of a
warrant issued under Section 94 of the said Code or, as the case may be, under the corresponding
provisions of the said law.
25. POWER TO OBTAIN INFORMATION.
For the purposes of carrying out the functions entrusted to it, the State Board or any officer
empowered by it in that behalf may call for any information (including information regarding the
types of air pollutants emitted into the atmosphere and the level of the emission of such air
pollutants) from the occupier or any other person carrying on any industry or operating any control
equipment or industrial plant and for the purpose of verifying the correctness of such information,
the State Board or such officer shall have the right to inspect the premises where such industry,
control equipment or industrial plant is being carried on or operated.
26. POWER TO TAKE SAMPLES OF AIR OR EMISSION AND PROCEDURE TO BE
FOLLOWED IN CONNECTION THEREWITH.
(1) A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take, for the
purpose of analysis, samples of air or emission from any chimney, flue or duct or any other outlet in
such manner as may be prescribed.
(2) The result of any analysis of a sample of emission taken under sub-section (1) shall be
admissible in evidence in any legal proceeding unless the provisions of sub-sections (3) and (4) are
complied with.
(3) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (4), when a sample of emission is taken for analysis
under sub-section (1), the person taking the sample shall -
(a) Serve on the occupier or his agent, a notice, then and there, in such form as may be prescribed,
of his intention to have it so analyzed;
(b) In the presence of the occupier or his agent, collect a sample of emission for analysis;
(c) Cause the sample to be placed in a container or containers which shall be marked and sealed and
shall also be singed both by the person taking the sample and the occupier or his agent;
(d) Send, without delay, the container or containers to the laboratory established or recognised by
the State Board under Section 17 or, if a request in that behalf is made by the occupier or his agent
when the notice is served on him under clause (a), to the laboratory established or specified under
sub-section (1) of Section 28.
(4) When a sample of emission is taken for analysis under sub-section (1) and the person taking the
sample serves on the occupier or his agent, a notice under clause (a) of sub-section (3), then -
(a) In a case where the occupier or his agent willfully absents himself, the person taking the sample
shall collect the sample of emission for analysis to be placed in a container or containers which
shall be marked and sealed and shall also be signed by the person taking the sample, and
(b) In a case where the occupier or his agent is present at the time of taking the sample but refuses
to sign the marked and sealed container or containers of the sample of emission as required under
clause (c) of sub-section (3), the marked and sealed container or containers shall be signed by the
person taking the sample, and the container or containers shall be sent without delay by the person
taking the sample for analysis to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section
(1) of Section 28 and such person shall inform the Government analyst appointed under sub-section
(1) of Section 29, in writing, about the willful absence of the occupier or his agent, or, as the case
may be, his refusal to sign the container or containers.
27. REPORTS OF THE RESULT OF ANALYSIS ON SAMPLES TAKEN UNDER
SECTION 26.
(1) Where a sample of emission has been sent for analysis to the laboratory established or
recognised by the State Board, the board analyst appointed under sub-section (2) of Section 29 shall
analyse the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of such analysis in triplicate to the
State Board.

73
(2) On receipt of the report under sub-section (1), one copy of the report shall be sent by the State
Board to the occupier or his agent referred to in Section 26, another copy shall be preserved for
production before the court in case any legal proceedings are taken against him and the other copy
shall be kept by the State Board.
(3) Where a sample has been sent for analysis under clause (d) of sub-section (3) or sub-section (4)
of Section 26 to any laboratory mentioned therein, the Government analyst referred to in the said
sub-section (4) shall analyst the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of the result of
the analysis in triplicate to the State Board which shall comply with the provisions of sub-section
(2).
(4) Any cost incurred in getting any sample analysed at the request of the occupier or his agent as
provided in clause (d) of sub-section (3) of Section 26 or when he willfully absents himself or
refuses to sign the marked and sealed container or containers of sample of emission under sub-
section (4) of other section, shall be payable by such occupier or his agent and in case of default the
same shall be recoverable from him as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
28. STATE AIR LABORATORY.
(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, -
(a) Establish one or more State Air Laboratories; or
(b) Specify one or more laboratories or institutes as State Air Laboratories to carry out the functions
entrusted to the State Air Laboratory under this Act.
(2) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, make rules prescribing -
(a) The functions of the State Air Laboratory;
(b) The procedure for the submission to the said Laboratory of samples of air or emission for
analysis or tests, the form of the Laboratory’s report thereon and the fees payable in respect of such
report;
(c) Such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that Laboratory to carry out its
functions.
29. ANALYSTS.
(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint such persons as it
thinks fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be Government analysts for the purpose of
analysis of samples of air or emission sent for analysis to any laboratory established or specified
under sub-section (1) of Section 28.
(2) Without prejudice to the provisions of Section 14, the State Board may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, and with the approval of the State Government, appoint such persons as it thinks
fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be Board analysts for the purpose of analysis of
samples of air or emission set for analysis to any laboratory established or recognised under Section
17.
30. REPORT OF ANALYSTS.
Any document purporting to be a report signed by a Government analyst or, as the case may be, a
State Board analyst may be used as evidence of the facts stated therein in any proceeding under this
Act.
31. APPEALS.
(1) Any person aggrieved by an order made by the State Board under this Act may, within thirty
days from the date on which the order is communicated to him, prefer an appeal to such authority
(hereinafter referred to as the Appellate Authority) as the State Government may think fit to
constitute :
Provided that the Appellate Authority may entertain the appeal after the expiry of the said period of
thirty days if such authority is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from
filling the appeal in time.
(2) The Appellate Authority shall consist of a single person or three persons as the State
Government may think fit to be appointed by the State Government.

74
 (3) The form and the manner in which an appeal may be preferred under sub-section (1), the fees
payable for such appeal and the procedure to be followed by the Appellate Authority shall be such
as may be prescribed.
(4) On receipt of an appeal preferred under sub-section (1), the Appellate Authority shall, after
giving the appellant and the State Board an opportunity of being heard, dispose of the appeal as
expeditiously as possible.
31A. POWER TO GIVE DIRECTIONS.
1POWER TO GIVE DIRECTIONS. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law, but

subject to the provisions of this Act and to any directions that the Central Government may give in
this behalf a Board may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue any directions in writing to any person, officer or authority, and such person, officer or
authority shall be bound to comply with such directions.
Explanation : For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions
under this section includes the power to direct -
(a) The closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or
(b) The stoppage or regulation of supply of electricity, water or any other service.
COMMENTS
The Powers under section 31A are in addition to section 17. Section 17 of the Act is not exhaustive,
therefore the general powers to issue directions were also conferred on the Board; Bihar State
Pollution Control Board v. Hiranand Stone Works, AIR 2005 Pat 62.
32. CONTRIBUTIONS BY CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.
The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law in this behalf,
make in each financial year such contributions to the State Boards as it may think necessary to
enable the State Boards to perform their functions under this Act :
Provided that nothing in this section shall apply to any 1State Pollution Control Board constituted
under Section 4 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), which is
empowered by that Act to expend money from its fund there under also for performing its
functions, under any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution.
33. FUND OF BOARD.
(1) Every State Board shall have its own fund for the purposes of this Act and all sums which may,
from time to time, be paid to it by the Central Government and all other receipts (by way of
contributions, if any, from the State Government, fees, gifts, grants, donations, benefactions or
otherwise) of that Board shall be carried to the fund of the Board and all payments by the Board
shall be made there from.
(2) Every State Board may expend such sums as it thinks fit for performing its functions under this
Act and such sums shall be treated as expenditure payable out of the fund of that Board.
(3) Nothing in this section shall apply to any 1[ State Pollution Control Board ] constituted under
Section 4 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), which is
empowered by that Act to expend money from its fund there under also for performing its
functions, under any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution.
33A. BORROWING POWERS OF BOARD.
1BORROWING POWERS OF BOARD.

A Board may, with the consent of, or in accordance with the terms of any general or special
authority given to it by, the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government,
borrow money from any source by way of loans, or issue of bonds, debentures or such other
instruments, as it may deem fit, for discharging all or any of its functions under this Act.

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34. BUDGET.
The Central Board or, as the case may be, the State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare,
in such form and at such time as may be prescribed, budget in respect of the financial year next
ensuing showing the estimated receipt and expenditure under this Act, and copies thereof shall be
forwarded to the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.
35. ANNUAL REPORT.
1(1) The Central Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such form as may be

prescribed, an annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous
financial year and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the Central Government within four months
from the last date of the previous financial year and that Government shall cause every such report
to be laid before both Houses of Parliament within nine months of the last date of the previous
financial year.
(2) Every State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such form as may be prescribed,
an annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous financial year
and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the State Government within four months from the last
date of the previous financial year and that Government shall cause every such report to be laid
before the State Legislature within a period of nine months from the last date of the previous
financial year.
36. ACCOUNTS AND AUDIT.
(1) Every Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, maintain proper accounts and other
relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by
the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.
(2) The accounts of the Board shall be audited by an auditor duly qualified to act as an auditor of
companies under Section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956 (1 of 1956).
(3) The said auditor shall be appointed by the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State
Government on the advice of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
(4) Every auditor appointed to audit the accounts of the Board under this Act, shall have the right to
demand the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers and other documents and papers
and to inspect any of the offices of the Board.
(5) Every such auditor shall send a copy of his report together with an audited copy of the accounts
to the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.
(6) The Central Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under sub-
section (5), cause the same to be laid before both Houses of Parliament.

(7) The State Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under sub-
section (5), cause the same to be laid before the State Legislature.
37. FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE PROVISIONS OF SECTION 21 OR SECTION 22
OR WITH THE DIRECTIONS ISSUED UNDER SECTION 31-A.
1 FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE PROVISIONS OF SECTION 21 OR SECTION 22 OR

WITH THE DIRECTIONS ISSUED UNDER SECTION 31-A.

(1) Whoever fails to comply with the provisions of Section 21 or Section 22 or directions issued
under Section 31-A, shall, in respect of each such failure, be punishable with imprisonment for a
term which shall not be less than one year and six months but which may extend to six years and
with fine, and in case the failure continues, with an additional fine which may extend to five
thousand rupees for every day during which such failure continues after the conviction for the first
such failure.

(2) If the failure referred to in sub-section (1) continues beyond a period of one year after the date
of conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less
than two years but which may extend to seven years and with fine.

76
38. PENALTIES FOR CERTAIN ACTS
Whoever -
(a) Destroys, pulls down, removes, injures or defaces any pillar, post or stake fixed in the ground or
any notice or other matter put up, inscribed or placed, by or under the authority of the Board, or
(b) Obstructs any person acting under the orders or directions of the Board from exercising his
powers and performing his functions under this Act, or
(c) Damages any works or property belonging to the Board, or
(d) Fails to furnish to the Board or any officer or other employee of the Board any information
required by the Board or such officer or other employee for the purpose of this Act, or
(e) Fails to intimate the occurrence of the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere in excess
of the standards laid down by the State Board or the apprehension of such occurrence, to the State
Board and other prescribed authorities or agencies as required under sub-section (1) of Section 23,
or
(f) In giving any information which he is required to give under this Act, makes a statement which
is false in any material particular, or
(g) For the purpose of obtaining any consent under Section 21, makes a statement which is false in
any material particular.
Shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with fine
which may extend to 1ten thousand rupees or with both.
39. PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF CERTAIN PROVISIONS OF THE ACT
1PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF CERTAIN PROVISIONS OF THE ACT

Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or any order or direction issued there under,
for which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this Act, shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten
thousand rupees or with both, and in the case of continuing contravention, with an additional fine
which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention continues
after conviction for the first such contravention.
40. OFFENCES BY COMPANIES.
(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who, at the
time the offence was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for
the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of
the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly :
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable to any
punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed without his
knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the
consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of any director, manager,
secretary or other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall be
deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and published
accordingly.
Explanation: For the purposes of this section, -
(a) “Company” means anybody corporate, and includes a firm or other association of individuals;
and
(b) “Director”, in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.
41. OFFENCES BY GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.
(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of Government, the
Head of the Department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence shall be liable to be proceeded
against and punished accordingly:

77
Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the Department liable to
any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he
exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a Department of Government and it is proved that the offence has been
committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any
officer, other than the Head of the Department, such officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that
offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
42. PROTECTION OF ACTION TAKEN IN GOOD FAITH.
No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Government or any officer of the
Government or any member or any officer or other employee of the Board in respect of anything
which is done or intended to be done in good faith in pursuance of this Act or the rules made there
under.

43. COGNIZANCE OF OFFENCES.

1COGNIZANCE OF OFFENCES.

(1) No Court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by -
(a) A Board or any officer authorised in this behalf by it; or
(b) Any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner prescribed, of the
alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint to the Board or officer authorised as
aforesaid.
and no court inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the first class
shall try any offence punishable under this Act.
(2) Were a complaint has been made under clause (b) of sub-section (1), the Board shall, on demand
by such person, make available the relevant reports in its possession to that person :
Provided that the Board may refuse to make any such report available to such person if the same is,
in its opinion, against the public interest.
44. MEMBERS, OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES OF BOARD TO BE PUBLIC SERVANTS.
All the members and all officers and other employees of a Board when acting or purporting to act in
pursuance of any of the provisions of this Act or the rules made there under shall be deemed to be
public servants within the meaning of Section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).
45. REPORTS AND RETURNS.
The Central Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, furnish to the Central
Government, and a State Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, furnish to the State
Government and to the Central Board such reports, returns, statistics, accounts and other
information as that Government, or, as the case may be, the Central Board may, from time to time,
require.
46. BAR OF JURISDICTION.
No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of any matter
which an Appellate Authority constituted under this Act is empowered by or under this Act to
determine, and no injunction shall be granted by any court to other authority in respect of any action
taken or to be taken in pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.
COMMENTS
In respect of any matter which an Appellate Authority is empowered, Civil Court has no
jurisdiction to entertain any suit and no injunction shall be granted in respect of any action taken or
to be taken by the Authority concerned; A.R. Ponnusamy v. Thoppalam, AIR 2004 Mad 147.
47. POWER OF STATE GOVERNMENT TO SUPERSEDE STATE BOARD.
(1) If at any time the State Government is of opinion -
(a) That a State Board constituted under this Act has persistently made default in the performance
of the functions imposed on it by or under this Act, or

78
(b) That circumstances exist which render it necessary in the public interest so to do,
The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, supersede the State Board for
such period, not exceeding six months, as may be specified in the notification :
Provided that before issuing a notification under this sub-section for the reasons mentioned in
clause (a), the State Government shall give a reasonable opportunity to the State Board to show
cause why it should not be superseded and shall consider the explanations and objections, if any, of
the State Board.
(2) Upon the publication of a notification under sub-section (1) superseding the State Board, -
(a) All the members shall, as from the date of suppression, vacate their offices as such;
(b) All the powers, functions and duties which may, by or under this Act, be exercised, performed
or discharged by the State Board shall, unit the State Board is reconstituted under sub-section (3),
be exercised, performed or discharged by such persons as the State Government may direct;
(c) All property owned or controlled by the State Board shall, until the Board is reconstituted under
sub-section (3), vest in the State Government.
(3) On the expiration of the period of suppression specified in the notification issued under sub-
section (1), the State Government may -
(a) Extend the period of suppression for such further term, not exceeding six months, as it may
consider necessary; or
(b) Reconstitute the State Board by a fresh nomination or appointment, as the case may be, and in
such case any person who vacated his office under clause (a) of sub-section (2) shall also be eligible
for nomination or appointment:
Provided that the State Government may at any time before the expiration of the period of
suppression, whether originally specified under sub-section (1) or as extended under this sub-
section, take action under clause (b) of this sub-section.
48. SPECIAL PROVISION IN THE CASE OF SUPPRESSION OF THE CENTRAL
BOARD OR THE STATE BOARDS CONSTITUTED UNDER THE WATER
(PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974.
Where the Central Board or any State Board constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1974, is superseded by the Central Government or the State Government, as the
case may be, under that Act, all the powers, functions and duties of the Central Board or such State
Board under this Act shall be exercised, performed or discharged during the period of such
suppression by the person or persons, exercising, performing or discharging the powers, functions
and duties of the Central Board or such State Board under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), during such period.
49. DISSOLUTION OF STATE BOARDS CONSTITUTED UNDER THE ACT.
(1) As and when the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), comes into
force in any State and the State Government constitutes a 1State Pollution Control Board under that
Act, the State Board constituted by the State Government under this Act shall stand dissolved and
the Board first-mentioned shall exercise the powers and perform the functions of the Board second-
mentioned in that State.
(2) On the dissolution of the State Board constituted under this Act, -

(a) All the members shall vacate their offices as such;

(b) All moneys and other property of whatever kind (including the fund of the State Board) owned
by, or vested in, the State-Board, immediately before such dissolution, shall stand transferred to and
vest in the [ 30 State Pollution Control Board 30 ];
(c) Every officer and other employee serving under the State Board immediately before such
dissolution shall be transferred to and becomes an officer or other employee of the 1State Pollution
Control Board and hold office by the same tenure and at the same remuneration and on the same
terms and conditions of service as he would have held the same if the State Board constituted under

79
this Act had not been dissolved and shall continue to do so unless and until such tenure,
remuneration and terms and conditions of service are duly altered by the State Pollution Control
Board :
Provided that the tenure, remuneration and terms and conditions of service of any such officer or
other employee shall not be altered to his disadvantage without the previous sanction of the State
Government;
(d) All liabilities and obligations of the State Board of whatever kind, immediately before such
dissolution, shall be deemed to be the liabilities or obligations, as the case may be, of the 1State
Pollution Control Board and any proceeding or cause of action, pending or existing immediately
before such dissolution by or against the State Board constituted under this Act in relation to such
liability or obligation may be continued and enforced by or against the State Pollution Control
Board.
(2) On the dissolution of the State Board constituted under this Act, -
(a) All the members shall vacate their offices as such;
(b) All moneys and other property of whatever kind (including the fund of the State Board) owned
by, or vested in, the State-Board, immediately before such dissolution, shall stand transferred to and
vest in the [ 30 State Pollution Control Board 30;
(c) Every officer and other employee serving under the State Board immediately before such
dissolution shall be transferred to and becomes an officer or other employee of the 1State Pollution
Control Board and hold office by the same tenure and at the same remuneration and on the same
terms and conditions of service as he would have held the same if the State Board constituted under
this Act had not been dissolved and shall continue to do so unless and until such tenure,
remuneration and terms and conditions of service are duly altered by the State Pollution Control
Board :
Provided that the tenure, remuneration and terms and conditions of service of any such officer or
other employee shall not be altered to his disadvantage without the previous sanction of the State
Government;
(d) All liabilities and obligations of the State Board of whatever kind, immediately before such
dissolution, shall be deemed to be the liabilities or obligations, as the case may be, of the 1State
Pollution Control Board and any proceeding or cause of action, pending or existing immediately
before such dissolution by or against the State Board constituted under this Act in relation to such
liability or obligation may be continued and enforced by or against the 1State Pollution Control
Board.
51. MAINTENANCE OF REGISTER.
(1) Every State Board shall maintain a register containing particulars of the persons to whom
consent has been granted under Section 21, the standards for emission laid down by it in relation to
each such consent and such other particulars as may be prescribed.
(2) The register maintained under sub-section (1) shall be open to inspection at all reasonable hours
by any person interested in or affected by such standards for emission or by any other person
authorised by such person in this behalf.
52. EFFECT OF OTHER LAWS.
Save as otherwise provided by or under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (33 of 1962), in relation to
radioactive air pollution the provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything
inconsistent therewith contained in any enactment other than this Act.
53. POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO MAKE RULE.
(1) The Central Government may, in consultation with the Central Board, by notification in the
Official Gazette, make rules in respect of the following matters, namely:-
(a) The intervals and the time and place at which meetings of the Central Board or any committee
thereof shall be held and the procedure to be followed at such meetings, including the quorum

80
necessary for the transaction of business thereat, under sub-section (1) of Section 10 and under sub-
section (2) of Section 11;
(b) The fees and allowances to be paid to the members of a committee of the Central Board, not
being members of the Board, under sub-section (3) of Section 11;
(c) The matter in which and the purposes for which persons may be associated with the Central
Board under sub-section (1) of Section 12;
(d) The fees and allowances to be paid under sub-section (3) of Section 12 to persons associated
with the Central Board under sub-section (1) of Section 12;
(e) The functions to be performed by the Central Board under clause (j) of sub-section (2) of
Section 16;
1(f) the form in which and the time within which the budget of the Central Board may be prepared

and forwarded to the Central Government under Section 34;

(ff) The form in which the annual report of the Central Board may be prepared under Section 35; 34
(g) The form in which the accounts of the Central Board may be maintained under sub-section (1)
of Section 36.
(2) Every rule made by the Central Government under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after
it is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days
which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the
expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both
Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or both House agree that the rule should not be
made, the rule shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case
may be; so, however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the
validity of anything previously done under that rule.
54. POWER OF STATE GOVERNMENT TO MAKE RULES.
(1) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (3), the State Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, make rules to carry out the purposes of this Act in respect of matters not falling
within the purview of Section 53.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matter, namely :-
1(a) The qualifications, knowledge and experience of scientific, engineering or management aspects

of pollution control required for appointment as member-secretary of a State Board constituted

under the Act; 35
2(aa) The terms and conditions of service of the Chairman and other members (other than the

member-secretary) of the State Board constituted under this Act under sub-section (7) of Section 7;
(b) The intervals and the time and place at which meetings of the State Board or any committee
thereof shall be held and the procedure to be followed at such meetings, including the quorum
necessary for the transaction of business thereat, under sub-section (1) of Section 10 and under sub-
section (2) of Section 11;
(c) The fees and allowances to be paid to the members of a committee of the State Board, not being
members of the Board under sub-section (3) of Section 11;
(d) The manner in which and the purposes for which persons may be associated with the State
Board under sub-section (1) of Section 12;
(e) The fees and allowances to be paid under sub-section (3) of Section 12 to persons associated
with the State Board under sub-section (1) of Section 12;
(f) The terms and conditions of service of the member-secretary of a State Board constituted under
this Act under sub-section (1) of Section 14;
(g) The powers and duties to be exercised and discharged by the member-secretary of a State Board
under sub-section (2) of Section 14;

81
(h) The conditions subject to which a State Board may appoint such officers and other employees as
it considers necessary for the efficient performance of its functions under sub-section (3) of Section
14;
(i) The conditions subject to which a State Board may appoint a consultant under sub-section (5) of
Section 14;
(j) The functions to be performed by the State Board under clause (i) of sub-section (1) of Section
17;
(k) The manner in which any area or areas may be declared as air pollution control area or areas
under sub-section (1) of Section 19;
(l) The form of application for the consent of the State Board, the fees payable therefore, the period
within which such application shall be made and the particulars it may contain, under sub-section
(2) of Section 21;
(m) The procedure to be followed in respect of an inquiry under sub-
section (3) of Section 21;
(n) The authorities or agencies to whom information under sub-section (1) of Section 28 shall be
furnished;
(o) The manner in which samples of air or emission may be taken under sub-section (1) of Section
26;
(p) The form of the notice referred to in sub-section (3) of Section 26;
(q) The form of the report of the State Board analyst under sub-section (1) of Section 27;
(r) The form of the report of the Government analyst under sub-section (3) of Section 27;
(s) The functions of the State Air Laboratory, the procedure for the submission to the said
Laboratory of samples of air emission for analysis or tests, the form of Laboratory’s report thereon,
the fees payable in respect of such report and other matters as may be necessary or expedient to
enable that Laboratory to carry out its functions, under sub-section (2) of Section 28;
(t) The qualifications required for Government analysts under sub-section (1) of Section 29;
(u) The qualifications required for State Board analysts under sub-section (2) of Section 29;
(v) The form and the manner in which appeals may be preferred, the fees payable in respect of such
appeals and the procedure to be followed by the Appellate Authority in disposing of the appeals
under sub-section (3) of Section 31;
3(w) The form in which and the time within which the budget of the State Board may be prepared

and forwarded to the State Government under Section 34;

(ww) The form in which the annual report of the State Board may be prepared under Section 35;
(x) The form in which the accounts of the State Board may be maintained under sub-section (1) of
Section 36;
4(xx) The manner in which notice of intention to make a complaint shall be given under Section 43

(y) The particulars which the register maintained under Section 51 may contain;
(z) Any other matter which has to be, or may be, prescribed.
(3) After the first constitution of the State Board, no rule with respect to any of the matters referred
to in sub-section (2) other than those referred to in clause (aa) thereof, shall be made, varied,
amended or repealed without consulting that Board.
THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
[29th March, 1981]
An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the establishment,
with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and assigning to
such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith.
WHEREAS decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Hum an Environment
held in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
preservation of the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, include the
preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution;

82
AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far as they
relate to the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution;
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-second Year of the Republic of India as follows :-
CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
1. Short title, extent and commencement.
(1) This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
(2) It extends to the whole of India.
(3) It shall come into force on such datel as the Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, appoint.
2. Definitions.
In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,-
(a) "air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance 2[(including noise)] present in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment;
(b) "air pollution" means the presence in the atmosphere of any air
(c) "approved appliances" means any equipment or gadget used for the bringing of any combustible
material or for generating or consuming any fume, gas of particulate matter and approved by the
State Board for the purpose of this Act;
(d) "approved fuel" means any fuel approved by the State Board for the purposes of this Act;
(e) "automobile" means any vehicle powered either by internal combustion engine or by any
method of generating power to drive such vehicle by burning fuel;
(f) "Board" means the Central Board or State Board;
(g) "Central Board- means the 3[Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution]
constituted under section 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
(h) "chimney" includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or through which any air
pollutant may be emitted,
(i) "control equipment" means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to control the quality
and manner of emission of any air pollutant and includes any device used for securing the efficient
operation of any industrial plant;
(j) "emission" means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney, duct or
flue or any other outlet;
(k) "industrial plant" means any plant used for any industrial or trade purposes and emitting any air
pollutant into the atmosphere;
(l) "member" means a member of the Central Board or a State Board, as the case may be, and
includes the Chairman thereof,
4[(m) "occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means the person who has control over the
affairs of the factory or the premises, and includes, in relation to any substance, the person in posse
ssion of the substance;]
(n) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act by the Central Government or as
the case may be, the State government;
(o) "State Board" mleans,-
(i) in relation to a State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, is in
force and the State Government has constituted for that State a 5[State Board for the Prevention and
Control of Water Pollution] under section 4 of that Act, the said State Board; and
(ii) in relation to any other State, the State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
constituted by the State Government under section 5 of this Act.
CHAPTER II
CENTRAL AND STATE BOARDS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF AIR
POLLUTION

83
6[3. Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution.
The Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution constituted under section 3 of
the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), shall, without prejudice to
the exercise and performance of its powers and functions under this Act, exercise the powers and
perform the functions of the Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under
this Act.
7[4. State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution to be, State Boards for the
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution.
In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), is in
force and the State Government has constituted for that State a State Board for the Prevention and
Control of Water Pollution under section 4 of that Act, such State Board shall be deemed to be the
State Board for the Prevention and Control of air Pollution constituted under section 5 of this Act
and accordingly that State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution shall, without
prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers and functions under that Act, exercise the
powers and perform the functions of the State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
under this Act.]
5. Constitution of State Boards.
(1) In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), is
not in force, or that Act is in force but the State Government has not constituted a 8[State Board for
the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution] under that Act, the State Government shall, with
effect from such date as it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State
Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under such name as may be specified in the
notification, to exercise the powers conferred on, and perform the functions assigned to, that Board
under this Act.
(2) A State Board constituted under this Act shall consist of the following members, namely:-
(a) a Chairman, being a person, having a person having special knowledge or practical experience
in respect of matters relating to environmental protection, to be nominated by the State
Government:
Provided that the Chairman my be either whole-time or part-time as the State Government may
think fit;
(b) such number of officials, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government to represent that government;
(c) such number of persons, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government from amongst the members of the local authorities functioning
within the State;
(d) such number of non-officials, not exceeding three, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government to represent the interest of agriculture, fishery or industry or
trade or labour or any other interest, which in the opinion of that government, ought to be
represented;
(e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned, controlled or managed by the
State Government, to be nominated by that Government;
9[(f) a full-time member-secretary having such qualifications knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control as may be prescribed, to be
appointed by the State Governments
Provided that the State Government shall ensure that not less than two of the members are persons
having special knowledge or practical experience in, respect of matters relating to the improvement
of the quality of air or the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.
(3) Every State Board constituted under this Act shall be a body corporate with the name specified
by the State Government in the notification issued under sub-section (1), having perpetual

84
succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire and
dispose of property and to contract, and may by the said name sue or be sued.
6. Central Board to exercise the powers and perform die functions of a State Board in the Union
territories:
No State Board shall be constituted for a Union territory and in relation to -a Union territory, the
Central Board shall exercise the powers and perform the functions of a State Board under this Act
for that Union territory
Provided that in relation to any Union territory the Central Board may delegate all or any of its
powers and functions under this section to such person or body of persons as the Central
Government may specify.
7. Terms and conditions of service of members.
(1) Save as otherwise provided by or under this Act, a member of a State Board constituted under
this Act, other than the member-secretary, shall hold office for a term of three years from the date
on which his nomination is notified in the Official Gazette:
Provided that a member shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office
until his successor enters upon his office.
(2) The terms of office of a member of a State Board constituted under this Act and nominated
under clause (b) or clause (e) of sub-section (2) of section 5 shall come to an end as soon as he
ceases to hold the office under the State Government as the case may be, the company or
corporation owned, controlled or managed by the State Government, by virtue of which he was
nominated.

(3) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act, other than the member- secretary, may at
any time resign his office by writing under his hand addressed,-
(a) in the case of the Chairman, to the State Government; and
(b) in any other case, to the Chairman of the State Board, and the seat of be Chairman or such other
member shall thereupon become vacant.
(4) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act, other than the member-secretary, shall be
deemed to have vacated his scat, if he is absent without reason, sufficient in the opinion of the State
Board, from three consecutive meetings of the State Board or where he is nominated under clause
(c) of subsection (2) of section 5, he ceases to be a member of the local authority and such vacation
of scat shall, in either case, take effect from such as the State Government may, by notification in
the Official Gazette, specify.

(5) A casual vacancy in a State Board constituted under this Act shall be filled by a fresh
nomination and the person nominated to fill the vacancy shall hold office only for the remainder of
die term for which the member whose place lie takes was nominated.
(6) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act shall be eligible for re-nomination
10*****
(7) The other terms and conditions of service of the Chairman and other members (except the
member-secretary) of a State Board constituted under this Act shall be such as may be prescribed.
8. Disqualifications.
(1) No person shall be a member of a State Board constituted under this
(a) is, or at any time has been, adjudged insolvent, or
(b) is of unsound mind and has been so declared by a competent court,
(c) is, or has been, convicted of an offence which, in the opinion of the State Government, involves
moral turpitude, or
(d) is, or at any time has been, convicted of an offence under this Act,
(e) has directly or indirectly by himself on by any partner.. any share or interest in any Finn or
company carrying on the business of manufacture, sale, or hire of machinery, industrial plant,

85
c6ntrol equipment or any other apparatus for the improvement of the quality of air or for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution, or
(f) is a director or a secretary, manager or other salaried officer or employee of any company or
firm having any contract with the Board, or with the Government constituting the Board or with a
local authority in the State, or with a company or corporation owned, controlled or managed by the
Government, for the carrying out of programmes for the improvement of the quality of air or for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution, or
(g) has so abused, in the opinion Of the State Government, his position as a member, as to render
his continuance on the State Board detrimental to the interest of the general public.
(2) The State Government shall, by order in writing, remove any member who is, or has become,
subject to any disqualification mentioned in sub-section M.
Provided that no order of removal shall be made by the State Government under this section unless
the member concerned has been given a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the same.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section ( 1) or sub-section (6) of section 7, a
member who has been removed under this section shall not be eligible to continue to hold office
until his successor enters upon his office, or, as the case may be, for re-nomination as a member.

9. Vacation of seats by members.

If a member of a State Board constituted under this Act becomes subject to any of the
disqualifications specified in section 8, his seat shall become vacant.

10. Meetings-of Board.

(1) For the purposes of this Act, a Board shall meet at least once in every three months and shall
observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings as may be
prescribed:
Provided that it, in the opinion of the Chairman, any business of an urgent nature is to be transacted,
he may convene a meeting of the Board at such time as he thinks fit for the aforesaid purpose.
(2) Copies of minutes of the meetings under sub-section (1) shall be forwarded to the Central Board
and to the State Government concerned.
11. Constitution -of committees.
(1) A Board may constitute as many committees consisting wholly of members or partly of
members and partly of other persons and for such purpose or purposes as it may think fit.

(2) A committee constituted under this section shall meet at such time and at such place, and shall
observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings, as may be
prescribed.
(3) The members of a committee other than the members of the Board shall be paid such fees and
allowances, for attending its meetings and for attending to any other work of the Board as may be
prescribed.
12. Temporary association of persons with Board for particular purposes.
(1) A Board may associate with itself in such manner, and for such purposes, as may be prescribed,
any person whose assistance or advice it may desire to obtain in performing any of its functions
under this Act.
(2) A person associated with the Board under sub-section (1) for any purpose shall have a right to
take part in the discussions of the Board relevant to that purpose, but shall riot have a tight to vote
at a meetings of the Board and shall not be a member of the Board for any other purpose.
(3) A person associated with a Board under sub-section (1) shall be entitled to receive such fees and
allowances as may be prescribed.
13. Vacancy in Board not to invalidate acts or proceedings.

86
No act or proceeding of a Board or any committee thereof shall be called in question on the ground
merely of the existence of any vacancy in or any defect in the constitution of, the Board or such
committee, as the case may be.
14. Member-secretary and officers and other employees of State Boards.
(1) The terms and conditions of service of the member-secretary of a State Board constituted under
this Act shall be such as may be prescribed.
11[(2) The member-secretary of a State Board, whether constituted under this Act or not, shall
exercise such powers and perform such duties as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time,
be delegated to him by the State Board or its Chairman.]
(3) subject to such rules as may be made by the State Government in this behalf, a State Board,
whether constituted under this Act or not, may appoint such officers and other employees as it
considers necessary for the efficient performance of its functions under this Act.
(4) The method of appointment, the conditions of service and the scale of pay of the officers (other
than the member-secretary) and other employees of a State Board appointed under sub-section (3)
shall be such as may be determined by regulations made by the State Board under this Act.
(5) Subject to such conditions as may be prescribed, a State Board constituted under this Act may
from time to time appoint any qualified person to be a consultant to the Board and pay him such
salary and allowances or fees, as it thinks fit.
15. Delegation of powers
A State Board may, by general or special order, delegate to t1he Chairman or the member-secretary
or any other officer of the Board subject to such conditions and limitations, if any. as may be
specified in the order, such of its powers and functions under this Act as It may deem necessary.
CHAPTER III
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF BOARDS

16. Functions of Central Board.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance, of its functions
under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, IL974 (6 of 1974), the main functions of
the Central Board shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution
in the country.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing functions, the Central
Board may-
(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air
and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(b) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
(c) co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them;
(d) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
12[(dd) perform such of the function of any State Board as may, be specified in and order made
under sub-section (2) of section 18;]
(e) plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central Board
may specify;
(f) organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(g) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the
measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and prepare manuals, codes or
guides relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

87
(h) lay down standards for the quality of air.,
(i) collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution;(j) perform
such other functions as may be prescribed.
(3) The Central Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Central
Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently.
(4) The Central Board may-
(a) delegate any of its functions under this Act generally or specially to any of the committees
appointed by it;
(b) do such other things and perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper
discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes Of this
Act.
17. Functions of State Boards.
(1) subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its functions, if
any, under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (Act 6 of 1974), the functions
of a State Board shall be-
(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and
to secure the execution thereof-,
(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;
(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution;
(d) to collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged or to be
engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to organise
mass-education programme relating thereto;
(e) to inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing
process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider necessary to take
steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(f) to inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in such
areas;
(g) to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for the
quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the
atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft:
Provided that different standards for emission may be laid down under this clause for different
industrial plants having regard to the quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere from such industrial plants;
(h) to advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location for
carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;
(i) to Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be entrusted
to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
(j) to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper
discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of this
Act.
(2) A State Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the State Board
to perform its functions under this section efficiently.
18. Power to give directions.
13[(]) In the performance of its functions under this Act-
(a) the Central Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Government may
give to it; and

88
(b) every State Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Board or the State
Government may give to it:
Provided that where a direction given by the State Government is inconsistent with the direction
given by the Central Board, the matter shall be referred to the Central Government for its decision.
14[(2) Where the Central Government is of the opinion that any State Board has defaulted in
complying with any directions given by the Central Board under sub-section (1) and as a result of
such default a grave emergency has arisen and it is necessary or expedient so to do in the public
interest, it m4y, by order, direct the Central Board to perform any of the functions of the State
Board in relation to such area, for such period and for such purposes, as may be specified in the
order.
(3) Where the Central Board performs any of the functions of the State Board in pursuance of a
direction under sub-section (2), the expenses, if any incurred by the Central Board with respect to
the performance of such functions may, if the State Board is empowered to recover such expenses,
be recovered by the Central Board with interest (at such reasonable rate as the Central Government
may, by order, fix) from the date when a demand for such expenses is made until it is paid from the
person or persons concerned as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
(4) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that any directions to perform the functions of
any State Board given under sub-section (2) in respect of any area would not preclude the State
Board from performing such functions in any other area in the State or any of its other functions'in
that area.]
CHAPTER IV
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
19. Power to declare air pollution control areas,
(1) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the
Official Gazette declare in such manner as may be prescribed, any area or areas within the State as
air pollution control area or areas for the purposes of this Act.
(2) The State government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the
Official Gazette,-
(a) alter any air pollution control area whether by way of extension or reduction ;
(b) declare a new air pollution control area in which may be merged one or more existing air
pollution control areas or any part or parts thereof.
(3) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion that the use of any
fuel, other than an approved fuel, in any air pollution control area or part thereof, may cause or is
likely to cause air pollution, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, prohibit the use of such
fuel in such area or part thereof with effect from such date (being not less than three months from
the date of publication of the notification) as may be specified in the notification.
(4) The State Government may, after consultation with the Sate Board, by notification in the
Official Gazette, direct that with effect fr6m such date as may be specified therein, no appliance,
other than an approved appliance, shall be used in the premises situated in an air pollution control
area :
Provided that different dates may be specified for different parts of an air pollution control area or
for the use of different appliances.
(5) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion that the burning
of any material (not being fuel) in any air pollution control area or part thereof may cause or is
likely to cause air pollution, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, prohibit the burning of
such material in such area or part thereof.
20. Power to give instructions for ensuring standards for emission from automobiles.
With a view to ensuring that the standards for emission of air pollutants from automobiles laid
down by the State Board tinder clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 17 are complied with, the
State Government shall, in consultation with the State Board, give such instructions as may be

89
deemed necessary to the concerned authority in charge of registration of motor vehicles under the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 (Act 4 of 1939), and such authority shall, notwithstanding anything
contained in that Act or the rules made thereunder be bound to comply with such instructions.
21. Restrictions on use of certain industrial plants.
15[(/) Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the previous consent of the
State Board, establish or operate any industrial plant in an air pollution control area :
Provided that a person operating any industrial plant in any air pollution control area, immediately
before the commencement of section 9 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment
Act, 1987, for which no consent was necessary prior to such commencement, may continue to do so
for a period of three months from such commencement or, if he has made an application for such
consent within the said period of three months, till the disposal of such application.]
(2) An application for consent of the State Board under sub-section (1) shall be accompanied by
such fees as may bc prescribed 'and shall be made in the prescribed form and shall contain the
particulars of the industrial plant and such other particulars as may be prescribed :
Provided that where any person, immediately before the declaration of any area as an air pollution
control area, operates in such area any industrial plant, 16*** such person shall make the
application under this sub-section within such period (being not less than three months from the
date of such declaration) as may be prescribed and where such person makes such application, he
shall be deemed to be operating such industrial plant with the consent of the State Board until the
consent applied for has been refused,
(3) The State Board may make such inquiry as it may deem fit in respect of the application for
consent referred to in sub-section (1) and in making any such inquiry, shall follow such procedure
as may be prescribed.
(4) Within a period of four months after the receipt of the application for consent referred to in sub-
section (1), the State Board shall, by order in writing, 17[and for reasons to be recorded in the order,
grant the consent applied for subject to such conditions and for such period as may be specified in
the order, or refuse consent:]
18[Provided that it shall be open to the State Board to cancel such consent before the expiry of the
period for which it is granted or refuse further consent after such expiry if the conditions subject to
which such consent has been granted are not fulfilled:
Provided further that before cancelling a consent or refusing a further consent under the first
provision, a reasonable opportunity of being heared shall be given to the person concerned.]
(5) Every person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under sub-section (4), shall
comply with the following conditions, namely -
(i) the control equipment of such specifications as the State Board may approve in this behalf shall
be installed and operated in the premises where the industry is carried on or proposed to be carried
on;
(ii) the existing control equipment, if any, shall be altered or replaced in accordance with the
directions of the State Board;
(iii) the control equipment referred to in clause (i) or clause (ii) shall be kept at all times in good
running condition;
(iv) chimney, wherever necessary, of such specifications as the State Board may approve in this
behalf shall be erected or re-erected in such premises; .and
(v) such other conditions as the State Board, may specify in this behalf,
(vi) the conditions referred to in clauses (i), (ii) and (iv) shall be complied with within such period
as the State Board may specify in this behalf-
Provided that in the case of a person operating any industrial plant 19*** in an air pollution control
area immediately before the date of declaration of such area as an air pollution control area, the
period so specified shall not be less than six months :
Provided further that-

90
(a) after the installation of any control equipment in accordance with the specifications under clause
(i), or
(b) after the alteration or replacement of any control equipment in accordance with the directions of
the State Board under clause (ii), or
(c) after the erection or re-erection of any chimney under clause (iv), no control equipment or
chimney shall be altered or replaced or, as the case may be, erected or re-created except with the
previous approval of the State Board.
(6) If due to any technological improvement or otherwise the State Board is of opinion that all or
any of the conditions referred to in sub-section (5) require or requires variation (including the
change of any control equipment, either in whole or in part), the State Board shall, after giving the
person to whom consent has been granted an opportunity of being heard, vary all or any of such
conditions and thereupon such person shall be bound to comply with the conditions as so varied.
(7) Where a person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under sub-section (4)
transfers his interest in the industry to any other person, such consent shall be deemed to have been
granted to such other person and he shall be bound to comply with all the conditions subject to
which it was granted as if the consent was granted to him originally.
22. Persons carrying on industry, etc., and to allow emission of air pollutants in excess of the
standard laid down by State Board.
No person 20**** operating any industrial plant, in any air pollution control area shall discharge or
cause or permit to be discharged the emission of any air pollutant in excess of the standards laid
down by the State Board under clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 17.
21[22A. Power of Board to make application to court for restraining person from causing air
pollution.
(1) Where it is apprehended by a Board that emission of any air pollutant, in excess of the standards
laid down by the State Board under clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 17, is likely to occur by
reason of any person operating an industrial plant or otherwise in any air pollution control area, the
Board may make an application to a court, not inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a
Judicial Magistrate of the first class for restraining such person from emitting such air pollutant.
(2) On receipt of the application under sub-section (1), the court may make such order as it deems
fit.
(3) Where under sub-section (2), the court makes an order restraining any person from discharging
or causing or permitting to be discharged the emission of any air pollutant, it may, in that order,-
(a) direct such person to desist from taking such action as is likely to cause emission;
(b) authorise the Board, if the direction under clause (a) is no , t complied with by the person to
whom such direction is issued, to implement the direction in such manner as may be specified by
the court.
(4) All expenses incurred by the Board in implementing the &ections of the court under clause (b)
of sub-section (3) sl)all be recoverable from the person concerned as an-ears of land revenue or of
public demand.
23. Furnishing, of information to State Board and other agencies in certain cases.
(1) Where in any 22*** area the emission of any air pollutant into the atmosphere in excess of the
standards laid down by the State Board occurs or is apprehended to occur due to accident or other
unforeseen act or event, the person in charge of the premises from where which emission occurs or
is apprehended to occur shall forthwith intimate the fact of such occurrence or the apprehension of
such occurrence to the State Board and to such authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.
(2) On receipt of information with respect to the fact or the apprehension of any occurrence of the
nature referred to in sub-section (1), whether through intimation under that sub-section or
otherwise, the State Board and the authorities or agencies shall, as early as practicable, cause such
remedial measure to be I aken as are necessary to mitigate the emission of such air pollutants.

91
(3) Expenses, if any, incurred by the State Board, authority or agency with respect to the remedial
measures referred to in sub-section (2) together with interest ("t such reasonable rate, as the State
Government may, by order, fix) from the date when a demand for the expenses is made until it is
paid, may be recovered by that Board, authority or agency from the person concerned, as arrears of
land revenue, or of public demand.
24. Power of entry and inspection.
(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf
shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistance as he considers necessary,
any place---
(a) for the purpose of performing any of the functions of the State Board entrusted to him :
(b) for the purpose of determining whether and if so in what manner, any such functions are to be
performed or whether any provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder or any notice, order,
direction or authorisation served, made, given or granted under this Act is being or has been
complied with;
(c) for the purpose of examining and testing any control equipment, industrial plant, record,
register, document or any other material object or for conducting a search of any place in which he
has reason to believe that an offence under this Act or the rules made has been or is being or is
about to be committed and for seizing any such control equipment, industrial plant, record, register,
document or other material object if he has reasons to believe that it may furnish evidence of the
commission of an offence punishable under this Act or the rules made thereunder.
(2) Every person 23*** operating any control equipment or any industrial plant, in an air pollution
control area shall be bound to render all assistance to the person empowered by the State Board
under sub-section (1) for carrying out the functions under that sub-section and if he fails to do so
without any reasonable cause or excuse, he shall be guilty of an offence under this Act.
(3) If any person willfully delays or obstructs any person empowered by the State Board under sub-
section (1) in the discharge of his duties, he shall be guilty of an offence under this Act.
(4) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, or, in relation to the State of Jammu
and Kashmir, or any area, in which that Code is not in force, the provisions of any corresponding
law in force in that State or area, shall, so far as may be, apply to any search or seizure under this
section as they apply to any search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued under
section 94 of the said Code or, as the case may be, under the corresponding provisions of the said
law.
25. Power to obtain information.
For the purposes of carrying out the functions entrusted to it, the State Board or any officer
empowered by it in Ns behalf may call for any information (including information regarding the
types of air pollutants emitted into the atmosphere and the level of the emission of such air
pollutants) from the occupier or any other person carrying oil any industry or operating any control
equipment or industrial plant and for the purpose of verifying the correctness of such information,
the State Board or such officer shall have the right to inspect the premises where such industry,
control equipment or industrial plant is being carried on or operated.
26. Power to take samples of air or emission and procedure to be followed in connection therewith.
(1) A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take, for the
purpose of analysis, samples of air or emission from any chimney, flue or duct or any other outlet in
such manner as may be prescribed.
(2) The result of any analysis of a sample of emission taken under subsection (1) shall not be
admissible in evidence in any legal proceeding unless the provisions of sub-sections (3) and (4) are
complied with.
(3) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (4), when a sample of emission is taken for analysis
under sub-section (1), the person taking the sample shall-

92
(a) serve on the occupier or his agent, a notice, then and there, in such form as may be prescribed,
of his intention to have it so analysed;
(b) in the presence of the occupier or his agent, collect a sample of emission for analysis;
(c) cause the sample to be placed in a container or containers which shall be marked and sealed and
shall also be signed both by the person taking the sample and the occupier or his agent;
(d) send, without delay, the container to the laboratory established or recognised by the State Board
under section 17 or, if a request in that behalf is made by the occupier or his agent when the notice
is served on him under clause (a), to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section (1) of
section 28.
(4) When a sample of emission is taken for analysis under sub-section (1) and the person taking the
sample serves on the occupier or his agent, a notice under clause (a) of sub-section (3), then,-
(a) in a case where the occupier or his agent willfully absents himself, the person taking the sample
shall collect the sample of emission for analysis to be placed in a container or containers which
shall be marked and sealed and shall also be signed by the person taking the sample, and
(b) in a case where the occupier or his agent is present at the time of taking the sample but refuses
to sign the marked and scaled container or containers of the sample of emission as required under
clause (c) of subsection (3), the marked and sealed container or containers shall be signed by the
person taking the sample,
and the container or containers shall be sent without delay by the person 'Caking the sample for
analysis to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section (7) of section 28 and such
person shall inform the Government analyst appointed under sub-section (1) of section 29, in
writing, about the wilfull absence of the occupier or his agent, or, as the case may be, his refusal to
sing the container or containers.
27. Reports of the result of analysis on samples taken under section 26.
(1) Where a sample of emission has been sent for analysis to the laboratory established or
recognised by the State Board, the Board analyst appointed under sub-section (2) of section 29 shall
analyse the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of such analysis in triplicate to the
State Board.
(2) On receipt of the report under sub-section (1), one copy of the report shall be sent by the State
Board to the occupier or his agent referred to in section 26, another copy shall be preserved for
production before the court in case any legal proceedings are taken against him and the other copy
shall be kept by the State Board.
(3) Where a sample has been sent for analysis under clause (a~ of sub-section (3) or sub-section (4)
of section 26 to any laboratory mentioned therein, the Government analyst referred to in the said
sub-section (4) shall analyse the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of the result of
the analysis in triplicate to the State Board which shall comply with the provisions of sub-section
(2).
(4) Any cost incurred in getting any sample analysed at the request of the occupier or his agent as
provided in clause (d) of sub-section (3) of section 26 or when he wilfully absents himself or
refuses to sing the marked and scaled container or containers of sample of emission under sub-
section (4) of that section, shall be payable by such occupier or his agent and in case of default the
same shall be recoverable from him as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
28. State Air Laboratory.
(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,-
(a) establish one or more State Air Laboratories; or
(b) specify one or more laboratories or institutes as State Air Laboratories to carry out the functions
entrusted to the State Air Laboratory under this Act.
(2) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, make rules prescribing-
(a) the functions of the State Air Laboratory;

93
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said Laboratory of samples of air or emission for
analysis or tests, the form of the Laboratory's report thereon and the fees payable in respect of such
report;
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that Laboratory to carry out its
functions.
29. Analysis.
(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint such persons as it
thinks fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be government analysts for the purpose of
analysis of samples of air or emission sent for analysis to any laboratory established or specified
under sub-section (1) of section 28.
(2) Without prejudice to the provisions of section 14, the State Board may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, and with the approval of the State Government, appoint such persons as it thinks
fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be Board analysts for the purpose of analysis of
samples of air or emission sent for analysis to any laboratory established or recognised under
section 17.
30. Reports of analysis.
Any document purporting to be a report signed by a Government analyst or, as the case may be, a
Statc Board analyst may be used as evidence of the facts stated therein in any proceeding under this
Act.
31. Appeals,
(1) Any person aggrieved by an order made by the State Board under this Act may, within thirty
day from the date on which the order is communicated to him, prefer an appeal to such authority
(hereinafter referred to as the Appellate Authority) as the State government may think fit to
constitute :
Provided that the Appellate Authority may entertain the appeal after tile expiry of the said period of
thirty days if such authority is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from
filing the appeal in time.
(2). The Appellate Authority shall consist of a single person or three persons as the State
Government may think fit to be appoint by the State Government.
(3) The form and the manner in which an appeal may be preferred under subsection (1), the fees
payable for such appeal and the procedure to be followed by the Appellate Authority shall be such
as may be prescribed.
(4) On receipt of an appeal preferred under sub-section (1), the Appellate Authority shall, after
giving the appellant and the State Board an opportunity of being heard, dispose of the appeal as
expeditiously as possible.
24[31A. Power to give directions
Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law, im. subject to the provisions of this Act, and
to any directions that the Central Government may give in this behalf, a Board may, in the exercise
of its powers and performance of its functions under this Act, issue any directions in writing to any
person, officer or authority, and such person, officer or authority shall be bound to comply with
such directions.
Explanation.-For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that tile power to issue directions
under this section, includes the power to direct-
(a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or
(b) the stoppage or regulation of supply of electricity, water or any other service.]
CHAPTER V
FUND, ACCOUNTS AND AUDIT
32. Contribution by Central Government.

94
The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law in this behalf
make in each financial year such contributions to the State Boards as it may think necessary to
enable the State Board to perform their functions under this Act:
Provided that noting in this section shall apply to any 25[State Board for the Prevention and Control
of water Pollution] constituted under section 4 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974, which is empowered by that Act to expend money from its fund thereunder also for.
performing its functions, under any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution.
33. Fund of Board.
(1) Every State Board shall have its own fund for the purposes of this Act and all sums which may,
from time to time, be paid to it by the *Central Government and all other receipts (by way of
contributions, if any, from the State Government, fees, gifts, grants, donations benefactions or
otherwise) of that Board shall be carried to the fund of the Board and all payments by the Board
shall be made therefrom.
(2) Every State Board may expend such sums as it thinks fit for performing its functions under this
Act and such sums shall be treated as expenditure payable out of the fund of that Board.
(3) Nothing in this section shall apply to any 25[State Board for the Prevention and Control of
Water Pollution] constituted under section 4 of the Water -(Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974, which is empowered by that Act to expend money from its fund thereunder also for
performing its functions under any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention.,
control or abatement of air pollution.
33A. Borrowing powers of Board.
A Board may, with the consent of, or in accordance with the terms of any general or special
authority given to it by, the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government,
borrow money from any source by way of loans or issue of bonds, debentures or such other
instruments, as it may deem fit, for discharging all or any of its functions under this Act.]
34. Buduct.
The Central Board or as the case may be the State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare,
in such form and at such time as may be prescribed, a budget in respect of the financial year next
ensuing showing the estimated receipt and expenditure under this Act, and copies thereof shall be
forwarded to the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.
35. Annual report.
(1) The Central Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such form as may be prescribed,
an annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous financial year
and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the Central Government within four months from the last
date of the previous financial year and that Goverriment shall cause every such report to be laid
before both Houses of Parliament within nine months of the last date of the previous financial year.
(2) Every State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such fort-n as may be prescribed,
an annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous financial year
and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the State Government within four months from the last
date of the previous financial year and that Government shall cause every such report to be laid
before the State Legislature within a period of nine months from the date of the previous financial
year.)
36. Accounts and audit.
(1) Every Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, maintain proper accounts and other
relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by
the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.
(2) The accounts of the Board shall be audited by an auditor duly qualified to act as an auditor of
companies under section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956.

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(3) The said auditor shall be appointed by the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State
Government on the advice of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
(4) Every auditor appointed to audit the accounts of the Board under this Act shall have the right to
demand the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers and other documents and papers
and to inspect any of the offices of the Board.
(5) Every such auditor shall send a copy of his report together with an audited copy of the accounts
to the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.
(6) The Central Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under sub-
section (5), cause the same to be laid before both Houses of Parliament.
(7) The State Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under sub-
section (5), cause the same to be laid before the State Legislature.
CHAPTER VI
PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE
28[37. Failure to comply with the provisions of section 21 or section 22 or with the directions
issued under section 31A.
(1) whoever fails to comply with the provisions of section 21 or section 22 or directions issued
under section 3 1 A, shall, in respect of each such failure, be punishable with imprisonment for a
terms which shall not be less than one year and six months but which may extend to six years and
with fine, and in case the failure continues, with an additional fine which may extend to five
thousand rupees for every day during which such failure continues after the conviction for the first
such failure.
(2) If the failure referred to in sub-section (1) continues beyond a period of one year after the date
of conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less
than two years but which may extend to seven years and with fine.
38. Penalties for certain acts.
Whoever-
(a) destroys, pulls down, removes, injures or defaces any pillar, post or stake fixed in the ground or
any notice or other matter put up, incsribed or placed, by or under the authority of the Board, or
(b) obstructs any person acting under the orders or directions of the Board from exercising his
powers and performing his functions under this Act, or
(c) damages any works or property belonging to the Board, or
(d) fails to furnish to the Board or any officer or other employee of the Board any information
required by the Board or such officer or other employee for the purpose of this Act, or
(e) fails to intimate the occurrence of the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere in excess of
the standards laid down by the State Board or the apprehension of such occurrence, to the State
Board and other prescribed authorities or agencies as required under sub-section (1) of section 23,
or
(f) in giving any information which he is required to give under this Act, makes a statement which
is false in any material particular, or
(g) for the purpose of obtaining any consent under section 21, makes a statement which is false in
any material particular shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three
months or with fine which may extend to 29[ten thousand rupees] or with both.
39. Penalty for contravention of provisions of the Act.
Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or any order or direction issued thereunder,
for which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this Act, shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten
thousand rupees or with both, and in the case of continuing contravention, with an additional fine
which may extend to five thousand, rupees for every day during which such contravention
continues after conviction for the first such contravention.)
40. Offences by companies.

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(1) Where an offence under this Act has , been committed by a company, every person who, at the
time the offence was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for
the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of
the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable to any
punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed without his
knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has ben committed with the consent
or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or
other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed
to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
Explanation.-For the purpose of this section,-
(a) "company" means any body corporate, and includes a firin or other association of individuals;
and
(b) "director", in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.
41. Offences by Government Departments.
(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of Government, the
Head of the Department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be
proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the Department liable to
any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he
exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a Department of Government and it is proved that the offence has been
committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any
officer, other than the Head of the Department, such officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that
offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly. ,
42. Protection of action taken in good faith
No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Goverwnent er any officer of the
Government or any member or any officer or other employee of the Board in respect of anything
which is done or intended to be done in good faith in pursuance of Otis Act or the rules made
thereunder.
31[43. Cognizance of offences
(1) No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by-
(a) a Board or any officer authorised in this behalf by it; or
(b) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner prescribed, of the
alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint to the Board or officer authorised as
aforesaid, and no court inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the
first class shall try any offence punishable under this Act.
(2) Where a complaint has been made under clause (b) of sub-section (1), the
Board shall, on demand by such person, make available the relevant reports in its possession to that
person:
Provided that the Board may refuse to make any such report available to such person if the same is,
in its opinion, against the public interest.]
44. Members, officers and employees of Board to be public servants.
All the members and all officers and other employees of a Board when acting or purporting to act in
pursuance of any of the provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder shall be deemed to be
public servant within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).
45. Reports and returns.

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The Central Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, furnish to the Central
Goveniment, and a State Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, furnish to the State
government and to the Central Board such reports, returns, statistics, accounts and other
information as that Government, or, as the case may be, the Central Board may, from time to time,
require.
46. Bar of jurisdiction.
No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of any matter
which an Appellate Authority constituted under this Act is empowered by or under this Act to
determine, and no injunction shall be granted by any court or other authority in respect of any
action taken or to be taken in pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.
CHAPTER VII
MISCELLANEOUS
47. Power of Central Government to supersede State Board,
(1) If at any time the State Government is of opinion-
(a) that a State Board constituted under this Act has persistently made default in the performance of
the functions imposed on it by or under this Act, or
(b) that circumstances exist which render it necessary in the public interest so to do,
the State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, supersede the State Board for
such period, not exceeding six months, as may be specified in the notification:
Provided that before issuing a notification under this sub-section for the reasons mentioned in
clause (a), the State Government shall give a reasonable opportunity to the State Board to show
cause why it should not be superseded and shall consider the explanations and objections, if any, of
the State Board.
(2) Upon the publication of a notification under sub-section (1) superseding the State Board,-
(a) all the members shall, as from the date of supersession, vacate their offices as such;
(b) all the powers, functions and duties which may, by or under this Act, be exercised, performed or
discharged by the State Board shall, until the State Board is reconstituted under sub-section (3), be
exercised, performed or discharged by such person or persons as the State Government may direct.-
,
(c) all property owned or controlled by the State Board shall, until the Board is reconstituted under
sub-section (3), vest in the State Government.
(3) On the expiration of the period of supersession specified in the notification issued under sub-
section (1), the State Government may-
(a) extend the period of supersession for such further term, not exceeding six months, as it may
consider necessary; or
(b) reconstitute the State Board by a fresh nomination or appointment as the case may be, and in
such case any person who vacated his office under clause (a) of sub-section (2) shall also be eligible
for nomination or appointment.
Provided that the State Government may at any time before the expiration of the period of
supersession whether originally specified under sub-section (1) or as extended under this sub-
section, take action under clause (b) of this sub-section.
48. Special provision in the case of supersession of the Central Board or the State Boards
constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
Where the Central Board or any State Board constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974 (Act 6 of 1974), is superseded by the Central Government or the State
Government, as the case may be, under that Act, all the powers, functions and duties of the Central
Board or such State Board under this Act shall be exercised, performed or discharged during the
period of such supersession by the person or persons, exercising, preforming or discharging the
powers, functions and duties of the Central Board or such State Board under the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, during such period.

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49. Dissolution of State Boards constituted under the Act
(1) As and when the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (Act 6 of 1974), comes
into force in any State and the State Government constitutes a I [Scate Board for the Prevention and
Control of Water Pollution] under that Act, the State Board constituted by the State Government
under this Act shall stand dissolved and the Board first-mentioned shall exercise the powers and
perform the functions of the Board second-mentioned in that State,
(2) On the dissolution of the State Board constituted under this Act,--
(a) all the members shall vacate their offices as such;
(b) all moneys and other property of whatever kind (including the fund of the State Board) owned
by, or vested in, the State Board, immediately before such dissolution, shall stand transferred to and
vest in the 32[State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution];
(c) every officer and other employee serving under the State, Board immediately before such
dissolution shall be transferred to and become an officer or other employee of the I [State Board for
the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution] and hold office by the same tenure and at the same
remuneration and on the same terms and conditions of service as he would have held the same if the
State Board constituted under this Act had not been dissolved and shall continue to do so unless and
until such tenure, remuneration and conditions of service are duly altered by the 33[State Board for
the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution] :
Provided that the tenure, remuneration and terms and conditions of service of any such officer or
other employee shall not be altered to his disadvantage without the previous sanction of the State
Government;
(d) all liabilities obligations of the State Board of whatever kind, immediately before such
dissolution, shall be deemed to be the liabilities or obligations, as the case may be, of the l[State
Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution] and any proceeding or cause of action,
pending or existing immediately before such dissolution by or against the State Board constituted
under this Act in relation to such liability or obligation may be continued and enforced by or against
the I [State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution.]
50. [Power to amend the Schedule.] Rep. by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Amendment Act, 1987 (47 of 1987), s. 22 (w.e.f. 1-41988).
51. Maintenance of register.
(1) Every State Board shall maintain a register containing particulars of the persons to whom
consent has been granted under section 21, the standard for emission laid down by it in relation to
each such consent and such other particulars as may be prescribed.
(2) The register maintained under sub-section (1) shall be open to inspection at all reasonable hours
by any person interested in or affected by such standards for emission or by any other person
authorised by such person in this behalf.
52. Effect of other laws.
Save as otherwise provided by or under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (33 of 1962), in relation to
radioactive air pollution the provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything
inconsistent therewith contained in any enactment other than this Act.
53. Power of Central Government to make rules.
(1) The Central Government may, in consultation with the Central Board by notification in the
Official Gazette, make rules in respect of the following matters namely :-
(a) the intervals and the time and place at which meetings of the Central Board or any committee
thereof shall be held and the procedure to be followed at such meetings, including the quorum
necessary for the transaction of business thereat, under sub-section (1) of section 10 and under sub-
section (2) of section 11;
(b) the fees and allowances to be paid to the members of a committee of the Central Board, not
being members of the Board, under sub-section (3) of section 11;

99
(c) the manner in which and the purposes for which persons may be associated with the Central
Board under sub-section (1) of section 12;
(a) the fees and allowance to be paid under sub-section (3) of section 12 to persons associated with
the Central Board under sub-section (/) of section 12;
(e) the functions to be performed by the Central Board under clause (j) of sub-section (2) of section
16;
34[(f) the form in which and the time within which the budget of the Central Board may be
prepared and forwarded to the Central Government under section 34;
(ff) the form in which the annual report of die Central Board may be prepared under section 35;1
(g) the form in which the accounts of the Central Board may be maintained under sub-section (1) of
section 36.
(2) Every rule made by the Central Government under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after
it is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days
which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the
expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both
Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not
be made, the rule shall thereafte have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the
case may be; so, however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the
validity of anything previously done under that rule.
54. Power of State Government to make rules.
(1) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (3), the State Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, make rules to carry out the purposes of this Act in respect of matter not falling
within the purview of section 53.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namley --
35[(a) the qualifications, knowledge and experience of scientific, engineering or management
aspect of pollution control required for appointment as member-secretary of a State Board
constituted under the Act;]
36[(aa) the terms and conditions of service of the Chairman and other members (other than the
member-secretary) of the State Board constituted under this Act under sub-section (7) of section 7;
(b) the intervals and the time and place at which meetings of the State Board or any committee
thereof shall be held and the procedure to be followed at such meetings, including the quorum
necessary for the transaction of business thereat, under sub-section (1) of section 10 and under sub-
section (2) of section 11;
(c) the fees and allowances to be paid to the members of a committee of the State Board, not being
members of the Board under sub-section (3) of section 11;
(d) the manner in which and the purpose for which persons may be associated with the State Board
under sub-section (1) of section 12;
(e) the fees and allowances to be paid under sub-section (3) of section 12 to persons associated with
the State Board under sub-section (1) of section 12;
(f) the terms and conditions of service of the member-secretary of a State Board constituted under
this Act under sub-section (1) of section 14;
(g) the powers and duties to be exercised and discharged by the member-secretary of a State Board
under sub-section (2) of section 14;
(h) the conditions subject to which a State Board may appoint such officers and other employees as
it considers necessary for the efficient performance of its functions under sub-section (3) of section
14;
(i) the conditions subject to which a State Board may appoint a consultant under sub-section (5) of
section 14;

100
(j) the functions to be performed by the State Board under clause (i) of sub-section (1) of section
17;
(k) the manner in which any area or areas may be declared as air pollution control area or areas
under sub-section (1) of section 19;
(l) the form of application for the consent of the State Board, the fees payable therefore, the period
within which such application shall be made and the particulars it may contain, under sub-section
(2) of section 21;
(m) the procedure to be followed in respect of an inquiry under subsection (3) of section 2 1;
(n) the authorities or agencies to whom information under sub-section (1) of section 23 shall be
furnished;
(o) the manner in which samples of air or emission may be taken under sub-section (1) of section
26;
(p) the form of the notice referred to in sub-section (3) of section 26;
(q) the form of the report of the State Board analyst under sub-section (1) of section 27;
(r) the form of the report of the Government analyst under sub-section (3) of section 27;
(s) the functions of the State Air Laboratory, the procedure for the submission to the said
Laboratory of samples of air or emission for analysis or tests, the form of Laboratory's report
thereon, the fees payable in respect of such report and other matters as may be necessary or
expedient to enable that Laboratory to carry out its functions, under sub-section (2) of section 28;
(t) the qualifications required for Government analysts under subsection (1) of section 29;
(u) the qualification required for State Board analysts under sub-section (2) of section 29;
(v) the form and the manner in which appeals may be preferred, the fees payable in respect ot such
appeals and the procedure to be followed by the Appellate Authority in disposing of the appeals
under sub-section (3) of section 31;
37[(w) the form in which and the time within which the budget of the State Board may be prepared
and forwarded to the State Government under section 34;
(ww) the form in which the annual report of the State Board may be prepared under section 35,1
(x) the form in which the accounts of the State Board may be maintained under the sub-section (1)
of section 36;
38[(xx) the manner in which notice of intention to make a complaint shall be given under section
43;]
(y) the particulars which the register maintained under section 51 may contain;
(z) any other matter which has to be, or may be, prescribed.
(3) After the first constitution of the State Board, no rule with respect to any of the matters referred
to in sub-section (2) other than those referred to 39[in clause (aa) thereof], shall be made, varied,
amended or repealed without consulting that Board.

THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

WHEREAS the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held at Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
protection and improvement of human environment;
AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary further to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far
as they relate to the protection and improvement of environment and the prevention of hazards to
human beings, other living creatures, plants and property;
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-seventh Year of the Republic of India as follows:-
CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
1.SHORT TITLE, EXTEND AND COMMENCEMENT
(1) This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
(2) It extends to the whole of India.

101
(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act
and for different areas.1
2.DEFINITIONS
In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,--
(a) "environment" includes water, air and land and the inter- relationship which exists among and
between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and
property;
(b) "environmental pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such
concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment;
(c) "environmental pollution" means the presence in the environment of any environmental
pollutant;
(d) "handling", in relation to any substance, means the manufacture, processing, treatment, package,
storage, transportation, use, collection, destruction, conversion, offering for sale, transfer or the like
of such substance;
(e) "hazardous substance" means any substance or preparation which, by reason of its chemical or
physico-chemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living
creatures, plant, micro-organism, property or the environment;
(f) "occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means a person who has, control over the
affairs of the factory or the premises and includes in relation to any substance, the person in
possession of the substance;
(g) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act.
CHAPTER II
GENERAL POWERS OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
3. POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO TAKE MEASURES TO PROTECT AND
IMPROVE ENVIRONMENT
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government, shall have the power to take all
such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the
quality of the environment and preventing controlling and abating environmental pollution.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the provisions of sub-section (1), such
measures may include measures with respect to all or any of the following matters, namely:--
(i) co-ordination of actions by the State Governments, officers and other authorities--
(a) under this Act, or the rules made thereunder, or
(b) under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this Act;
(ii) planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and abatement
of environmental pollution;
(iii) laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
(iv) laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources whatsoever:
Provided that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause from
different sources having regard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants from such sources;
(v) restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards;
(vi) laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;
(vii) laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(viii) examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to cause
environmental pollution;

102
(ix) carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of environmental
pollution;
(x) inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes,
materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to such authorities, officers or
persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution;
(xi) establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act;
(xii) collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution;
(xiii) preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution;
(xiv) such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of
securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.
(3) The Central Government may, if it considers it necessary or expedient so to do for the purpose
of this Act, by order, published in the Official Gazette, constitute an authority or authorities by such
name or names as may be specified in the order for the purpose of exercising and performing such
of the powers and functions (including the power to issue directions under section 5) of the Central
Government under this Act and for taking measures with respect to such of the matters referred to
in sub-section (2) as may be mentioned in the order and subject to the supervision and control of the
Central Government and the provisions of such order, such authority or authorities may exercise
and powers or perform the functions or take the measures so mentioned in the order as if such
authority or authorities had been empowered by this Act to exercise those powers or perform those
functions or take such measures.
4. APPOINTMENT OF OFFICERS AND THEIR POWERS AND FUNCTIONS
(1) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 3, the Central Government may
appoint officers with such designation as it thinks fit for the purposes of this Act and may entrust to
them such of the powers and functions under this Act as it may deem fit.
(2) The officers appointed under sub-section (1) shall be subject to the general control and direction
of the Central Government or, if so directed by that Government, also of the authority or
authorities, if any, constituted under sub- section (3) of section 3 or of any other authority or officer.
5. POWER TO GIVE DIRECTIONS
Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act, the
Central Government may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue directions in writing to any person, officer or any authority and such person, officer or
authority shall be bound to comply with such directions.3
Explanation--For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions
under this section includes the power to direct--
(a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or
(b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.
6. RULES TO REGULATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of
all or any of the matters referred to in section 3.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:--
(a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes;4
(b) the maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants (including
noise) for different areas;
(c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;5
(d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas;6

103
(e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on process and
operations in different areas;7
(f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause environmental
pollution and for providing for remedial measures for such accidents.8

CHAPTER III
PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND ABATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
7. PERSONS CARRYING ON INDUSTRY OPERATION, ETC., NOT TO ALLOW EMISSION
OR DISCHARGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS IN EXCESS OF THE STANDARDS
No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit or permit to be
discharged or emitted any environmental pollutants in excess of such standards as may be
prescribed.9
8. PERSONS HANDLING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES TO COMPLY WITH PROCEDURAL
SAFEGUARDS
No person shall handle or cause to be handled any hazardous substance except in accordance with
such procedure and after complying with such safeguards as may be prescribed.10
9. FURNISHING OF INFORMATION TO AUTHORITIES AND AGENCIES IN CERTAIN
CASES
(1) Where the discharge of any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards occurs
or is apprehended to occur due to any accident or other unforeseen act or event, the person
responsible for such discharge and the person in charge of the place at which such discharge occurs
or is apprehended to occur shall be bound to prevent or mitigate the environmental pollution caused
as a result of such discharge and shall also forthwith--
(a) Intimate the fact of such occurrence or apprehension of such occurrence; and
(b) Be bound, if called upon, to render all assistance,
to such authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.11
(2) On receipt of information with respect to the fact or apprehension on any occurrence of the
nature referred to in sub-section (1), whether through intimation under that sub-section or
otherwise, the authorities or agencies referred to in sub-section (1) shall, as early as practicable,
cause such remedial measures to be taken as necessary to prevent or mitigate the environmental
pollution.
(3) The expenses, if any, incurred by any authority or agency with respect to the remedial measures
referred to in sub-section (2), together with interest (at such reasonable rate as the Government may,
by order, fix) from the date when a demand for the expenses is made until it is paid, may be
recovered by such authority or agency from the person concerned as arrears of land revenue or of
public demand.
10. POWERS OF ENTRY AND INSPECTION
(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by the Central Government in
this behalf12 shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistance as he considers
necessary, any place--
(a) for the purpose of performing any of the functions of the Central Government entrusted to him;
(b) for the purpose of determining whether and if so in what manner, any such functions are to be
performed or whether any provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder orany notice, order,
direction or authorisation served, made, given or granted under this Act is being or has been
complied with;
(c) for the purpose of examining and testing any equipment, industrial plant, record, register,
document or any other material object or for conducting a search of any building in which he has
reason to believe that an offence under this Act or the rules made thereunder has been or is being or
is about to be committed and for seizing any such equipment, industrial plant, record, register,
document or other material object if he has reason to believe that it may furnish evidence of the

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commission of an offence punishable under this Act or the rules made thereunder or that such
seizure is necessary to prevent or mitigate environmental pollution.
(2) Every person carrying on any industry, operation or process of handling any hazardous
substance shall be bound to render all assistance to the person empowered by the Central
Government under sub-section (1) for carrying out the functions under that sub-section and if he
fails to do so without any reasonable cause or excuse, he shall be guilty of an offence under this
Act.
(3) If any person wilfully delays or obstructs any persons empowered by the Central Government
under sub-section (1) in the performance of his functions, he shall be guilty of an offence under this
Act.
(4) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, or, in relation to the State of Jammu
and Kashmir, or an area in which that Code is not in force, the provisions of any corresponding law
in force in that State or area shall, so far as may be, apply to any search or seizures under this
section as they apply to any search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued under
section 94 of the said Code or as the case may be, under the corresponding provision of the said
law.
11. POWER TO TAKE SAMPLE AND PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED IN CONNECTION
THEREWITH
(1) The Central Government or any officer empowered by it in this behalf,13 shall have power to
take, for the purpose of analysis, samples of air, water, soil or other substance from any factory,
premises or other place in such manner as may be prescribed.14
(2) The result of any analysis of a sample taken under sub-section (1) shall not be admissible in
evidence in any legal proceeding unless the provisions of sub-sections (3) and (4) are complied
with.
(3) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (4), the person taking the sample under sub-section (1)
shall--
(a) serve on the occupier or his agent or person in charge of the place, a notice, then and there, in
such form as may be prescribed, of his intention to have it so analysed;
(b) in the presence of the occupier of his agent or person, collect a sample for analysis;
(c) cause the sample to be placed in a container or containers which shall be marked and sealed and
shall also be signed both by the person taking the sample and the occupier or his agent or person;
(d) send without delay, the container or the containers to the laboratory established or recognised by
the Central Government under section 12.
(4) When a sample is taken for analysis under sub-section (1) and the person taking the sample
serves on the occupier or his agent or person, a notice under clause (a) of sub-section (3), then,--
(a) in a case where the occupier, his agent or person wilfully absents himself, the person taking the
sample shall collect the sample for analysis to be placed in a container or containers which shall be
marked and sealed and shall also be signed by the person taking the sample, and
(b) in a case where the occupier or his agent or person present at the time of taking the sample
refuses to sign the marked and sealed container or containers of the sample as required under clause
(c) of sub-section (3), the marked and sealed container or containers shall be signed by the person
taking the samples, and the container or containers shall be sent without delay by the person taking
the sample for analysis to the laboratory established or recognised under section 12 and such person
shall inform the Government Analyst appointed or recognised under section 12 in writing, about the
wilfull absence of the occupier or his agent or person, or, as the case may be, his refusal to sign the
container or containers.
12.ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORIES
(1) The Central Government15 may, by notification in the Official Gazette,--
(a) establish one or more environmental laboratories;

105
(b) recognise one or more laboratories or institutes as environmental laboratories to carry out the
functions entrusted to an environmental laboratory under this Act.16
(2) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules specifying--
(a) the functions of the environmental laboratory;17
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said laboratory of samples of air, water, soil or other
substance for analysis or tests, the form of the laboratory report thereon and the fees payable for
such report;18
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that laboratory to carry out its
functions.
13. GOVERNMENT ANALYSTS
The Central Government may by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint or recognise such
persons as it thinks fit and having the prescribed qualifications19 to be Government Analysts for
the purpose of analysis of samples of air, water, soil or other substance sent for analysis to any
environmental laboratory established or recognised under sub-section (1) of section 12.
14. REPORTS OF GOVERNMENT ANALYSTS
Any document purporting to be a report signed by a Government analyst may be used as evidence
of the facts stated therein in any proceeding under this Act.
15. PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF THE PROVISIONS OF THE ACT AND THE
RULES, ORDERS AND DIRECTIONS
(1) Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of this Act, or the rules made
or orders or directions issued thereunder, shall, in respect of each such failure or contravention, be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years with fine which may
extend to one lakh rupees, or with both, and in case the failure or contravention continues, with
additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which such failure or
contravention continues after the conviction for the first such failure or contravention.
(2) If the failure or contravention referred to in sub-section (1) continues beyond a period of one
year after the date of conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to seven years.
16. OFFENCES BY COMPANIES
(1) Where any offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who, at the
time the offence was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for
the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of
the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable to any
punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed without his
knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the
consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager,
secretary or other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall
also deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly.
Explanation--For the purpose of this section,--
(a) "company" means any body corporate and includes a firm or other association of individuals;
(b) "director", in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.
17. OFFENCES BY GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of Government, the
Head of the Department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be
proceeded against and punished accordingly.

106
Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the Department liable to
any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he
exercise all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a Department of Government and it is proved that the offence has been
committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any
officer, other than the Head of the Department, such officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that
offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
CHAPTER IV
MISCELLANEOUS
18. PROTECTION OF ACTION TAKEN IN GOOD FAITH
No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Government or any officer or
other employee of the Government or any authority constituted under this Act or any member,
officer or other employee of such authority in respect of anything which is done or intended to be
done in good faith in pursuance of this Act or the rules made or orders or directions issued
thereunder.
19. COGNIZANCE OF OFFENCES
No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by--
(a) the Central Government or any authority or officer authorised in this behalf by that
Government,20 or
(b) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner prescribed, of the
alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint, to the Central Government or the
authority or officer authorised as aforesaid.
20. INFORMATION, REPORTS OR RETURNS
The Central Government may, in relation to its function under this Act, from time to time, require
any person, officer, State Government or other authority to furnish to it or any prescribed authority
or officer any reports, returns, statistics, accounts and other information and such person, officer,
State Government or other authority shall be bound to do so.
21. MEMBERS, OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES OF THE AUTHORITY CONSTITUTED
UNDER SECTION 3 TO BE PUBLIC SERVANTS
All the members of the authority, constituted, if any, under section 3 and all officers and other
employees of such authority when acting or purporting to act in pursuance of any provisions of this
Act or the rules made or orders or directions issued thereunder shall be deemed to be public
servants within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).
22. BAR OF JURISDICTION
No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of anything done,
action taken or order or direction issued by the Central Government or any other authority or officer
in pursuance of any power conferred by or in relation to its or his functions under this Act.
23. POWERS TO DELEGATE
Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 3, the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, delegate, subject to such conditions and limitations as may be
specified in the notifications, such of its powers and functions under this Act [except the powers to
constitute an authority under sub-section (3) of section 3 and to make rules under section 25] as it
may deem necessary or expedient, to any officer, State Government or other authority.
24. EFFECT OF OTHER LAWS
(1) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (2), the provisions of this Act and the rules or orders
made therein shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any
enactment other than this Act.

107
(2) Where any act or omission constitutes an offence punishable under this Act and also under any
other Act then the offender found guilty of such offence shall be liable to be punished under the
other Act and not under this Act.
25. POWER TO MAKE RULES
(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for carrying
out the purposes of this Act.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely--
(a) the standards in excess of which environmental pollutants shall not be discharged or emitted
under section 7;21
(b) the procedure in accordance with and the safeguards in compliance with which hazardous
substances shall be handled or caused to be handled under section 8;22
(c) the authorities or agencies to which intimation of the fact of occurrence or apprehension of
occurrence of the discharge of any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards
shall be given and to whom all assistance shall be bound to be rendered under sub-section (1) of
section 9;23
(d) the manner in which samples of air, water, soil or other substance for the purpose of analysis
shall be taken under sub-section (1) of section 11;24
(e) the form in which notice of intention to have a sample analysed shall be served under clause (a)
of sub section (3) of section 11;25
(f) the functions of the environmental laboratories,26 the procedure for the submission to such
laboratories of samples of air, water, soil and other substances for analysis or test;27 the form of
laboratory report; the fees payable for such report and other matters to enable such laboratories to
carry out their functions under sub-section (2) of section 12;
(g) the qualifications of Government Analyst appointed or recognised for the purpose of analysis of
samples of air, water, soil or other substances under section 13;28
(h) the manner in which notice of the offence and of the intention to make a complaint to the
Central Government shall be given under clause (b) of section 19;29
(i) the authority of officer to whom any reports, returns, statistics, accounts and other information
shall be furnished under section 20;
(j) any other matter which is required to be, or may be, prescribed.
26. RULES MADE UNDER THIS ACT TO BE LAID BEFORE PARLIAMENT
Every rule made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each Hose of
Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days which may be comprised in one
session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the session immediately
following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any
modification in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not be made, the rule shall
thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so,
however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of
anything previously done under that rule.
1 It came into force in the whole of India on 19th November, 1986 vide Notification No. G.S.R.
1198(E) dated 12-11-86 published in the Gazette of India No. 525 dated 12-11-86.
2 The Central Government has delegated the powers vested m it under section 5 of the -Act to the
State Governments of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Karnatalca, Kerala, Madhya Predesh, Mizoram, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu subject
to the condition that the Central Government may revoke such delegation of Powers in respect of all
or any one or more of the State Governments or may itself invoke the provisions of section 5 of the
Act, if in the opinion of the Central Government such a course of action is necessary in public
interest, (Notification No, S.O. 152 (E) dated 10-2-88 published in Gazette No. 54 of the same
date). These Powers have been delegated to the following State Governments also on the same

108
terms:
Meghalaya, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh vide Notification No. S.0.389 (E) dated 14-4-88 published in
the Gazette No. 205 dated 144-88;Maharashtra vide Notification No. S.O. 488(E) dated 17-5-88
published in the Gazette No. 255 dated 17-5-88;
Goa and Jammu & Kashmir vide Notification No. S.O. 881 (E~ dated 22-9-88; published in the
Gazette No. 749 dated 22.9.88.West Bengal Manipur vide Notificadon N. S.O. 408 (E) dated 6-6-
89; published in the Gazette No. 319 dated 6-6-89;
Tripura vide Notification No. S.O. 479 (E) dated 25-7-91 published in thc Gazene No. 414 dated
25-7-91.
3 For issuing directions see r.4 of Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.
4 See r. 3 of Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 and Schedules thereto.
 Schedule I lists the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from the
industries, processes or operations and their maximum allowable limits of concentration;
 Schedule II lists general standards for discharge of effluents and their maximum limits of
concentration allowable;
 Schedule III lists ambient air quality standards in respect of noise and its maximum
allowable limits; and
 Schedule IV lists standards for emission of smoke, vapour etc. from motor vehicles and
maximum allowable limits of their emission.
THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) RULES, 1986
Ministry of Environment and Forests
(Department of Environment, Forest and Wildlife)
Notification
New Delhi, the 19th November, 1986
S.O. 844(E) - In exercise of the powers conferred by sections 6 and 25 of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1906 (29 of 1986), the Central Government hereby makes the following rules,
namely:-
1. Short title and commencement
(i) These rules may be called the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.
(ii) They shall come into force on the date of their publication in the Official Gazette.
2. Definitions
In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires,-
(a) "Act" means the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986);
(aa) "areas" means all areas where the hazardous substances are handled;1
(b) "Central Board" means the Central Pollution Control Board constituted under section 3 of the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974);
(c) "Form" means a form set forth in Appendix A to these rules;
(d) "Government Analyst" means a person appointed or recognized as such under section 13;
(e) "person" in relation to any factory or premises means a person or occupier or his agent who has
control over the affairs of the factory or premises and includes in relation to any substance, the
person in possession of the substance.
(ee) "prohibited substance" means the substance prohibited for handling;1
(f) "recipient system" means the part of the environment such as soil, water, air or other which
receives the pollutants;
(ff) "restricted substance" means the substance restricted for handling;1

(g) "section" means a section of the Act;

(h) "Schedule" means a Schedule appended to these rules;
(i) "Standards' means standards prescribed under these rules;

109
(j) "State Board" means a State Pollution Control Board constituted under section 4 of the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) or a State Pollution Control Board
constituted under section 5 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981);
3. Standards for emissions or discharge of environmental pollutants
(1) For the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing and
abating environmental pollution, the standards for emission or discharge of environmental
pollutants from the industries, operations or processes shall be as specified in 2[Schedule I to IV].
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (1),the Central Board or a State Board may
specify more stringent standards from those provided in 3[Schedule I to IV] in respect of any
specific industry, operation or process depending upon the quality of the recipient system and after
recording reasons therefore in writing.
4(3) The standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants specified under sub-rule
(1) or sub-rule (2) shall be complied with by an industry, operation or process within a period of
one year of being so specified.
(3A)
(i) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rules (1) and (2), on and from the 1st day of January,
1994, emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from the 6[industries, operations or
processes other than those industries, operations or processes for which standards have been
specified in Schedule-I] shall not exceed the relevant parameters and standards specified in
schedule VI.
Provided that the State Boards may specify more stringent standards for the relevant parameters
with respect to specific industry or locations after recording reasons therefore in writing;
(ii) The State Board shall while enforcing the standards specified in Schedule VI follow the
guidelines specified in Annexure I and II in that Schedule].
7[(3B)] The combined effect of emission or discharge of environmental pollutants in an area, from
industries, operations, process, automobiles and domestic sources, shall not be permitted to exceed
the relevant concentration in ambient air as specified against each pollutant in columns (3) to (5) of
Schedule VII.]
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (3)-
(a) the Central Board or a State Board, depending on the local conditions or nature of discharge of
environmental pollutants, may, by order, specify a lesser period than a period specified under sub-
rule (3) within which the compliance of standards shall be made by an industry, operation or
process
(b) the Central Government in respect of any specific industry, operation or process, by order, may
specify any period other than a period specified under sub-rule (3) within which the compliance of
standards shall be made by such industry, operation or process.
(5) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (3) the standards for emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants specified under sub-rule (I) or sub-rule (2) in respect of an industry,
operation or process before the commencement of the Environment (Protection) Amendment Rules,
1991, shall be complied by such industry, operation or process by the 31st day of December 1991.
8[(6) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (3), an industry, operation or process which
has commenced production on or before 16th May, 1981 and has shown adequate proof of at least
commencement of physical work for establishment of facilities to meet the specified standards
within a time-bound programme, to the satisfaction of the concerned State Pollution Control Board,
shall comply with such standards latest by the 31 st day of December, 1993.
(7) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (3) or sub-rule (6) an industry, operation or
process which has commenced production after the 16th day of May, 1981 but before the 31st day
of December 1991 and has shown adequate proof of at least commencement of physical work for
establishment of facilities to meet the specified standards within a time-bound programme, to the

110
satisfaction of the concerned State Pollution Control Board, shall comply with such standards latest
by the 31st day of December, 1992.]
4. Directions
(1) Any direction issued under section 5 shall be in writing.
(2) The direction shall specify the nature of action to be taken and the time within which it shall be
complied with by the person, officer or the authority to whom such direction is given.
(3) (a) The person, officer or authority to whom any direction is sought to be issued shall be served
with a copy of the proposed direction and shall be given an opportunity of not less than fifteen days
from the date of service of a notice to file with an officer designated in this behalf the objections, if
any, to the issue of the proposed direction.
(b) Where the proposed direction is for the stoppage or regulation of electricity or water or any
other service affecting the carrying on any industry, operation or process and is sought to be issued
to an officer or an authority, a copy of the proposed direction shall also be endorsed to the occupier
of the industry, operation or process, as the case may be and objections, if any, filed by the occupier
with an officer designated in this behalf shall be dealt with in accordance with the procedures under
sub-rules (3a) and (4) of this rule:
Provided that no opportunity of being heard shall be given to the occupier if he had already been
heard earlier and the proposed direction referred to in sub-rule
(3b) above for the stoppage or regulation of electricity or water or any other service was the
resultant decision of the Central Government after such earlier hearing.9
(4) The Central Government shall within a period of 45 days from the date of receipt of the
objections, if any or from the date up to which an opportunity is given to the person, officer or
authority to file objections whichever is earlier, after considering the objections, if any, received
from the person, officer or authority sought to be directed and for reasons to be recorded in writing,
confirm, modify or decide not to issue the proposed direction.
(5) In case where the Central Government is of the opinion that in view of the likelihood of a grave
injury to the environment it is not expedient to provide an opportunity to file objections against the
proposed direction, it may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, issue directions without providing
such an opportunity.
(6) Every notice or direction required to be issued under this rule shall be deemed to be duly served
(a) where the person to be served is a company, if the document is addressed in the name of the
company at its registered office or at its principal office or place of business and is either-
(i) sent by registered post, or
(ii) delivered at its registered office or at the principal office or place of business;
(b) where the person to be served is an officer serving Government, if the document is addressed to
the person and a copy thereof is endorsed to this Head of the Department and also to the Secretary
to the Government, as the case may be, in-charge of the Department in which for the time being the
business relating to the Department in which the officer is employed is transacted and is either-
(i) sent by registered post, or
(ii) given or tendered to him;
(c) in any other case, if the document is addressed to the person to be served and-
(i) is given or tendered to him, or
(ii) if such person cannot be found, is affixed on some conspicuous part of his last known place of
residence or business or is given or tendered to some adult member of his family or is affixed on
some conspicuous part of the land or building, if any, to which it relates, or
(iii) is sent by registered post to that person;
Explanation.-For the purpose of this sub-rule,-
(a) "company" means any body corporate and includes a firm or other association of individuals;
(b) "a servant" is not a member of the family.

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5. Prohibitions and restrictions on the location of industries and the carrying on processes and
operations in different areas
(1) The Central government may take into consideration the following factors while prohibiting or
restricting the location of industries and carrying on of processes and operations in different areas-
(i) Standards for quality of environment in its various aspects laid down for an area.
(ii) The maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants (including
noise) [or an area.
(iii) The likely emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from an industry, process or
operation proposed to be prohibited or restricted.
(iv) The topographic and climatic features of an area.
(v) The biological diversity of the area which, in the opinion of the Central Government needs to be
preserved.
(vi) Environmentally compatible land use.
(vii) Net adverse environmental impact likely to be caused by an industry, process or operation
proposed to be prohibited or restricted.
(viii) Proximity to a protected area under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and
Remains Act, 1958 or a sanctuary, National Park, game reserve or closed area notified as such
under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 or places protected under any treaty, agreement or
convention with any other country or countries or in pursuance of any decision made in any
international confcrcnce1 association or other body.
(ix) Proximity to human settlements.
(x) Any other factor as may be considered by the Central Government to De relevant to the
protection of the environment in an area.
(2) While prohibiting or restricting the location of industries and carrying on of processes and
operations in an area, the Central Government shall follow the procedure hereinafter laid down.
(3) (a) Whenever it appears to the Central Government that it is expedient to impose prohibition or
restrictions on the locations Of an industry or the carrying on of processes and operations in an area,
it may by notification in the Official Gazette and in such other manner as the Central government
may deem necessary from time to time, give notice of its intention to do so.
(b) Every notification under clause (a) shall give a brief description of the area, the industries,
operations, processes in that area about which such notification pertains and also specify the
reasons for the imposition of prohibition or restrictions on the locations of the industries and
carrying on of process or operations in that area.
(c) Any person interested in filing an objection against the imposition of prohibition or restrictions
on carrying on of processes or operations as notified under clause (a) may do so in writing to the
Central Government within sixty days from the date of publication of the notification in the Official
Gazette.
(d) The Central Government shall within a period of one hundred and twenty days from the date of
publication of the notification in the Official Gazette consider all the objections received against
such notification and may 10 [within one hundred and 11 [eighty] days from such day of
publication] impose prohibition or restrictions on location of such industries and the carrying on of
any process or operation in an area.
6. Procedure of taking samples
The Central Government or the officer empowered to take samples under section 11 shall collect
the sample in sufficient quantity to be divided into two uniform parts and effectively seal and
suitably mark the same and permit the person from whom the sample is taken to add his own seal or
mark to all or any of the portions so sealed and marked. In case where the sample is made up in
containers or small volumes and is likely to deteriorate or be otherwise damaged if exposed, the
Central Government or the officer empowered shall take two of the said samples without opening

112
the containers and suitably seal and mark the same. The Central Government or the officer
empowered shall dispose of the samples so collected as follows:-
(i) One portion shall be handed over to the person from whom the sample is taken under
acknowledgement; and
(ii) the other portion shall be sent forthwith to the environmental laboratory or analysis.12
7. Service of notice
The Central Government or the officer empowered shall serve on the occupier or his agent or
person in charge of the place a notice then and there in Form I of his intention to have the sample
analyzed.
8. Procedure for submission of samples for analysis, and the form of laboratory report thereon
(1) Sample taken for analysis shall be sent by the Central Government or the officer empowered to
the environmental laboratory by registered post or through special messenger along with Form II.
(2) Another copy of Form II together with specimen impression of seals of the officer empowered
to take samples along with the seals/marks, if any, of the person from whom the sample is taken
shall be sent separately in a sealed cover by registered post or through a special messenger to the
environmental laboratory.
(3) The findings shall be recorded in Form III in triplicate and signed by the Government Analyst
and sent to the officer from whom the sample is received for analysis.
(4) On receipt of the report of the findings of the Government Analyst, the officer shall send one
copy of the report to the person from whom the sample was taken for analysis, the second copy
shall be retained by him for his record and the third copy shall be kept by him to be produced in the
Court before which proceedings, if any, are instituted.
9. Functions of environmental laboratories
The following shall be the functions of environmental laboratories:-
(i) to evolve standardized methods for sampling and analysis of various types of environmental
pollutants;
(ii) to analyze samples sent by the Central Government or the officers empowered under sub-
section (1) of section 11.
(iii) to carry out such investigations as may be directed by the Central Government to lay down
standards for the quality of environment and discharge of environmental pollutants, to monitor and
to enforce the standards laid down;
(iv) to send periodical reports regarding its activities to the Central Government;
(v) to carry out such other functions as may be entrusted to it by the Central Government from time
to time.
10. Qualification of Government Analyst
A person shall not be qualified for appointment or recognized as a Government Analyst unless he is
a:-
(a) graduate in science from a recognized university with five years’ experience in laboratory
engaged in environmental investigation, testing or analysis; or
(b) post-graduate in science or a graduate in engineering or a graduate in medicine or equivalent
with two years’ experience in a laboratory engaged in environmental investigations testing or
analysis; or
(c) Post-graduate in environmental science from a recognized university with two years’ experience
in a laboratory engaged in environmental investigations, testing or analysis.
11. Manner of giving notice
The manner of giving notice under clause (b) of section 19 shall be as follows, namely:-
(l) The notice shall be in writing in Form IV.
(2) The person giving notice may send notice to-
(a) if the alleged offence has taken place in a Union territory
(A) the Central Board and

113
(B) Ministry of Environment and Forests (represented by the Secretary to Government of India);
(b) if the alleged offence has taken place in a State:
(A) the State Board; and
(B) the Government of the State (represented by the Secretary to the State Government in-charge of
environment); and
(C) the Ministry of Environment and Forests (represented by the Secretary to the Government of
India);
(3) The notice shall be sent by registered post acknowledgement due; and
(4) The period Of sixty days mentioned in clause (b) of section 19 of the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 shall be reckoned from the date it is first received by one of the authorities mentioned
above.
13[12. Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases
Where the discharge of environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards occurs or is
apprehended to occur due to any accident or other unforeseen act or event, the person in charge of
the place at which such discharge occurs or is apprehended to occur shall forth with intimate the
fact of such occurrence or apprehension of such occurrence to all the following authorities or
agencies, namely:-
(i) The officer-in-charge of emergency or disaster relief operation in a district or other region of a
state or Union territory specified by whatever designation by the Government of the said State or
Union territory, and in whose jurisdiction the industry, process or operation is located.
(ii) Central Board or a State Board as the case may be and its regional officer having local
jurisdiction who have been delegated powers under section 20, 21, 23 of the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act 1974 (6 of l974)- and section 24 of the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981).
(iii) The statutory authorities or agencies specified in column 3 in relation to places mentioned in
column 2 against thereof of the Schedule II.]
14[13. Prohibition and restriction on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas
(1) The Central Government may take into consideration the following factors while prohibiting or
restricting the handling of hazardous substances in different area is-
(i) The hazardous nature of the substance (either in qualitative or quantitative terms as far as may
be) in terms of its damage causing potential to the environment, human beings, other living
creatures, plants and property;
(ii) the substances that may be or likely to be readily available as substitutes for the substances
proposed to be prohibited or restricted;
(iii) the indigenous availability of the substitute, or the state of technology available in the country
for developing a safe substitute;
(iv) the gestation period that may be necessary for gradual introduction of a new substitute with a
view to bringing about a total prohibition of the hazardous substance in question; and
(v) any other factor as may be considered by the Central Government to be relevant to the
protection of environment.
(2) While prohibiting or restricting the handling of hazardous substances in an area including their
imports and exports the Central Government shall follow the procedure hereinafter laid down-
(i) Whenever it appears to the Central Government that it is expedient to impose prohibition or
restriction on the handling of hazardous substances in an area, it may, by notification in the Official
Gazette and in such other manner as the Central Government may deem necessary from time to
time, give notice of its intention to do so.
(ii) Every notification under clause (i) shall give a brief description of the hazardous substances and
the geographical region or the area to which such notification pertains, and also specify the reasons
for the imposition of prohibition or restriction on the handling of such hazardous substances in that
region or area.

114
(iii) Any person interested in filing an objection against the imposition of prohibition or restrictions
on the handling of hazardous substances as notified under clause (i) may do so in writing to the
Central Government within sixty days from the dale of publication of the notification in the Official
Gazette.
(iv) The Central Government shall within a period of ninety days from the date of publication of the
notification in the Official Gazette consider all the objections received against such notification and
may impose prohibition or restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in a region or an
area.]
15[14. Submission of environmental 16[Statement]
Every person carrying on an industry, operation or process requiring consent under Section 25 of
the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) or under section 21 of the
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981) or both or authorization under the
Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 issued under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986) shall submit an environmental audit report for the financial year
ending the 31st March in Form V to the concerned State Pollution Control Board on or before the
17[thirtieth day of September] every year, beginning 1993.]

THE PUBLIC LIABILITY INSURANCE ACT, 1991

New Delhi, the 23rd January, 1991 Magha, 3, 1912 (Saka)
The following Act of Parliament received the assent of the President on the 22nd January, 1991,
and is hereby published for general information:-
An Act to provide for public liability- insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the
persons affected by accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance and for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto.
BE it enacted by Parliament in the forty-first Year of The Republic of India as follows:-
1. (1) This Act may be called the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.
(2) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, b) notification, appoint.
2 In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires.-

1[(a) "accident" means an accident involving a fortuitous, sudden or unintentional occurrence while
handling any hazardous substance resulting in continuous, intermittent or repeated exposure to
death, of or injury to, any person or damage to any property but does not include an accident by
reason only of war or radio-activity;]

(b) "Collector” means the Collector having jurisdiction over the area in which the accident occurs;

(c) "handling", in relation to any hazardous substance, means the manufacture, processing,
treatment, package, storage, transportation by vehicle, use, collection, destruction, conversion,
offering for sale, transfer or the like of such hazardous substance;

(d)"hazardous substance" means any substance or preparation which is defined as hazardous

substance under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986), and exceeding such quantity
as may be specified, by notification, by the Central Government;

(e) "insurance" means insurance against liability under sub-section (I) of section A:

(f) "notification" means a notification published in the official Gazette;

115
2[(g) "owner" means a person who owns, or has control over handling any hazardous substance at
the time of accident and includes,-

(i) in the case of firm, any of its partners;

(ii) in the case of an association, any of its members; and

(iii) in the case or a company, any of its directors, managers, secretaries or other officers who is
directly in charge of, and is responsible to the company for the conduct of the business of the
company;]

(h) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;

3[(ha) "Relief Fund" means the Environmental Relief Fund establishment under section 7A

(i) "rules" means rules made under this Act;

(ii) "vehicle" means any mode of surface transport other than railways.

3. (1) Where death or injury to any person (other than a workman) or damage to any property has
resulted from an accident, the owner shall-be liable to give such relief as is specified in Schedule
for such death, injury or damage.
(2) In any claim for relief under sub-section (I) (hereinafter referred to in this Act as claim for
relief), the claimant shall not be required to plead and establish that the death, injury or damage in
respect of which the claim has been made was due to any wrongful act, neglect or default of any
person.
Explanation.-For the purpose of this section,-
(i) "Workman" has the meaning assigned to it in the Workmens Compensation Act, 1923 (8 of
1923);
(ii) "injury" includes permanent total or permanent partial disability or sickness resulting out of an
accident.
4. (1) Every owner shall take out, before he starts handling any hazardous substance, one or more
insurance policies providing for contracts of insurance thereby he is insured against liability to give
relief under sub-section (1) of section 3;
Provided that ally owner handling any hazardous substance immediately before the commencement
of this Act shall take out such insurance policy or policies as soon as may be and in any case within
a period of one year from such commencement.
(2) Every owner shall get the insurance policy, referred to in subsection (1), renewed from time to
time before the expiry of the period of validity thereof so that the insurance policies may remain in
force throughout the period during which such handling is continued.
4[(2A) No insurance policy taken out by an owner shall be for a amount less than the amount of the
paid-up capital of the under taking handling any hazardous substance and owned or controlled by
that owner and more than the amount, not exceeding fifty crore rupees, as may be prescribed.
Explanation.- "Paid-up capital" in this sub-section means, in the case of an owner not being a
company, the market value of all assets and stocks of the undertaking on the date of contracts of
insurance.
(2B) The liability of the insurer under one insurance policy shall not exceed the amount specified in
the terms of the contract of insurance in that insurance policy.
(2C) Every owner shall also, together with the amount of premium, pay to the insurer, for being
credited to the Relief Fund established under section 7A, such further amount, not exceeding the
amount of premium, as may be prescribed.

116
(2D) The insurer shall remit the further amount received from the owner under sub-section (2C) to
the Relief Fund in such manner and within such period as may be prescribed and where the insurer
fails to so remit the further amount, such amount shall be recoverable from insurer as arrears of land
revenue or of public demand.]
(3)The Central Government may, by notification, exempt from the operation of sub-section (1) any
owner, namely:-
(a) the Central Government;
(b) any State Government,
(c) any corporation owned or controlled by the Central Government or a State Government;
or
(d) any local authority:
Provided that no such order shall be made in relation to such owner unless a fund has been
established and is maintained by that owner in accordance with the rules made in this behalf
for meeting any liability under sub-section (I) of section 3.
5. Whenever it comes to the notice of the Collector that an accident has occurred at any place within
his jurisdiction, he shall verify the occurrence of such accident and cause publicity to be given in
such manner as he deems fit for inviting applications under sub-section (1) of section 6
6. (1) An application for claim {or relief may be made-
a) by the person who has sustained thc injury;
(b) by the owner of the property to which thc damage has been caused;
(c) where death has resulted from the accident, by all or any of the legal representatives of thc
deceased; or
(d) by any agent duly authorised by such person or owner of such property or all or any Of the legal
representatives of the deceased, as the case may be:
Provided that where all thc legal representatives of the deceased have not joined in any such
application for relief, the application shall be made on behalf of or for the benefit of all the legal
representatives of the deceased and the legal representatives who have not so joined shall be
impleaded as respondents to the application.
(2) Every application under sub-section (I) shall be made to the Collector and shall be in such form,
contain such particulars and shall be accompanied by such documents as may be prescribed.
(3) No application for relief shall be entertained unless it is made within five years of the
occurrence of the accident.
7. (1) On receipt of an application under sub-section (I) of section 6, the Collector shall after giving
notice of the application to the owner and after giving the parties an opportunity of being heard,
hold an inquiry into the claim or, each of he claims, and may make an award determining the
amount of relief which appears to him to be just and specifying thc person or persons to whom such
amount of relief shall be paid.
(2) The Collector shall arrange to deliver copies of the award to the parties concerned
expenditiously and in any case within a period of fifteen days from the date of thc award.
5 [(3) When an award is made under this section,-
(a) the insurer, who is required to pay any amount in terms of such award and to the extend
specified in sub-section (2B) of section 4, shall, within a period of thirty days of the date of
announcement of the award, deposit that amount in such manner as the Collector may
direct;
(b) the Collector shall arrange to pay from the Relief Fund, in terms of such award and in
accordance with the scheme made under section 7A, to the person or persons referred to in
sub-section (I) such amount in such manner as may be specified in that scheme;
(c) the owner shall, within such period, deposit such amount in such manner as the Collector
may direct.]

117
(4) In holding any inquiry under sub-section (1), the Collector may, subject to any rules made in
this behalf, follow such summary procedure as he thinks fit.
(5) The Collector shall have all the powers of Civil Court for the purpose of taking evidence on oath
and of enforcing the attendance of witnesses and of compelling the discovery and production of
documents and material objects and for such other purposes as may be prescribed; and the Collector
shall be deemed to be a Civil Court for all the purposes of section 195 and Chapter XX\ of the Code
of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).
(6) Where the insurer or the owner against whom the award is made under sub-section (I) fails to
deposit the amount of such award within the period specified under sub-section (3), such amount
shall be recoverable from the owner, or as the case may be, the insurer as arrears of land revenue or
of public demand.
(7) A claim for relief in respect of death of, or injury to, any person or damage to any property shall
be disposed of as expeditiously as possible and every endeavour shall be made to dispose of such
claim within three months of the receipt of the application for relief under sub-section (I) of section
6.
6 [(8) Where an owner is likely to remove or dispose of his property with a view to evading
payment by him of the amount of award, the Collector may, in accordance with the provisions
contained in rules I to 4 of Order XXXIX of the First Schedule to the Code of Civil Procedure,
1908, (5 of 1908), grant a temporary injuction to restrain such act.]
7 [7A. (I) the Central Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, establish a fund to bc
known as the Environment Relief Fund.
(2) The Relief Fund shall bc utilised for paying, in accordance with the provisions of this Act and
the scheme, relief under the award made by the Collector under section 7.
(3) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make a scheme specifying
the authority in which the relief fund shall vest, the manner in which the Fund shall be administered
the form and the manner in which money shall be drawn from the Relief Fund and for all other
matters connected with or incidental to thc administration of the Relief Fund and the payment of
relief therefrom.]
8. (1) The right to claim relief under sub-section (I) of section 3 in respect of death of, or injury to,
any person or damage to any property shall be in addition to any other right to claim compensation
in respect thereof under any other law for the time being in force.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where in respect of death of, or injury to,
any person or damage to any property, the owner, liable to give claim for relief, is also liable to pay
compensation under any other law, the amount of such compensation shall be reduced by thc
amount of relief paid under this Act.
9. Any person authorised by the Central Government may, for the purposes of ascertaining whether
any requirements of this Act or of any rule or of any direction given under this Act have been
compiled with, require any owner to submit to that person such information as that person may
reasonably think necessary.
10. Any person, authorised by thc Central Government in this behalf, shall have a right to enter, at
all reasonable times with such assistance as he considers necessary, any place, premises or vehicle,
where hazardous substance is handled for the purpose of determining whether any provisions of this
Act or of any rule or of any direction given under this Act is being or has been compiled with and
such owner is bound to render all assistance to such person.
11. (1) If a person, authorised by the Central Government in this behalf, has reason to believe that
handling of any hazardous substance is taking place in any place premises or vehicle, in
contravention of sub-section (I) of section 4, he may enter into and search such place, premises or
vehicle for such handling of hazardous substance.
(2) Where, as a result Of any search under sub-section (I) any handling of hazardous substance has
been found in relation to which contravention of sub-section (I) of section 4 has taken place, he may

118
sieze such hazardous substance and other things which, in his opinion, will be useful for, or relevant
to, any proceeding under this Act:
Provided that where it is not practicable to seize any such substance or thing he may serve on the
owner an order that the owner shall not remove, part with, or otherwise deal with, the hazardous
substance and such other things except with the previous permission of that person.
(3) He may, if he has reason to believe that it is expedient so to do to prevent an accident dispose of
the hazardous substance seized under sub-section (2) immediately in such manner as he may deem
fit.
(4) All expenses incurred by him in the disposal of hazardous substances under sub-section (3) shall
be recoverable from the owner as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
12. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act,
the Central Government may, in exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue such directions in writing as it may deem fit for the purposes of this Act to any owner or
any person, officer, authority or agency and such owner, person, officer, authority or agency shall
be bound to comply with such directions.
Explanation.-For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions
under this section includes the power to direct-
a. prohibition or regulation of the handling of any hazardous substance; or
b. stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity, water or any other service.
13. (1) If the Central Government or any person authorised by that Government in this behalf has
reason to believe that any owner has been handling any hazardous substance in contravention of
any of the provisions of this Act, that Government or, as the case may be, that person may make an
application to a Court, not inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate first
class for restraining such owner from such handling.
(2) On receipt of the application under sub-section (1), the Court may make such order as it deems
fit.
(3) Where under sub-section (2), the Court makes an order restraining any owner from handling
hazardous substance. it may. in that order-
(a) direct such owner to desist from such handling;
(b) aulhorise the Central Government or, as the case may be, the person referred to in sub-section
(1), if the direction under clause (a) is not complied with by the owner to whom such direction is
issued, to implement the direction in such manner as may bc specified by thc Court.
(4) All expenses incurred by the Central Government, or as the case may be, thc person in
implementing the directions of Court under clause (h) of sub-section (3), shall be recoverable from
the owner as arrears of land revenue or of public demand
14. (1) Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of 8[sub-section (1), sub-section (2), sub-section
(2A) or sub-section (2C)] of section 4 or fails to comply with any directions issued under section
12, he shall be punishable imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than one year and six
months but which may extend to six years, or with fine which shall not be less than one lakh rupees,
or with both
(2) Whoever, having already been convicted of an offence under sub-section (1), is convicted for
the second offence or any offence subsequent to the second offence, he shall bc punishable with
imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than two years but which may extend to seven
years and with fine which shall not be less than one lakh rupees.
(3) Nothing contained in section 360 of thc Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), or in the
Probation of Offenders Act, 1958 (20 of 1958), shall apply to a person convicted of an offence
under this Act unless such person is under eighteen years of age.
15. If any owner fails to comply with direction issued under section 9 or fails to comply with order
issued under sub-section (2) of section 11, or obstructs any person in discharge of his functions
under section 10 or sub-section (1) or sub-section (3) of section 11, he shall be punishable with

119
imprisonment which may extend to three months, or with fine which may extend to ten thousand
rupees, or with both
16. (1) Where any offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who, at
the time the offence was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the company
for the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be
guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable to any
punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed without his
knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the
consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager,
secretary or other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall
also be deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly.
Explanation--For thc purposes of this section,--
a. "company" means any body corporate and includes a firm or other association of individual;
b. "director", in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.
17. Where an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of Government, the
Head of the Department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be
proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the Department liable to
any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he
exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
18. No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by-
(a) the Central Government or any authority or officer authorised in this behalf by that Government;
or
(b) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days in the manner prescribed, of the
alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint, to the Central Government or the
authority or officer authorised as aforesaid.
19. the Central Government may, by notification delegate, subject to such conditions and
limitations as may be specified in the notification, such of its powers and functions under this Act
(except the power under section 23) as it may deem necessary or expedient to any person (including
any officer, authority or other agency).
20. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Government or the person,
officer, authority or other agency in respect of anything which is done or intended to be do11e in
good faith in pursuance of this Act or the rules made or orders or directions issued thereunder.
21. (1) The Central Government may, from time to time, constitute an Advisory Committee on the
matters relating to the insurance policy under this Act.
(2) The Advisory Committee shall consist of--
a. Three officers representing the Central Government;
b. two persons representing the insurers;
c. two persons representing the owners; and
d. two persons from amongst the experts of insurance or hazardous substances, to be appointed
by the Central Government.
(3) The Chairman of the Advisory Committee shall be one of the members representing the Central
Government. nominated in this behalf by that Government.
22. The provisions of this Act and any rules made thereunder shall have effect notwithstanding
anything inconsistent therewith contained in any other law

120
23. (1) The Central Government may, by notification, make rules for carrying out the purposes of
this Act.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely-
9
[(a) the maximum amount for which an insurance policy may be taken out by an owner
under sub-section (2A) of section 4;
(aa) the amount required to be paid by every owner for being eredited to the Relief Fund
under sub-section (2C) of section 4;
(ab) the manner in which and the period within the amount received from the owner is
required to be remitted by the insurer under sub-section (2D) of section 4];
10
[(ac) establishment and maintenance of fund under sub-section (3) of section 4];
(b) the form of application and the particulars to be given therein and the documents to
accompany such application under sub-section (2) of section 6;
(c) the procedure for holding an inquiry under sub-section (4) of section 7;
(d) the purposes for which the Collector shall have powers of a Civil Court under sub-
section (S) of section 7;
(e) the manner in which notice of the offence and of the intention to make a complaint to the
Central Government shall be given under clause (b) of section 18;
(f) any other matter which is required to be, or may be, prescribed.
11
[(3) Every rule or scheme made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made,
before each House of Parliament, while it is in session [or a total period of thirty days which may be
comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the
session immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree
in making any modification in the rule or scheme or both Houses agree that the rule or scheme
should not be made, the rule or scheme shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be
of no effect, as the case may be; so,. however, that any such modification or annulment shall be
without prejudice to the validity of anything previously done under that rule or scheme.]
THE SCHEDULE
[See Section 3(1)]
(i) Reimbursement of medical expenses incurred up to a maximum of Rs. 12,500 in each case.
(ii) For fatal accidents the relief will be Rs. 25,000 per person in addition to reimbursement of
medical expenses if any, incurred on the victim up to a maximum of Rs. 12,500.
(iii) For permanent total or permanent partial disability or other injury or sickness, the relief will be
(a) reimbursement of medical expenses incurred, if any, up to a maximum of Rs. 12,500 in each
case and (b) cash relief on the basis of percentage of disablement as certified by an authorised
physician. The relief for total permanent disability will be Rs. 25,000.
(iv) For loss of wages due to temporary partial disability which reduces the earning capacity of the
victim, there will be a fixed monthly relief not exceeding Rs. 1,000 per month up to a maximum of
3 months: provided the victim has been hospitalised for a period of exceeding 3 days and is above
16 years of age.
(v) Up to Rs. 6,000 depending on the actual damage, for any damage to private property
Environment related terms
Abatement
Reducing the degree of intensity of , or eliminating, pollution. (Source: US EPA)
Acid
A corrosive solution with a Ph of less than 7 (Source: US EPA)

121
Air pollution
Air is made up of a number of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen and, in smaller amounts, water
vapour, carbon dioxide and argon and other trace gases. Air pollution occurs when harmful
chemicals and particles are emitted to the air – due to human activity or natural forces – at a
concentration that interferes with human health or welfare or that harms the environment in other
ways.
Air quality
A measure of the level of pollution in the air.
Algae
Simple rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in proportion to the amount of available nutrients.
They can affect water quality adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are
food for fish and small aquatic animals. (Source: US EPA)
Algal Blooms
Sudden spurts of algal growth, which can affect water quality adversely and indicate potentially
hazardous changes in local water chemistry. (Source: US EPA)
Alternative energy sources
Energy that does not come from fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, gas), for example wind, flowing
water, solar energy and biomass.
Amenities
Benefits of a property, such as nearby playgrounds, swimming pools, community centres or parks.
Atmosphere
The mass of air surrounding the Earth.
B
Backyard burning
An illegal method of getting rid of household waste, possibly in an attempt to save on bin charges,
that releases levels of pollutants into the air, so harming air quality and risking the health of those
burning the waste and of their neighbours.
BER
Short for Building Energy Rating, which says how much energy a home needs for heating, lighting
and hot water. Homes are placed on a scale from A to G. A-rated homes need the least amount of
energy while G-rated need the most. Since 1 January 2009, all homes being sold or rented must
have a BER certificate. BER ratings are carried out by BER Assessors registered with the
Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland.
Biodegradable waste
Organic waste, typically coming from plant or animal sources (for example food scraps and paper),
which other living organisms can break down.
Biodiversity
A short form of the phrase ‘biological diversity’, which means the variety of life on this planet and
how it interacts within habitats and ecosystems. Biodiversity covers all plants, animals and micro-
organisms on land and in water. See also ecosystem, habitat and organism.

122
Bioenergy
All types of energy derived from biomass, including biofuels.
Biofuels
Liquid transport fuels made from biomass.
Biomass
A source of fuel made from living and recently-dead plant materials such as wood, leaves and the
biodegradable part of industrial and municipal waste.
Biosphere
The portion of Earth and its atmosphere that can support life (Source: US EPA)
Black bin (grey bin)
A wheelie bin used in certain local authorities to collect waste that cannot be recycled or
composted.
Bring bank
A place where you can bring materials for recycling, for example glass, newspapers, heavy
cardboard and textiles. See also recycling centre and civic amenity site.
Brown bin
A wheelie bin used in some local authorities to collect organic waste such as food and light garden
waste (for example grass cuttings).
Bye-law
A rule made by a local authority to govern activities within the area it controls. Examples include
bye-laws covering waste disposal, traffic or public events or signs.
Carbon count
A measure of the amount of carbon dioxide you produce through your lifestyle every day, for
example through driving or using electrical appliances and lighting.
Carbon credit
A unit of carbon dioxide bought to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. See carbon offset.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
A colourless gas that is naturally produced from animals and people in exhaled air and the decay of
plants. It is removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis in plants and by dissolving in water,
especially on the surface of oceans. The use of fossil fuels for energy is increasing the concentration
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is believed to contribute to global warming. See also
greenhouse gases and photosynthesis.
Carbon emissions
In the context of climate change, carbon dioxide released when substances, especially oil, gas, and
coal, are burned by vehicles and planes, by factories and by homes.
Carbon footprint
A measure of the impact our activities have on the environment, especially climate change, often
reported as the units of tonnes (or kg) of carbon dioxide each of us produces over a given period of
time.

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Carbon monoxide
A highly poisonous, odourless, tasteless and colourless gas that is formed when carbon material
burns without enough oxygen. Carbon monoxide is toxic when inhaled because it combines with
your blood and prevents oxygen from getting to your organs. If a person is exposed to carbon
monoxide over a period, it can cause illness and even death. Carbon Monoxide has no smell, taste
or colour. This is why it is sometimes called the “Silent Killer”. The most common causes of
carbon monoxide poisoning in the home are house fires, faulty heating appliances such as boilers,
blocked chimney or flues, and rooms not properly ventilated. Carbon Monoxide alarms can be used
as a backup to provide a warning to householders in the event of a dangerous build up of carbon
monoxide.
Carbon neutral
A situation that arises when the amount of carbon dioxide released into the air equals the amount of
carbon dioxide removed from the air, for example by planting trees, or the amount saved by using
renewable energy sources to produce the same amount of energy. See also renewable energy.
Carbon offset
A unit, equal to one ton of carbon dioxide, that individuals, companies or governments buy to
reduce short-term and long-term emissions of greenhouse gases. The payment usually funds
projects that generate energy from renewable sources such as wind or flowing water. Individuals
can choose whether to buy an offset (for example to compensate for air travel), but governments
and large industries are sometimes required to buy them to meet international targets aimed at
reducing greenhouse gases.
Carbon tax
A tax on fuels according to their carbon content, which aims to encourage people and businesses to
use fuels with less carbon and reduce the amount of energy they use.
Carpooling
Sharing a car to a destination to reduce fuel use, pollution and travel costs.
CFCs
Short for ‘chloroflurocarbons’, which are chemicals used in manufacturing and, in the past, in
aerosol cans and refrigerators, which can damage the ozone layer.
CFL bulbs
Short for ‘compact fluorescent lamp’ bulbs, which are light bulbs that use a fraction of the energy
of traditional filament bulbs and last up to five times longer. CFL bulbs will completely replace
filament bulbs in Ireland by 1 September 2012.
‘Change’ campaign
The Government’s campaign to change how people in Ireland think about climate change and
encourage us to change how we behave. It includes a website, www.change.ie, which has carbon
calculators that can calculate the carbon foootprint of individuals, businesses and local authorities.
Civic amenity site
A public or private facility that accepts recyclable and non-recyclable materials such as garden and
household waste and certain hazardous wastes such as paints, batteries and electrical and electronic
devices. See also bring bank, recycling centre and WEEE.

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Climate
The pattern of weather in a particular region over a set period of time, usually 30 years. The pattern
is affected by the amount of rain or snowfall, average temperatures throughout the year, humidity,
wind speeds and so on. Ireland has a temperate climate, in which it doesn’t get too hot or too cold.
Climate change
A change in the climate of a region over time due to natural forces or human activity. In the context
of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, it is the change in climate caused by higher
levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities as well as natural climate
changes. See also global warming, and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Compost
A rich soil-like material produced from decayed plants and other organic matter, such as food and
animal waste, that decomposes (breaks down) naturally. Most food waste can be put into compost,
but you should not include meat, bones, cheese, cooking oils and fish. These may take a long time
to break down and attract unwanted pests.
Compostable
Material from plants or animals that can be used to create compost because it will decompose
naturally over time.
Composting
The process of deliberately allowing food, garden and other suitable organic wastes to break down
naturally over time to produce compost.
Conservation
Preserving or protecting animals and resources such as minerals, water and plants through planned
action (such as breeding endangered species) or non-action (such as not letting taps run
unnecessarily).
Cryptosporidium
A tiny parasite that can infect people if it is present in drinking water.
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D
Deforestation
The reduction of trees in a wood or forest due to natural forces or human activity such as burning or
logging.
Development plan
A public plan that sets out the development objectives and policies of a local authority for its area.
It covers a six-year period and states the local authority’s goals for a range of areas such as
maintaining and improving roads and parks, preserving and enhancing amenities (such as
playgrounds or swimming pools), zoning land for homes, businesses, factories and farming and
providing services and facilities such as waste disposal and sewerage. Members of the public have
opportunities to make submissions on the plan before it is agreed.
Dioxins
Highly toxic chemicals that can be formed in small amounts from forest fires or volcanoes but more
often are produced unintentionally from industrial activities and from incinerating waste and
burning fossil fuels.
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Disposal, dispose of
In this guide, getting rid of waste by discarding it into a bin and, when it is collected, by
incincerating it or sending it to landfill.
Domestic charges
Fees paid to local authorities for providing services such as collecting domestic waste.
Domestic waste
Waste produced within the home, including garden waste. See also household waste.
Draught proofing
A way to stop heat from escaping a home, for example by sealing window frames and using draught
excluders under doors.
Dumping
Disposing of waste illegally by not using bins or official recycling centres, civic amenity sites or
landfills.
Ecosystem
A community of organisms that depend on each other and the environment they inhabit.
Ecotourism
Small-scale tourism in fragile and protected areas that aims to have a low impact on the
environment, benefit local communities and enable tourists to learn more about the natural and
cultural history of the place. See also sustainable tourism.
Effluent
Liquid wastes such as sewage and liquid waste from industries.
Electric vehicle
A vehicle that is driven by an electric motor or battery and is generally less noisy and less polluting
than common combustion engine vehicles.
Emissions
In the context of the atmosphere, gases or particles released into the air that can contribute to global
warming or poor air quality.
Emissions projections
Forecast of emissions into the future taking into account current and future economic and policy
developments
Emssions Trading Allowance
Pemission to emit to the atmosphere, one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent, during a specific
trading period. The allowance is only valid for the purpose of the Directive and can only be
transferred in accordance with the Directive.
End-of-life vehicle
A vehicle such as a car or small van that is scrapped and sent for recycling.

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Energy efficiency
Actions to save fuels, for example better building design, changing production processes,
developing better transport policies, using better road vehicles and using insulation and double
glazing in homes.
Energy rating
A rating given to electrical appliances such as ovens, washing machines, dishwashers and
refrigerators according to how much energy they use. Ratings are on a scale from A to G, with A-
rated appliances using the least energy and G-rated needing the most. The less energy an appliance
uses, the better it is for the environment and the more you will save on your bill.
Energy Star®
A voluntary international label that identifies appliances that meet certain standards of energy
efficiency. Within the European Union, the label relates to office equipment such as computers and
photocopiers.
Environmental impact statement
A statement about the expected effects on the environment of a proposed project or development
such as a new road or waste water treatment plant, including how any severe effects on the
environment will be addressed.
F
Flora and fauna
The plants and animals that are native to a particular area or period of time.
Fossil fuels
Fuels – such as coal, gas, peat and oil – that are formed in the ground over a long time from dead
plants and animals and are used up once they are burned for energy.
Fuel poverty
Being unable to heat a home to a safe and comfortable level because of low household income or
having to spend more than 10% of household income to heat a home to a comfortable level because
the home is not energy efficient.
G
Global warming
The gradual increase in temperature of the Earth’s surface caused by human activities that cause
high levels of carbon dioxide and other gases to be released into the air.
Green bin
A wheelie bin used in certain local authorities to collect dry cardboard, paper, tins and other
recyclable waste, including certain plastics.
Green design
A design, usually of a building, that includes environmentally-friendly features such as solar panels,
skylights or recycled building materials.
Greener Homes Scheme
A system run by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEI) to provide grants to
homeowners who intend to install in their existing homes a new renewable energy heating system,

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for example heat pumps, solar panels or wood chip or pellet boilers. For more information, visit
the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland or lo-call 1850 734 734.
Greenhouse effect
The warming of the Earth’s atmosphere caused by increasing levels of gases, such as water vapour
and carbon dioxide. These gases absorb radiation emitted naturally from the ground, so slowing
down the loss of energy from Earth. The greenhouse effect has always existed; without it, Earth
would be too cold for plants, animals and people to survive. But because of the increase in
greenhouse gas emissions in recent years, the greenhouse effect is a lot stronger, so leading to
global warming. See also global warming, greenhouse gases and radiation.
Greenhouse gases
Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, which tend to trap heat radiating from the Earth’s
surface, so causing warming in the lower atmosphere. The major greenhouse gases that cause
climate change are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (NO2). See also
greenhouse effect and global warming.
Ground water
Water that collects or flows underground in the small spaces in soil and rock. It might be a source
of water for springs and wells and then used for drinking water.
Habitat
The area occupied by a community or species (group of animals or plants), such as a forest floor,
desert or sea shore.
Hazardous waste
Waste that poses a risk to human health or the environment and needs to be handled and disposed of
carefully. Examples include oil-based paints, car batteries, weed killers, bleach and waste electrical
and electronic devices.
Home Energy Saving Scheme
A scheme operated by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland to provide grants to certain
homeowners to improve the energy efficiency of their home. For more information, see the
Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland or lo-call 1850 927 000.
Household waste
Waste that contains paper, cardboard, textiles (for example fabric or carpet), timber, food, garden
clippings, glass, plastic and other manufactured materials.
I
Incinerator
A furnace that is designed to burn waste at very high temperatures under controlled conditions and
is licensed by national regulatory authorities. Most modern and efficient incinerator generate heat
and energy from burning waste.
Insulation
In this guide, material such as foam or glass wool that is used in homes and other buildings to
prevent heat loss, reduce noise and improve comfort.

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There are no terms starting with the letter J.
Kyoto Protocol, Kyoto agreement
An international agreement signed in Japan in 1997, attached to the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change. Under the agreement, which has been in force in Ireland since 2005, industrialised
countries promised to reduce their combined greenhouse gas emissions to at least 5 percent below
1990 levels over the period 2008-2012. See also UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
L
Landfill
A site that is specially designed to dispose of waste and operates with a licence granted by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA reviews licences and, with local authorities,
monitors landfills around the country for emissions.
Litter
Waste that is thrown away carelessly, mainly made up of plastic, metal, glass, paper or food.
Common examples are chewing gum and cigarette butts.
M
MBT
Short for ‘mechanical biological treatment’, which is a way of sorting and treating waste. The waste
is first sorted mechanically into materials that can and cannot be recycled. Any waste that can be
recycled is then broken down biologically, often through composting, while the rest is usually sent
to landfill. See also composting.
Mulch
Leaves, straw or compost used to cover growing plants to protect them from the wind or cold.
Municipal waste
Waste produced in urban areas, mainly made up of household waste but also some small
commercial waste that is similar to household waste.
N
Noise pollution
Noises that disturb the environment and people’s ability to enjoy it, for example continually
sounding house alarms, loud music, air conditioning or other electrical units and aircraft or motor
engines.
NPWS
Short for National Parks and Wildlife Service, which works under the Department of the
Environment, Heritage and Local Government to manage and maintain State-owned national parks
and nature reserves and protect and preserve Ireland’s native animals and plants.
NSS
Short for National Spatial Strategy, which is the Government’s 20-year plan to balance population
growth and social and economic development between different regions in Ireland. By matching
where people work more closely to where they live, the strategy aims to improve people’s quality
of life and sense of community, enhance local investment and create a better environment.

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Noxious gases
Poisonous gases that can harm people and the environment. Some gases have a strong smell, for
example sulphur dioxide and methane, while others, such as carbon monoxide, do not have any
smell at all.
Oil spill
The harmful release of oil into the environment, usually through water, which is very difficult to
clean up and often kills birds, fish and other wildlife.
Organic food
Plants and animals that are grown or reared without the use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides or
hormones.
Organic
In this guide, matter from living, or once-living, things.
Organism
Any living thing, from bacteria and fungi through to insects, plants, animals and humans.
Ozone layer
The thin protective layer of gas 10 to 50km above the Earth that acts as a filter for ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the sun. High UV levels can lead to skin cancer and cataracts and affect the growth
of plants.
Particulate matter
Fine solid or liquid particles that pollute the air and are added to the atmosphere by natural and
man-made processes at the Earth’s surface. Examples of particulate matter include dust, smoke,
soot, pollen and soil particles.
Pay by weight
A system in which the amount you pay for bin collections depends on the amount of waste you
throw away. The more waste you reduce, reuse, recycle or compost, the less you pay for waste
disposal.
Pesticides
A general term for any chemicals that are used to kill weeds, fungi, insects or other pests.
Permits
In the context of waste, certificates or other documents granted by local authorities to private
companies to collect and manage waste or to operate waste management facilities such as recycling
centres.
Planning permission
Permission granted by a local authority for new buildings or for extensions, once nobody objects to
the plans.
Plastic bag levy
An environmental tax that customers must pay when they accept a plastic or laminated bag from a
retailer. There is no tax on small bags, such as those for fresh meat or loose fruit and vegetables.
Money raised from the tax is put into a special fund that is used to protect the environment.

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Post-consumer waste
Waste collected after a consumer has disposed of it, for example sweet wrappers or packaging from
small electronic goods such as mobile phones or MP3 players.
Q
There are no terms starting with the letter Q.
R
Radiation
A form of energy that is transmitted in waves, rays or particles from a natural source, such as the
sun and the ground, or an artificial source, such as an x-ray machine. Radiation can be ionising or
non-ionising. Ionising radiation includes ultraviolet rays, radon gas and X-rays. Too much exposure
to ionising radiation can be harmful, leading to increased risk of cancer. Non-ionising radiation
includes visible light, radio waves and microwaves. This type of radiation is less risky to health
because it contains less energy, but it can still be harmful at high levels for a long time.
Radioactive
A material is said to be radioactive if it emits radiation.
Radon
A common radioactive gas emitted from ordinary soils and rock. Radon has no smell, taste or
colour and can seep into homes, building up to dangerous levels if there is not enough ventilation.
Being exposed to high levels of radon gas over a long period of time increases the risk of
developing lung cancer. For more information on how to check radon levels see our radiation
section.
Recycle
To break waste items down into their raw materials, which are then used to re-make the original
item or make new items.
Reforestation
The process of planting trees in forest lands to replace those that have been cut down.
Refuse
Another name for waste.
Renewable energy
Energy from renewable resources such as wind power, solar energy or biomass.
Renewable resource
A resource that can be used again and again without reducing its supply because it is constantly
topped up, for example wind or sun rays.
Reuse
To use an item more than once for the same purpose, which helps save money, time, energy and
resources.
River basin
The portion of land drained by a river and the streams that flow into it. The quality of a river basin
affects the quality of water, so efforts to protect and improve water quality must often include plans
for managing river basins.

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S
Sewage
Liquid wastes from communities, which may be a mixture of domestic effluent from homes and
liquid waste from industry.
Smog
Air pollution consisting of smoke and fog, which occurs in large urban and industrial areas and is
mainly caused by the action of sunlight on burned fuels, mostly from car exhausts. Smog can cause
eye irritations and breathing problems and damage plant life.
Smokeless fuel
Solid fuel, such as charcoal, that does not release smoke when it is burned.
Solar panel
A panel fixed to the roof of a building that uses special cells to collect energy from the sun and
convert it to electricity to heat the building and/or power the lights, appliances or equipment.
Standing charges
Fixed fees that must be paid for a certain period, often a year, to continue receiving a
service. Examples include standing charges for bin collections or gas supply. Other charges may
apply depending on the use of the service over a given period of time.
Surface water
Water that is collected on the ground or in a stream, river, lake, wetland or ocean.
Sustainable development
Development using land or energy sources in a way that meets the needs of people today without
reducing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable tourism
A form of tourism that meets the needs of current tourists and host communities while protecting
and enhancing tourism for the future by balancing economic and social needs with a respect for
different cultures and the environment. See also ecotourism.
T
Toxic
Poisonous or harmful to the body (ecotoxic relates to damage to the environment).
Toxin
A poisonous substance that can either be natural (produced by plants, animals or bacteria) or
manufactured.
Traffic calming, traffic management
Policies, rules or actions by a local authority designed to reduce traffic speed or limit the amount of
traffic in an area at certain times of day.
Tidy towns
An annual competition run by the Department for the Environment, Heritage and Local
Government to reward large and small towns around the country for their efforts to maintain and
improve their area. Towns can choose whether to take part and are given marks under a number of

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headings, such as landscaping, litter control, roads and footpaths, wildlife and natural amenities and
residential areas.
U
Utility (public)
A company that provides the public with essentials such as electricity or water.
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
An international treaty joined by 192 countries that has the goal of preventing ‘dangerous’ human
interference with the climate system and sets general rules for tackling climate change.
UNESCO World Heritage Site
A natural or man-made site that has outstanding universal value and meets at least one of 10
conditions decided by UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation. Ireland has two World Heritage Sites: the pre-historic sites of Newgrange, Knowth
and Dowth in Co. Meath and Skellig Michael, a religious settlement from the 7 th century off the
coast of Co. Cork.
V
Ventilation
In this guide, the movement of air between the inside and outside of a building usually through
windows, doors and air vents built into the building’s walls or ceilings.

W
Warmer Homes Scheme
A scheme, run by Sustainable Energy Ireland, that aims to improve the energy efficiency of private
owned or rented homes occupied by low income households. The scheme trains and offers grants to
community organisations to carry out work such as attic insulation, draught proofing, installing
lagging jackets and so on. For more information, see the Sustainable Energy Authority
of Ireland or freephone 1800 250 204.
Waste management
The management of waste collection, handling, processing, storage and transport from where it is
produced to where it is finally disposed. See waste prevention.
Waste prevention
An aspect of waste management that involves reducing the amount of waste we produce and
minimising the potential harm to human health or the environment from packaging or ingredients in
products.
Water vapour
Water in its gas form – instead of liquid or solid (ice).
WEEE
Short for Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), which are any unwanted devices
with a plug or battery – from a remote control or digital camera to a vacuum cleaner or fridge
freezer. These devices must be disposed of carefully to avoid damage to the environment. To get rid
of an unwanted device, you can bring it to a civic amenity site or leave it with a retailer when you
are buying a new device. All WEEE left in retail outlets and civic amenity sites are collected for
recycling.
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Wind energy
Energy harnessed from the wind at wind farms and converted to power. See also wind turbine.
Wind turbine
An engine or machine, usually mounted on a towe, that captures the force of the wind and converts
it to electricity.
Zero emissions
An engine, motor or other energy source that does not produce any gas or release any harmful gases
directly into the environment
Ambient air quality
Most frequently occurring pollutants in an urban environment are particulate matters
(suspended particulate matter i.e. SPM and respirable suspended particulate matter i.e. RSPM),
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone
(O3) and photochemical oxidants.
The recommended criteria for siting the monitoring stations
 The site is dependent upon the use/purpose of the results of the monitoring
programs.
 The monitoring should be carried out with a purpose of compliance of air quality
standards.
 Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of new/existing air pollution sources.
 Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of hazards due to accidental release of
chemicals.
 Monitoring data may be used for research purpose.
Type of ambient monitoring stations

Station type Description

Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central business districts, in

congested areas, surrounding by buildings, many pedestrians, average traffic
Type A
flow > 10000 vehicles per day. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height
2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Downtown neighbor hood exposure stations- In central business districts but

not congested areas, less high rise buildings, average vehicles < 500 vehicles
Type B
per day. Typical locations like parks, malls, landscapes areas etc.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

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 Residential population exposure station – In the midst of the residential areas
Type C or sub-urban areas but not in central business districts. The station should be
more than 100 m away from any street.

Mesoscale stations – At appropriate height to collect meteorological and air

Type D quality data at upper elevation; main purpose to collect the trend of data
variations not human exposure.

Non-urban stations – In remote non-urban areas, no traffic, no industrial

Type E activity. Main purpose to monitor trend analysis.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Specialized source survey stations – to determine the impact on air quality at

Type F specified location by an air pollution source under scrutiny.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Frequency of data collection

Gaseous pollutants: continuous monitoring
Particulates: once every three days
Number of stations
Minimum number is three.
The location is dependent upon the wind rose diagram that gives predominant wind directions and
speed.
One station must be at upstream of predominant wind direction and other two must at downstream
pre dominant wind direction.
More than three stations can also be established depending upon the area of coverage.
Components of ambient air sampling systems
Four main components are:
Inlet manifold
Air mover
collection medium
flow measurement device
Inlet manifold transports sampled pollutants from ambient air to collection medium or analytical
device in an unaltered condition. The manifold should not be very long. Air mover provides force to
create vacuum or lower pressure at the end of sampling systems. They are pumps. The collection
mediums are liquid or solid sorbent or dissolving gases or filters or chamber for air analysis
(automatic instruments). The flow device like rotameters measure the volume of air sampled.
Characteristics for ambient air sampling systems
Five main characteristicss are:
 collection efficiency
 sample stability
 recovery
 minimal interference
 understanding the mechanism of collection

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The first three must be 100% efficient. For e.g. for SO2, the sorbent should be such that at ambient
temperature it may remove the SO2 from ambient atmosphere 100%. Sample must be stabled
during the time between sampling and analysis. Recovery i.e. the analysis of particular pollutant
must be 100% correct.
 Basic considerations for sampling
 Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and conditions to be studied.
 Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis.
 The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection.
 Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in pollution levels i.e. whether
1-hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly sampling.
 Continuous sampling is preferred.
 Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.
 Errors in sampling by HVS
 Particulates may be lost in sampling manifold – so not too long or too twisted manifold must
be used.
 If ’isokinetic’ conditioned are not maintained, biased results may be obtained for particulate
matters.
 Advantages of HVS
 High flow rate at low pressure drop
 High particulate storage capacity
 No moisture regain
 high collection efficiency
 Low coast
 Not appreciable increase in air flow resistance
 Filter is 99% efficient and can collect the particles as fine as 0.3 µm
 Absorption principle is 99% efficient in collecting the gases
Principles of Sampling and Analysis
The components of an air pollution monitoring system include the
 -collection or sampling of pollutants both from the ambient air and from specific sources,
 -the analysis or measurement of the pollutant concentrations, and
 -the reporting and use of the information collected.
Emissions data collected from point sources are used to determine compliance with air pollution
regulations, determine the effectiveness of air pollution control technology, evaluate production
efficiencies, and support scientific research.
The EPA has established ambient air monitoring methods for the criteria pollutants, as well as for
toxic organic (TO) compounds and inorganic (IO) compounds.
The methods specify precise procedures that must be followed for any monitoring activity related to
the compliance provisions of the Clean Air Act.
These procedures regulate sampling, analysis, calibration of instruments, and calculation of
emissions.
The concentration is expressed in terms of mass per unit volume, usually micrograms per cubic
meter (µg/m3).
Particulate Monitoring
 Particulate monitoring is usually accomplished with manual measurements and subsequent
laboratory analysis.
 A particulate matter measurement uses gravimetric principles. Gravimetric analysis refers to
the quantitative chemical analysis of weighing a sample, usually of a separated and dried
precipitate.

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  In this method, a filter-based high-volume sampler (a vacuum- type device that draws air
through a filter or absorbing substrate) retains atmospheric pollutants for future laboratory
weighing and chemical analysis. Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the filters
are weighed to determine the volume of the pollutant. The weight of the filter with collected
pollutants minus the weight of a clean filter gives the amount of particulate matter in a given
volume of air.
 Chemical analysis can be done by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), atomic
fluorescence spectrometry (AFS), inductively couple plasma (ICP) spectroscopy, and X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy.
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)
 AAS is a sensitive means for the quantitative determination of more than 60 metals or
metalloid elements.
 Principle: This technique operates by measuring energy changes in the atomic state of the
analyte. For example, AAS is used to measure lead in particulate monitoring.
 Particles are collected by gravimetric methods in a Teflon (PTFE) filter, lead is acid-
extracted from the filter.
 The aqueous sample is vaporized and dissociates into its elements in the gaseous state. The
element being measured, in this case lead, is aspirated into a flame or injected into a
graphite furnace and atomized.
 A hollow cathode or electrode less discharge lamp for the element being determined
provides a source of that metal's particular absorption wavelength.
 The atoms in the unionized or "ground" state absorb energy, become excited, and advance to
a higher energy level.
 A detector measures the amount of light absorbed by the element, hence the number of
atoms in the ground state in the flame or furnace.
 The data output from the spectrometer can be recorded on a strip chart recorder or processed
by computer.
 Determination of metal concentrations is performed from prepared calibration curves or read
directly from the instrument.
Gaseous pollutant monitoring
 Gaseous pollutant monitoring can be accomplished using various measurement
principles.
 Some of the most common techniques to analyze gaseous pollutants include
 -Spectrophotometry,
 -Chemiluminescence,
 -Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID),
- Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and
- Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).
 With all sampling and analysis procedures, the end result is quantitative data.
 The validity of the data depends on the accuracy and precision of the methods used in
generating the data.
 The primary quality control measure is calibration.
 Calibration checks the accuracy of a measurement by establishing the relationship
between the output of a measurement process and a known input.

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 Variable
Method Principle
Measured
Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the
Gravimetric PM10, PM2.5 filters are weighed to determine the volume of the
pollutant.
more than 60
Atomic absorption metals or This technique operates by measuring energy changes in
spectrometry metalloid the atomic state of the analyte. Emitted radiation is a
(AAS) elements (e.g. function of atoms present in the sample.
Pb, Hg, Zn)
Measure the amount of light that a sample absorbs. The
Spectrophotometry SO2, O3 amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of analyte
present in the sample.
Based upon the emission spectrum of an excited species
Chemiluminescence SO2, O3
that is formed in the course of a chemical reaction.
Gas
chromatography
Responds in proportion to number of carbon atoms in
(GC) - flame VOC
gas sample.
ionization detector
(FID)
Gas
Mass spectrometers use the difference in mass-to-charge
chromatography-
VOC ratio (m/z) of ionized atoms or molecules to separate
mass spectrometry
them from each other.
(GC-MS)
Fourier Transform
Infrared CO, VOC, Sample absorbs infrared radiation and difference in
Spectroscopy CH4 absorption is measured.
(FTIR)

Spectrophotometry
 A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that a sample absorbs.
 The instrument operates by passing a beam of light through a sample and measuring the
intensity of light reaching a detector.
 Spectrophotometry commonly used to measure sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations.
 The amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of sulfur dioxide present in the sample.
Gas Chromatography (GC)
 Gas chromatography (GC) coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID) is employed for
qualitative identification and quantitative determination of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) in air pollution monitoring.
 The GC, consists of a column, oven and detector. In the gas chromatograph, a sample goes
to the column, separates into individual compounds and proceeds through the hydrogen
flame ionization detector.
 The flame in a flame ionization detector is produced by the combustion of hydrogen and air.
 When a sample is introduced, hydrocarbons are combusted and ionized, releasing electrons.
 A collector with a polarizing voltage located near the flame attracts the free electrons,
producing a current that is proportional to the amount of hydrocarbons in the sample.
 The signal from the flame ionization detector is then amplified and output to a display or
external device.

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  Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) instruments have also been used for
identification of volatile organic compounds. Mass spectrometers use the difference in
mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ionized atoms or molecules to separate them from each other.
Mass spectrometry is useful for quantification of atoms or molecules and also for
determining chemical and structural information about molecules.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
 FTIR can detect and measure both criteria pollutants and toxic pollutants in ambient air
 FTIR can directly measure more than 120 gaseous pollutants in the ambient air, such as
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone.
 The technology is based on the fact that every gas has its own "fingerprint," or absorption
spectrum.
 The FTIR sensor monitors the entire infrared spectrum and reads the different fingerprints
of the gases present in the ambient air.
 Carbon monoxide is monitored continuously by analyzers that operate on the infrared
absorption principle.
 Ambient air is drawn into a sample chamber and a beam of infrared light is passed through
it.
 CO absorbs infrared radiation, and any decrease in the intensity of the beam is due to the
presence of CO molecules.
 This decrease is directly related to the concentration of CO in the air.
 A special detector measures the difference in the radiation between this beam and a
duplicate beam passing through a reference chamber with no CO present.
 This difference in intensity is electronically translated into a reading of the CO present in
the ambient air, measured in parts per million.
Noise Pollution
What is Noise Pollution?
Sound is essential to our daily lives, but noise is not. Noise is generally used as an unwanted
sound, or sound which produces unpleasant effects and discomfort on the ears.
noise pollution for kids Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities
such as sleeping, conversation, or disrupts or diminishes one’s quality of life. Not all noise can be
called noise pollution. If it does not happen regularly, it may be termed as 'Nuisance'. Scientists also
believe that it’s not only humans who are affected. For example, water animals are subjected to
noise by submarines and big ships on the ocean, and chain-saw operations by timber companies
also create extreme noise to animals in the forests.
Generally, noise is produced by household gadgets, big trucks, vehicles and motorbikes on
the road, jet planes and helicopters hovering over cites, loud speakers etc.
Noise (or sound) is measured in the units of decibels and is denoted by the dB. Noise which is
more than 115 dB is tolerant. The industrial limit of sound in the industries must be 75 dB
according to the World Health Organization.
Noise is considered as environmental pollution, even though it is thought to have less
damage on humans than water, air or land pollution. But people who are affected by severe noise
pollution know that it is a massive issue that needs attention.
Causes of Noise Pollution
1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing large
amount of noise. Apart from that, various equipment’s like compressors, generators, exhaust fans,
grinding mills also participate in producing big noise. Therefore, you must have seen workers in
these factories and industries wearing ear plugs to minimize the effect of noise.

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2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also play a vital
role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking, frequent fights over
basic amenities leads to noise pollution which may disrupt the environment of society.
3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage, parties,
pub, disc or place of worship, people normally flout rules set by the local administration and create
nuisance in the area. People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight which makes the
condition of people living nearby pretty worse. In markets, you can see people selling clothes via
making loud noise to attract the attention of people.
4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aero planes flying over houses,
underground trains produce heavy noise and people get it difficult to get accustomed to that. The
high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person loses the ability to hear properly.
5. Construction Activities: Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges,
dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. These
construction activities take place every day as we need more buildings, bridges to accommodate
more people and to reduce traffic congestion. The down point is that these construction equipment
are too noisy.
6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our daily
life. Gadgets like TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners, washing machine
and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the amount of noise that is produced but
it affects the quality of life of your neighborhood in a bad way. While this form of pollution may
seem harmless, it in fact has far reaching consequences. The adverse effects on the health of the
environment are quite severe. Not only is the local wildlife affected by the pollution, humans also
face a number of problems due to it.

Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause
problems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without getting damaged.
Man made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes and even vehicles can be too
loud for our hearing range. Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily result in the damage
of our ear drums and loss of hearing. It also reduces our sensitivity to sounds that our ears pick up
unconsciously to regulate our body’s rhythm.
2. Health Issues: Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites,
bars and even in our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that the occurrence of
aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and hypertension can be linked to
excessive noise levels. These in turn can cause more severe and chronic health issues later in life.
3. Sleeping Disorders: Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may lead to
irritation and uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problems related
to fatigue and your performance may go down in office as well as at home. It is therefore
recommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.
4. Cardiovascular Issues: Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress related heart
problems are on the rise. Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes high blood pressure and
increases heart beat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow. Bringing them to a manageable level
depends on our understanding noise pollution and how we tackle it.
5. Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow two people to
communicate freely. This may lead to misunderstanding and you may get difficult understanding
the other person. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturb your emotional
balance.
6. Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because noise pollution since
they are more dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us since their

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survival depends on it. The ill effects of excessive noise begin at home. Pets react more
aggressively in households where there is constant noise.
They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems. In nature,
animals may suffer from hearing loss, which makes them easy prey and leads to dwindling
populations. Others become inefficient at hunting, disturbing the balance of the eco-system. Species
that depend on mating calls to reproduce are often unable to hear these calls due to excessive man
made noise. As a result, they are unable to reproduce and cause declining populations. Others
require sound waves to echo-locate and find their way when migrating. Disturbing their sound
signals means they get lost easily and do not migrate when they should. To cope up with the
increasing sound around them, animals are becoming louder, which may further add to the pollution
levels. This is why understanding noise pollution can help us lower the impact it has on the
environment. As of now, there do not exist many solutions to reduce sound pollution. On a personal
level, everybody can help reducing the noise in their homes by lowering the volume of the radio,
music system and the television. Listening to music without headphones is also a good step
forward. Removal of public loudspeakers is another way in which the pollution can be countered.
Noise pollution prevention and control tips
 Below are a few things people and governments can do to make our communities and living
laces quieter:
 Noise and nuisance Construction of soundproof rooms for noisy machines in industrial and
manufacturing installations must be encouraged. This is also important for residential
building—noisy machines should be installed far from sleeping and living rooms, like in a
basement or garage.
 Noise and nuisance Use of horns with jarring sounds, motorbikes with damaged exhaust pipes,
noisy trucks to be banned.
 Noise and nuisance Noise producing industries, airports, bus and transport terminals and
railway stations to sighted far from where living places.
 Noise and nuisance Community law enforcers should check the misuse of loudspeakers,
worshipers, outdoor parties and discos, as well as public announcements systems.
 Noise and nuisance Community laws must silence zones near schools / colleges, hospitals etc.
Noise and nuisance Vegetation (trees) along roads and in residential areas is a good way to
reduce noise pollution as they absorb sound.
What is Stack?
Stack is nothing but chimney which is used to disperse the hot air at a great height, emissions &
particulate matters that are emitted from the various types of stacks like boiler, flue gas etc. At
these heights the polluted air disperse in a very large area so that concentrations at ground are
within permissible limits and not harmful for humans, animals and vegetation.
There are several types of flue-gas stack based on fuel injections. Eg. DG set stack, flue gas
stack, process stack, furnace stack, boiler stack, chimney etc.
What are Requirements of Stack Emissions Monitoring & Testing?
Perfect Pollucon Services is a stack emission testing company having more than 30 years of
experienced experts. They know how to carry out these tasks in efficient manner.
• To determine the quality and quantity of air pollutants emitted by the source
• To measure effectiveness of pollutants controller equipment before and after installation
• To measure effectiveness of pollutants controller equipment for given condition
• To compare results with emission standards to take required action
• To compare changes in emission with the changes in processes or raw materials.
tack Monitoring Kit or Equipment
• Stack Monitoring kit used to find gaseous pollutants in emission from stationary source such as
Boiler Chimney, Process outlets, Scrubber outlets Etc by stack emission testing companies.

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• It also can be used to determine physical parameters such as exit emission velocity from stack,
temperature & flow of Air emission.
• Determination of total particulate matter using isokinetic Sampling Technique.
• Analysis of gaseous contaminants like SO2, SO3, NOx, Cl2, HCL, NH3 etc by using gas
monitoring system.
Stack emission monitoring Equipment is divided into Four Parts
Velocity Measuring Kit
Consist of inclined manometer, Digital Temperature Indicator, ‘S’ type Pitot tube & thermocouple.
Particulate Sampling Train
Thimble Holder & set of nozzles, condenser, Rotameter, Dry Gas Meter, Time indicator & power
source for synchronizing vacuum pump with sampling train.
Multigas Sampling Train
Consists four glass impingers housed in FRP casing with Rotameter for gaseous sampling
Vacuum pump
Diaphragm type vacuum pump of suitable capacity.
Stack Emissions Monitoring & Testing Procedure
Measurements of these pollutants follow specific predefined stack emission testing procedures and
protocols to ensure accurate and representative data of total amount of pollutants emitted into the
atmosphere from a given source in given time is collected.
Stack Emission Measurements
Collected Sample then tested and analysed in laboratory for components (Stack Emission
Monitoring Parameters) NOx (Oxides of Nitrogen), CO2 (Carbon Dioxide), CO (carbon
monoxide), SO2 (sulphur dioxide), VOC (Volatile Organic Compound) etc.
Also you can use our online Stack monitoring calculators to calculate Velocity head and Velocity
of gaseous flow in Stack.
Recently in Stack Emission Monitoring below mentioned two technologies introduced to measure
online stack emissions:
Piezoelectric Monitor – Stack Monitoring Equipment
In this equipment particles are electrostatically deposited on to a piezoelectric sensor by stack
emission testing companies.
Beta Attenuation Monitor – Stack Monitoring Equipment
In this equipment particulate sample is filtered using a continuous filter tape and the mass of
particulates filtered out is determined by measuring its radiations.
Stack Emissions Monitoring & Testing Services by our Company
Perfect Pollucon Services offers Stack emission testing services to keep check on industrial
waste stream that being released into the atmosphere.
Every industry or manufacturing company has to notify their stack emission levels to
pollution control board. We carry out various tests to determine pollutants concentrations, emission
rate or parameter. We also offer testing for benzene testing, toluene testing, heavy metal testing in
air, VOC emission monitoring and VOC Testing and analysis.
Air pollution control devices
Air pollution control devices are a series of devices that work to prevent a variety of
different pollutants, both gaseous and solid, from entering the atmosphere primarily out of
industrial smokestacks. These control devices can be separated into two broad categories - devices
that control the amount of particulate matter escaping into the environment and devices that control
acidic gas emissions. It is important to understand that the extraction methods for each specific type
of pollutant can differ, so the only the major methods are discussed. Although complex, these
devices have shown to be effective in the past with the overall levels of emissions for many
pollutants dropping with the implementation of these control devices.
Particulate Control

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 Specific machinery is used to remove particulate matter from flue gases. Much of this
separation uses physical means of separation and not chemical separation techniques simply
because particulate matter is large enough to be "caught" in this manner. Below are some of the
basic ways that particulate matter can be extracted.
Electrostatic Precipitators
An electrostatic precipitator is a type of filter that uses static electricity to remove soot and
ash from exhaust fumes before they exit the smokestacks.[2] Unburned particles of carbon in smoke
are pulled out of the smoke by using static electricity in the precipitators, leaving clean, hot air to
escape the smokestacks.[2] It is vital to remove this unreacted carbon from the smoke, as it can
damage buildings and harm human health - especially respiratory health.
Cyclone Separators
A cyclone separator is a separation device that uses the principle of inertia to remove
particulate matter from flue gases.[3] In these separators, dirty flue gas enters a chamber containing
a vortex, similar to a tornado. Because of the difference in inertia of gas particles and larger
particulate matter, the gas particles move up the cylinder while larger particles hit the inside wall
and drop down. This separates the particulate matter from the flue gas, leaving cleaned flue gas.
Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are one fairly simple method that can be used to remove dust from flue gases.
In some gases they can also remove acidic gases if they utilize basic compounds. This method
simply uses some sort of fabric - generally felt is used as a woven cloth would allow dust to make
its way through - is placed so that flue gasses must pass through it before exiting the smokestacks.
When the gas passes through, dust particles are trapped in the cloth.
Gas Control
More intense chemical methods of separation are generally required to separate polluting
gases from the flue gas. However, this extraction is important as many acidic gases in flue gas
contribute to acid rain. Below are some of the basic ways that gases can be extracted.
Scrubbers
Scrubbers are a type of system that is used to remove harmful materials from industrial
exhaust gases before they are released into the environment. These pollutants are generally gaseous,
and when scrubbers are used to specifically remove SOx it is referred to as flue gas desulfurization.
There are two main types of scrubbers, wet scrubbers and dry scrubbers. The main difference is in
the type of material used to remove the gases. By removing acidic gases from the exhaust before it
is released into the sky, scrubbers help prevent the formation of acid rain.
Incineration
Incineration is used to convert VOC emissions into carbon dioxide and water through
combustion. The incineration generally takes place in a specialized piece of equipment known as an
afterburner, which is built to create the conditions necessary for complete combustion (such as
sufficient burn time and a high temperature). Additionally, the incinerated gas must be mixed to
ensure complete combustion.
Carbon Captuxide can theoretic cally also be captured and stored underground or in
forests and oceans to prevent it from entering the atmosphere. Carbon capture and storage refers to
the process of capturing this carbon dioxide and storing it below ground, pumping it into geologic
layers. This process is rarely being used, but is talked about extensively as a way to limit
greenhouse gas emissions leading to climate change.
Scrubber
This article is about the pollution control device. For other uses, see Scrubber
(disambiguation). Scrubber systems (aka Chemical Scrubbers, Gas Scrubbers) are a diverse group
of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from
industrial exhaust streams. The first air scrubber was designed to remove carbon dioxide from the
air of an early submarine, the Ictineo I, a role for which they continue to be used till today.

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Traditionally, the term "scrubber" has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash
unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the term has also been used to describe systems
that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to "wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are
one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also
be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation. They are also used for the high
flows in solar, PV, or LED processes.
 Combustion
 Combustion is sometimes the cause of harmful exhausts, but, in many cases, combustion
may also be used for exhaust gas cleaning if the temperature is high enough and enough oxygen is
available.
 Wet scrubbing
 The exhaust gases of combustion may contain substances considered harmful to the
environment, and the scrubber may remove or neutralize those. A wet scrubber is used for cleaning
air, fuel gas or other gases of various pollutants and dust particles. Wet scrubbing works via the
contact of target compounds or particulate matter with the scrubbing solution. Solutions may simply
be water (for dust) or solutions of reagents that specifically target certain compounds.Process
exhaust gas can also contain water-soluble toxic and/or corrosive gases like hydrochloric acid (HCl)
or ammonia (NH3). These can be removed very well by a wet scrubber. Removal efficiency of
pollutants is improved by increasing residence time in the scrubber or by the increase of surface
area of the scrubber solution by the use of a spray nozzle, packed towers or an aspirator. Wet
scrubbers may increase the proportion of water in the gas, resulting in a visible stack plume, if the
gas is sent to a stack.Wet scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas
condensation. In this mode, termed a condensing scrubber, water from the scrubber drain is
circulated through a cooler to the nozzles at the top of the scrubber. The hot gas enters the scrubber
at the bottom. If the gas temperature is above the water dew point, it is initially cooled by
evaporation of water drops. Further cooling cause water vapors to condense, adding to the amount
of circulating water.The condensation of water releases significant amounts of low temperature heat
(more than 2 gigajoules (560 kWh) per ton of water [citation needed]), that can be recovered by the
cooler for e.g. district heating purposes. Excess condensed water must continuously be removed
from the circulating water. The gas leaves the scrubber at its dew point, so even though significant
amounts of water may have been removed from the cooled gas, it is likely to leave a visible stack
plume of water vapor.
 Dry scrubbing: A dry or semi-dry scrubbing system, unlike the wet scrubber, does not
saturate the flue gas stream that is being treated with moisture. In some cases no moisture is added,
while in others only the amount of moisture that can be evaporated in the flue gas without
condensing is added. Therefore, dry scrubbers generally do not have a stack steam plume or
wastewater handling/disposal requirements. Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove acid gases
(such as SO2 and HCl) primarily from combustion sources. There are a number of dry type
scrubbing system designs. However, all consist of two main sections or devices: a device to
introduce the acid gas sorbent material into the gas stream and a particulate matter control device to
remove reaction products, excess sorbent material as well as any particulate matter already in the
flue gas. Dry scrubbing systems can be categorized as dry sorbent injectors (DSIs) or as spray dryer
absorbers (SDAs). Spray dryer absorbers are also called semi-dry scrubbers or spray dryers. Dry
scrubbing systems are often used for the removal of odorous and corrosive gases from wastewater
treatment plant operations. The medium used is typically an activated alumina compound
impregnated with materials to handle specific gases such as hydrogen sulfide. Media used can be
mixed together to offer a wide range of removal for other odorous compounds such as methyl
mercaptans, aldehydes, volatile organic compounds, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide. Dry
sorbent injection involves the addition of an alkaline material (usually hydrated lime, soda ash, or
sodium bicarbonate) into the gas stream to react with the acid gases. The sorbent can be injected

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directly into several different locations: the combustion process, the flue gas duct (ahead of the
particulate control device), or an open reaction chamber (if one exists). The acid gases react with
the alkaline sorbents to form solid salts which are removed in the particulate control device. These
simple systems can achieve only limited acid gas (SO2 and HCl) removal efficiencies. Higher
collection efficiencies can be achieved by increasing the flue gas humidity (i.e., cooling using water
spray). These devices have been used on medical waste incinerators and a few municipal waste
combustors. IN spray dryer absorbers, the flue gases are introduced into an absorbing tower (dryer)
where the gases are contacted with a finely atomized alkaline slurry. Acid gases are absorbed by the
slurry mixture and react to form solid salts which are removed by the particulate control device. The
heat of the flue gas is used to evaporate all the water droplets, leaving a non-saturated flue gas to
exit the absorber tower. Spray dryers are capable of achieving high (80+%) acid gas removal
efficiencies. These devices have been used on industrial and utility boilers and municipal waste
incinerators.
 Absorber: Many chemicals can be removed from exhaust gas also by using absorber
material. The flue gas is passed through a cartridge which is filled with one or several absorber
materials and has been adapted to the chemical properties of the components to be removed.[6] This
type of scrubber is sometimes also called dry scrubber. The absorber material has to be replaced
after its surface is saturated.
 Mercury removal: Mercury is a highly toxic element commonly found in coal and
municipal waste. Wet scrubbers are only effective for removal of soluble mercury species, such as
oxidized mercury, Hg2+. Mercury vapor in its elemental form, Hg0, is insoluble in the scrubber
slurry and not removed. Therefore, an additional process of Hg0 conversion is required to complete
mercury capture. Usually halogens are added to the flue gas for this purpose. The type of coal
burned as well as the presence of a selective catalytic reduction unit both affect the ratio of
elemental to oxidized mercury in the flue gas and thus the degree to which the mercury is removed.
 Scrubber waste products: One side effect of scrubbing is that the process only moves the
unwanted substance from the exhaust gases into a liquid solution, solid paste or powder form. This
must be disposed of safely, if it cannot be reused. For example, mercury removal results in a waste
product that either needs further processing to extract the raw mercury, or must be buried in a
special hazardous wastes landfill that prevents the mercury from seeping out into the environment.
As an example of reuse, limestone-based scrubbers in coal-fired power plants can produce synthetic
gypsum of sufficient quality that can be used to manufacture drywall and other industrial products.

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 CHAPTER: 3
Bio medical waste
Duties of the Occupier.- It shall be the duty of every occupier to- (a) take all necessary steps to
ensure that bio-medical waste is handled without any adverse effect to human health and the
environment and in accordance with these rules; (b) make a provision within the premises for a
safe, ventilated and secured location for storage of segregated biomedical waste in colored bags or
containers in the manner as specified in Schedule I, to ensure that there shall be no secondary
handling, pilferage of recyclables or inadvertent scattering or spillage by animals and the bio-
medical waste from such place or premises shall be directly transported in the manner as prescribed
in these rules to the common bio-medical waste treatment facility or for the appropriate treatment
and disposal, as the case may be, in the manner as prescribed in Schedule I; (c) pre-treat the
laboratory waste, microbiological waste, blood samples and blood bags through disinfection or
sterilisation on-site in the manner as prescribed by the World Health Organisation (WHO) or
National AIDs Control Organisation (NACO) guidelines and then sent to the common bio-medical
waste treatment facility for final disposal; (d) phase out use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves and
blood bags within two years from the date of notification of these rules; (e) dispose of solid waste
other than bio-medical waste in accordance with the provisions of respective waste management
rules made under the relevant laws and amended from time to time; (f) not to give treated bio-
medical waste with municipal solid waste; (g) provide training to all its health care workers and
others, involved in handling of bio medical waste at the time of induction and thereafter at least
once every year and the details of training programmes conducted, number of personnel trained and
number of personnel not undergone any training shall be provided in the Annual Report; (h)
immunise all its health care workers and others, involved in handling of bio-medical waste for
protection against diseases including Hepatitis B and Tetanus that are likely to be transmitted by
handling of bio-medical waste, in the manner as prescribed in the National Immunization Policy or
the guidelines of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare issued from time to time; (i) establish a
Bar- Code System for bags or containers containing bio-medical waste to be sent out of the
premises or place for any purpose within one year from the date of the notification of these rules; (j)
ensure segregation of liquid chemical waste at source and ensure pre-treatment or neutralization
prior to mixing with other effluent generated from health care facilities; (k) ensure treatment and
disposal of liquid waste in accordance with the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 ( 6 of 1974); 5 (l) ensure occupational safety of all its health care workers and others involved
in handling of biomedical waste by providing appropriate and adequate personal protective
equipments; (m) conduct health check up at the time of induction and at least once in a year for all
its health care workers and others involved in handling of bio- medical waste and maintain the
records for the same; (n) maintain and update on day to day basis the bio-medical waste
management register and display the monthly record on its website according to the bio-medical
waste generated in terms of category and color coding as specified in Schedule I; (o) report major
accidents including accidents caused by fire hazards, blasts during handling of biomedical waste
and the remedial action taken and the records relevant thereto, (including nil report) in Form I to the
prescribed authority and also along with the annual report; (p) make available the annual report on
its web-site and all the health care facilities shall make own website within two years from the date
of notification of these rules; (q) inform the prescribed authority immediately in case the operator of
a facility does not collect the bio-medical waste within the intended time or as per the agreed time;
(r) establish a system to review and monitor the activities related to bio-medical waste management,
either through an existing committee or by forming a new committee and the Committee shall meet
once in every six months and the record of the minutes of the meetings of this committee shall be
submitted along with the annual report to the prescribed authority and the healthcare establishments
having less than thirty beds shall designate a qualified person to review and monitor the activities

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relating to bio-medical waste management within that establishment and submit the annual report;
(s) maintain all record for operation of incineration, hydro or autoclaving etc., for a period of five
years; (t) existing incinerators to achieve the standards for treatment and disposal of bio-medical
waste as specified in Schedule II for retention time in secondary chamber and Dioxin and Furans
within two years from the date of this notification. 5. Duties of the operator of a common bio-
medical waste treatment and disposal facility.-It shall be the duty of every operator to - (a) take all
necessary steps to ensure that the bio-medical waste collected from the occupier is transported,
handled, stored, treated and disposed of, without any adverse effect to the human health and the
environment, in accordance with these rules and guidelines issued by the Central Government or, as
the case may be, the central pollution control board from time to time; (b) ensure timely collection
of bio-medical waste from the occupier as prescribed under these rules; (c) establish bar coding and
global positioning system for handling of bio- medical waste within one year; 6 (d) inform the
prescribed authority immediately regarding the occupiers which are not handing over the segregated
bio-medical waste in accordance with these rules; (e) provide training for all its workers involved in
handling of bio-medical waste at the time of induction and at least once a year thereafter; (f) assist
the occupier in training conducted by them for bio-medical waste management; (g) undertake
appropriate medical examination at the time of induction and at least once in a year and immunise
all its workers involved in handling of bio-medical waste for protection against diseases, including
Hepatitis B and Tetanus, that are likely to be transmitted while handling bio-medical waste and
maintain the records for the same; (h) ensure occupational safety of all its workers involved in
handling of bio-medical waste by providing appropriate and adequate personal protective
equipment; (i) report major accidents including accidents caused by fire hazards, blasts during
handling of biomedical waste and the remedial action taken and the records relevant thereto,
(including nil report) in Form I to the prescribed authority and also along with the annual report; (i)
maintain a log book for each of its treatment equipment according to weight of batch; categories of
waste treated; time, date and duration of treatment cycle and total hours of operation; (k) allow
occupier , who are giving waste for treatment to the operator, to see whether the treatment is carried
out as per the rules; (l) shall display details of authorisation, treatment, annual report etc on its web-
site; (m) after ensuring treatment by autoclaving or microwaving followed by mutilation or
shredding, whichever is applicable, the recyclables from the treated bio-medical wastes such as
plastics and glass, shall be given to recyclers having valid consent or authorization or registration
from the respective State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee; (n) supply non-
chlorinated plastic coloured bags to the occupier on chargeable basis, if required; (o) common bio-
medical waste treatment facility shall ensure collection of biomedical waste on holidays also; (p)
maintain all record for operation of incineration, hydroor autoclaving for a period of five years; and
(q) upgrade existing incinerators to achieve the standards for retention time in secondary chamber
and Dioxin and Furans within two years from the date of this notification. 6. Duties of authorities.-
The Authority specified in column (2) of Schedule-III shall perform the duties as specified in
column (3) thereof in accordance with the provisions of these rules.
Treatment and disposal.- (1) Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed of in accordance
with Schedule I, and in compliance with the standards provided in Schedule-II by the health care
facilities and common bio-medical waste treatment facility. (2) Occupier shall hand over segregated
waste as per the Schedule-I to common bio-medical waste treatment facility for treatment,
processing and final disposal: Provided that the lab and highly infectious bio-medical waste
generated shall be pre-treated by equipment like autoclave or microwave. (3) No occupier shall
establish on-site treatment and disposal facility, if a service of `common biomedical waste treatment
facility is available at a distance of seventy-five kilometer. (4) In cases where service of the
common bio-medical waste treatment facility is not available, the Occupiers shall set up requisite
biomedical waste treatment equipment like incinerator, autoclave or microwave, shredder prior to
commencement of its operation, as per the authorisation given by the prescribed authority. (5) Any

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person including an occupier or operator of a common bio medical waste treatment facility,
intending to use new technologies for treatment of bio medical waste other than those listed in
Schedule I shall request the Central Government for laying down the standards or operating
parameters. (6) On receipt of a request referred to in sub-rule (5), the Central Government may
determine the standards and operating parameters for new technology which may be published in
Gazette by the Central Government. (7) Every operator of common bio-medical waste treatment
facility shall set up requisite biomedical waste treatment equipments like incinerator, autoclave or
microwave, shredder and effluent treatment plant as a part of treatment, prior to commencement of
its operation. (8) Every occupier shall phase out use of non-chlorinated plastic bags within two
years from the date of publication of these rules and after two years from such publication of these
rules, the chlorinated plastic bags shall not be used for storing and transporting of bio-medical
waste and the occupier or operator of a common bio-medical waste treatment facility shall not
dispose of such plastics by incineration and the bags used for storing and transporting biomedical
waste shall be in compliance with the Bureau of Indian Standards. Till the Standards are published,
the carry bags shall be as per the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2011. (9) After ensuring
treatment by autoclaving or microwaving followed by mutilation or shredding, whichever is
applicable, the recyclables from the treated bio-medical wastes such as plastics and glass shall be
given to such recyclers having valid authorisation or registration from the respective prescribed
authority. (10) The Occupier or Operator of a common bio-medical waste treatment facility shall
maintain a record of recyclable wastes referred to in sub-rule (9) which are auctioned or sold and
the same shall be submitted to the prescribed authority as part of its annual report. The record shall
be open for inspection by the prescribed authorities. 8 (11) The handling and disposal of all the
mercury waste and lead waste shall be in accordance with the respective rules and regulations. 8.
Segregation, packaging, transportation and storage.-(1) No untreated bio-medical waste shall be
mixed with other wastes. (2) The bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers or bags at
the point of generation in accordance with Schedule I prior to its storage, transportation, treatment
and disposal. (3) The containers or bags referred to in sub-rule (2) shall be labeled as specified in
Schedule IV. (4) Bar code and global positioning system shall be added by the Occupier and
common bio-medical waste treatment facility in one year time. (5) The operator of common bio-
medical waste treatment facility shall transport the bio-medical waste from the premises of an
occupier to any off-site bio-medical waste treatment facility only in the vehicles having label as
provided in part ‘A’ of the Schedule IV along with necessary information as specified in part ‘B’ of
the Schedule IV. (6) The vehicles used for transportation of bio-medical waste shall comply with
the conditions if any stipulated by the State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control
Committee in addition to the requirement contained in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 (59 of 1988),
if any or the rules made there under for transportation of such infectious waste. (7) Untreated
human anatomical waste, animal anatomical waste, soiled waste and, biotechnology waste shall not
be stored beyond a period of forty –eight hours: Provided that in case for any reason it becomes
necessary to store such waste beyond such a period, the occupier shall take appropriate measures to
ensure that the waste does not adversely affect human health and the environment and inform the
prescribed authority along with the reasons for doing so. (8) Microbiology waste and all other
clinical laboratory waste shall be pre-treated by sterilisation to Log 6 or disinfection to Log 4, as per
the World Health Organisation guidelines before packing and sending to the common bio-medical
waste treatment facility. 9. Prescribed authority.-(1) The prescribed authority for implementation of
the provisions of these rules shall be the State Pollution Control Boards in respect of States and
Pollution Control Committees in respect of Union territories. (2) The prescribed authority for
enforcement of the provisions of these rules in respect of all health care establishments including
hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, dispensaries, veterinary institutions, animal houses, pathological
laboratories and blood banks of the Armed Forces under the Ministry of Defence shall be the
Director General, Armed Forces Medical Services, who shall function under the supervision and

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control of the Ministry of Defence. 9 (3) The prescribed authorities shall comply with the
responsibilities as stipulated in Schedule III of these rules. 10. Procedure for authorisation.-Every
occupier or operator handling bio-medical waste, irrespective of the quantity shall make an
application in Form II to the prescribed authority i.e. State Pollution Control Board and Pollution
Control Committee, as the case may be, for grant of authorisation and the prescribed authority shall
grant the provisional authorisation in Form III and the validity of such authorisation for bedded
health care facility and operator of a common facility shall be synchronised with the validity of the
consents. (1) The authorisation shall be one time for non-bedded occupiers and the authorisation in
such cases shall be deemed to have been granted, if not objected by the prescribed authority within
a period of ninety days from the date of receipt of duly completed application along with such
necessary documents. (2) In case of refusal of renewal, cancellation or suspension of the
authorisation by the prescribed authority, the reasons shall be recorded in writing: Provided that the
prescribed authority shall give an opportunity of being heard to the applicant before such refusal of
the authorisation. (3) Every application for authorisation shall be disposed of by the prescribed
authority within a period of ninety days from the date of receipt of duly completed application
along with such necessary documents, failing which it shall be deemed that the authorisation is
granted under these rules. (4) In case of any change in the bio-medical waste generation, handling,
treatment and disposal for which authorisation was earlier granted, the occupier or operator shall
intimate to the prescribed authority about the change or variation in the activity and shall submit a
fresh application in Form II for modification of the conditions of authorisation.
11. Advisory Committee.-(1) Every State Government or Union territory Administration shall
constitute an Advisory Committee for the respective State or Union territory under the
chairmanship of the respective health secretary to oversee the implementation of the rules in the
respective state and to advice any improvements and the Advisory Committee shall include
representatives from the Departments of Health, Environment, Urban Development, Animal
Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences of that State Government or Union territory Administration,
State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee, urban local bodies or local bodies or
Municipal Corporation, representatives from Indian Medical Association, common bio-medical
waste treatment facility and non-governmental organisation. (2) Notwithstanding anything
contained in sub-rule (1), the Ministry of Defence shall constitute the Advisory Committee
(Defence) under the chairmanship of Director General of Health Services of Armed Forces
consisting of representatives from the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change, Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Armed
Forces Medical College or Command Hospital. 10 (3) The Advisory Committee constituted under
sub-rule (1) and (2) shall meet at least once in six months and review all matters related to
implementation of the provisions of these rules in the State and Armed Forces Health Care
Facilities, as the case may be. (4) The Ministry of Health and Defence may co-opt representatives
from the other Governmental and non-governmental organisations having expertise in the field of
bio-medical waste management. 12. Monitoring of implementation of the rules in health care
facilities.- (1) The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change shall review the
implementation of the rules in the country once in a year through the State Health Secretaries and
Chairmen or Member Secretary of State Pollution Control Boards and Central Pollution Control
Board and the Ministry may also invite experts in the field of bio-medical waste management, if
required. (2) The Central Pollution Control Board shall monitor the implementation of these rules in
respect of all the Armed Forces health care establishments under the Ministry of Defence. (3) The
Central Pollution Control Board along with one or more representatives of the Advisory Committee
constituted under sub-rule (2) of rule 11, may inspect any Armed Forces health care establishments
after prior intimation to the Director General Armed Forces Medical Services. (4) Every State
Government or Union territory Administration shall constitute District Level Monitoring
Committee in the districts under the chairmanship of District Collector or District Magistrate or

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Deputy Commissioner or Additional District Magistrate to monitor the compliance of the
provisions of these rules in the health care facilities generating bio-medical waste and in the
common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal facilities, where the bio-medical waste is treated
and disposed of. (5) The District Level Monitoring Committee constituted under sub-rule (4) shall
submit its report once in six months to the State Advisory Committee and a copy thereof shall also
be forwarded to State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee concerned for taking
further necessary action. (6) The District Level Monitoring Committee shall comprise of District
Medical Officer or District Health Officer, representatives from State Pollution Control Board or
Pollution Control Committee, Public Health Engineering Department, local bodies or municipal
corporation, Indian Medical Association, common bio-medical waste treatment facility and
registered nongovernmental organisations working in the field of bio-medical waste management
and the Committee may co-opt other members and experts, if necessary and the District Medical
Officer shall be the Member Secretary of this Committee. 13. Annual report.-(1) Every occupier or
operator of common bio-medical waste treatment facility shall submit an annual report to the
prescribed authority in Form-IV, on or before the 30th June of every year. (2) The prescribed
authority shall compile, review and analyse the information received and send this information to
the Central Pollution Control Board on or before the 31st July of every year. 11 (3) The Central
Pollution Control Board shall compile, review and analyse the information received and send this
information, along with its comments or suggestions or observations to the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change on or before 31st August every year. (4) The Annual
Reports shall also be available online on the websites of Occupiers, State Pollution Control Boards
and Central Pollution Control Board. 14. Maintenance of records.- (1) Every authorised person shall
maintain records related to the generation, collection, reception, storage, transportation, treatment,
disposal or any other form of handling of bio-medical waste, for a period of five years, in
accordance with these rules and guidelines issued by the Central Government or the Central
Pollution Control Board or the prescribed authority as the case may be. (2) All records shall be
subject to inspection and verification by the prescribed authority or the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change at any time.
E-waste is growing, and with that surge comes the need for effective electronics recycling
programs.People are urgently looking for information on TV recycling, computer recycling, and
other programs that will help them responsibly get rid of unwanted equipment while minimizing
any risk of information or identity theft.
With new cheap devices, society has reaped tremendous benefits. This explosive growth in the
electronics industry, however, has led to a rapidly escalating issue of end-of-life (EOL) electronics
or e-waste.
This issue is receiving considering increased attention by policymakers, industry, and consumers
alike. This is good news because many consumers are still not sure how to safely dispose of old
computers, smartphones or other electronic devices. According to one report, nearly 75 percent of
old electronics continue to be stored in households because of the unavailability of convenient
recycling options.
This article looks at some of the basic questions, such as defining e-waste, exploring why it is
important, how consumers can recycle, state legislation, and the issue of the international shipment
of hazardous e-waste.
What Is E-Waste
These EOL electronic devices, also known as e-waste and e-scrap, include such items as dated
computer equipment, stereos, televisions and mobile phones. Such items can often be refurbished or
recycled, yet a large amount still finds its way to the landfill. Current Low Recycling Rates
Combined with the rapid growth, recent recycling rates are still inadequate.
Why Is Electronics Recycling Important?

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 One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards from the electronic wastes.
The circuit boards contain such precious metals as gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base metals
as copper, iron, aluminum, etc. One way e-waste is processed is by melting circuit boards, burning
cable sheathing to recover copper wire and open- pit acid leaching for separating metals of
value.[55] Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding and separation but the recycling
efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as cryogenic decomposition have been studied for
printed circuit board recycling, and some other methods are still under investigation. Properly
disposing of or reusing electronics can help prevent health problems, reduce greenhouse-gas
emissions, and create jobs. Reuse and refurbishing offer a more environmentally friendly and
socially conscious alternative to down cycling processes.
 Rich Source of Raw Materials Internationally, only 10-15 percent of the gold in e-waste
is successfully recovered while the rest is lost. Ironically, electronic waste contains deposits
of precious metal estimated to be between 40 and 50 times richer than ores mined from the
earth, according to the United Nations.
 Solid Waste Management Because the explosion of growth in the electronics industry
combined with short product life cycle has led to a rapid escalation in the generation of
solid waste.
 Toxic Materials Because old electronic devices contain toxic substances such as lead,
mercury, cadmium and chromium, proper processing is essential to ensure that these
materials are not released into the environment. They may also contain other heavy metals
and potentially toxic chemical flame retardants.
 International Movement of Hazardous Waste The uncontrolled movement of e-waste
to countries where cheap labor and primitive approaches to recycling have resulted in health
risks to local residents exposed to the release of toxins continues to an issue of concern.
 The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency encourages electronic recyclers to become
certified by demonstrating to an accredited, independent third party auditor that they meet
specific standards to safely recycle and manage electronics. This should work so as to
ensure the highest environmental standards are being maintained. Two certifications for
electronic recyclers currently exist and are endorsed by the EPA. Customers are encouraged
to choose certified electronics recyclers. Responsible electronics recycling reduces
environmental and human health impacts, increases the use of reusable and refurbished
equipment and reduces energy use while conserving limited resources. The two EPA-
endorsed certification programs are Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-Stewards.
Certified companies ensure they are meeting strict environmental standards which
maximize reuse and recycling, minimize exposure to human health or the environment,
ensure safe management of materials and require destruction of all data used on electronics.
Certified electronics recyclers have demonstrated through audits and other means that they
continually meet specific high environmental standards and safely manage used electronics.
Once certified, the recycler is held to the particular standard by continual oversight by the
independent accredited certifying body. A certification board accredits and oversees
certifying bodies to ensure that they meet specific responsibilities and are competent to
audit and provide certification.
 Some U.S. retailers offer opportunities for consumer recycling of discarded electronic
devices. In the US, the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) urges consumers to
dispose properly of end-of-life electronics through its recycling locator at
www.GreenerGadgets.org. This list only includes manufacturer and retailer programs that
use the strictest standards and third-party certified recycling locations, to provide consumers

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assurance that their products will be recycled safely and responsibly. CEA research has
found that 58 percent of consumers know where to take their end-of-life electronics, and the
electronics industry would very much like to see that level of awareness increase. Consumer
electronics manufacturers and retailers sponsor or operate more than 5,000 recycling
locations nationwide and have vowed to recycle one billion pounds annually by 2016, a
sharp increase from 300 million pounds industry recycled in 2010.
 The Sustainable Materials Management Electronic Challenge was created by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Participants of the Challenge are
manufacturers of electronics and electronic retailers. These companies collect end-of-life
(EOL) electronics at various locations and send them to a certified, third-party recycler.
Program participants are then able publicly promote and report 100% responsible recycling
for their companies. The Electronics TakeBack Coalition[64] is a campaign aimed at
protecting human health and limiting environmental effects where electronics are being
produced, used, and discarded. The ETBC aims to place responsibility for disposal of
technology products on electronic manufacturers and brand owners, primarily through
community promotions and legal enforcement initiatives. It provides recommendations for
consumer recycling and a list of recyclers judged environmentally responsible.
 The Certified Electronics Recycler program for electronic recyclers is a comprehensive,
integrated management system standard that incorporates key operational and continual
improvement elements for quality, environmental and health and safety (QEH&S)
performance. The grassroots Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition focuses on promoting human
health and addresses environmental justice problems resulting from toxins in technologies.
The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) is an organization
dedicated to improving the quality of exported electronics, encouraging better recycling
standards in importing countries, and improving practices through "Fair Trade" principles.
Take Back My TV is a project of The Electronics Take Back Coalition and grades television
manufacturers to find out which are responsible and which are not.
 The e-Waste Association of South Africa (eWASA) has been instrumental in building a
network of e-waste recyclers and refurbishes in the country. It continues to drive the
sustainable, environmentally sound management of all e-waste in South Africa. E-Cycling
Central is a website from the Electronic Industry Alliance which allows you to search for
electronic recycling programs in your state. It lists different recyclers by state to find reuse,
recycle, or find donation programs across the country. Ewasteguide.info is a Switzerland-
based website dedicated to improving the e-waste situation in developing and transitioning
countries. The site contains news, events, case studies, and more. StEP: Solving the E-
Waste Problem This website of StEP, an initiative founded by various UN organizations to
develop strategies to solve the e-waste problem, follows its activities and programs.
 The Certified Electronics Recycler program for electronic recyclers is a comprehensive,
integrated management system standard that incorporates key operational and continual
improvement elements for quality, environmental and health and safety (QEH&S)
performance. The grassroots Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition focuses on promoting human
health and addresses environmental justice problems resulting from toxins in technologies.
The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) is an organization
dedicated to improving the quality of exported electronics, encouraging better recycling
standards in importing countries, and improving practices through "Fair Trade" principles.

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Take Back My TV is a project of The Electronics Take Back Coalition and grades television
manufacturers to find out which are responsible and which are not.
 The e-Waste Association of South Africa (eWASA) has been instrumental in building a
network of e-waste recyclers and refurbishers in the country. It continues to drive the
sustainable, environmentally sound management of all e-waste in South Africa. E-Cycling
Central is a website from the Electronic Industry Alliance which allows you to search for
electronic recycling programs in your state. It lists different recyclers by state to find reuse,
recycle, or find donation programs across the country. Ewasteguide.info is a Switzerland-
based website dedicated to improving the e-waste situation in developing and transitioning
countries. The site contains news, events, case studies, and more. StEP: Solving the E-
Waste Problem This website of StEP, an initiative founded by various UN organizations to
develop strategies to solve the e-waste problem, follows its activities and programs.
 Processing techniques
 Recycling the lead from batteries.
 In many developed countries, electronic waste processing usually first involves
dismantling the equipment into various parts (metal frames, power supplies, circuit boards,
plastics), often by hand, but increasingly by automated shredding equipment. A typical
example is the NADIN electronic waste processing plant in Novi Iskar, Bulgaria—the
largest facility of its kind in Eastern Europe. The advantages of this process are the human's
ability to recognize and save working and repairable parts, including chips, transistors,
RAM, etc. The disadvantage is that the labor is cheapest in countries with the lowest health
and safety standards.
 In an alternative bulk system, a hopper conveys material for shredding into an
unsophisticated mechanical separator, with screening and granulating machines to separate
constituent metal and plastic fractions, which are sold to smelters or plastics recyclers. Such
recycling machinery is enclosed and employs a dust collection system. Some of the
emissions are caught by scrubbers and screens. Magnets, eddy currents, and Trommel
screens are employed to separate glass, plastic, and ferrous and nonferrous metals, which
can then be further separated at a smelter.
 Leaded glass from CRTs is reused in car batteries, ammunition, and lead wheel weights,
or sold to foundries as a fluxing agent in processing raw lead ore. Copper, gold, palladium,
silver and tin are valuable metals sold to smelters for recycling. Hazardous smoke and gases
are captured, contained and treated to mitigate environmental threat. These methods allow
for safe reclamation of all valuable computer construction materials. Hewlett-Packard
product recycling solutions manager Renee St. Denis describes its process as: "We move
them through giant shredders about 30 feet tall and it shreds everything into pieces about the
size of a quarter. Once your disk drive is shredded into pieces about this big, it's hard to get
the data off".[76] An ideal electronic waste recycling plant combines dismantling for
component recovery with increased cost-effective processing of bulk electronic waste.
Reuse is an alternative option to recycling because it extends the lifespan of a device.
Devices still need eventual recycling, but by allowing others to purchase used electronics,
recycling can be postponed and value gained from device use.

MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous waste is any unwanted material the disposal of which poses a threat to the
environment, i.e. it is explosive, flammable, oxidising, poisonous/infectious, radioactive,

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corrosive and/or toxic/ecotoxic. Sources of hazardous waste in New Zealand include
hospitals, timber treatment, petrol storage, metal finishing, paint manufacture, vehicle
servicing, tanneries, agriculture/horticulture, electricity distribution and dry cleaning.The
waste can be treated chemically (i.e. by neutralisation, oxidation, reduction,hydrolysis,
precipitation), physically (encapsulation, separation), biologically (using microorganisms)
or thermally (incineration). Most treated waste is then deposited in landfills.
The Waste Management Hierarchy
In deciding on the best method for managing any waste there is a hierarchy for decision
making which addresses issues such as sustainability, cleaner production, health, safety, and
Environmental protection. It is applied to existing or proposed practices, examining and
testing these at each level, starting at the top of the hierarchy.
For hazardous waste the hierarchy is as follows:
 Eliminate the production of hazardous waste
 Where elimination is not possible apply methods to reduce the quantity or hazard
involved
 Minimise amount of waste for disposal by recycling, reuse and/or recovery. This
includes the recovery of energy which may be available from the waste.
 Treat waste to stabilise, immobilise, contain or destroy hazardous properties.
 Dispose of residues with a minimum of environmental impact.
 Appropriately contain, isolate and store hazardous waste for which no acceptable
treatment or disposal option is currently available.

Cleaner Production
Cleaner production refers to a precautionary approach which includes the goal of
preventing the generation of hazardous waste. Minimising the amount of hazardous waste
produced would be one of the objectives of a cleaner production programme. In many cases
the introduction of cleaner production measures brings economic benefits in addition to
savings in waste disposal costs.

TREATMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

Methods Available
The purpose of treating hazardous waste is to convert it into nonhazardous
substances or to stabilize or encapsulate the waste so that it will not migrate and present a
hazard when released into the environment. Stabilization or encapsulating techniques are
particularly necessary for inorganic wastes such as those containing toxic heavy metals.
Treatment technologies exist for most if not all hazardous wastes but some are not currently
available in New Zealand. Commercial facilities are available locally to effectively treat all
hazardous wastes arising except for organ chlorines such as PCBs, DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin
etc. This type of hazardous waste is referred to as intractable or problem waste and will be
discussed further later. Treatment methods can be generally classified as chemical, physical
and/or biological. Examples of methods currently available in New Zealand will be briefly
discussed below:
Chemical Methods
 Neutralization
Waste acid with an alkali e.g. sulfuric acid with sodium carbonate:
H2SO4 + CO32- → SO42- + CO2 + H2O

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  Oxidation
Using common oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide or calcium
hypochlorite e.g. cyanide waste with calcium hypochlorite:
CN-+ OCl- → OCN-+ Cl
OCN-+ H3O+→ CO2 + NH3
 Reduction
Used to convert inorganic substances to a less mobile and toxic form e.g. reducing Cr
(VI) to Cr(III) by the use of ferrous sulphate:
14H++ Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ → 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

 Hydrolysis
Decomposition of hazardous organic substances e.g. decomposing certain
organ phosphorus pesticides with sodium hydroxide. Precipitation Particularly useful
for converting hazardous heavy metals to a less mobile, insoluble form prior to
disposal to a landfill e.g. precipitation of cadmium as its hydroxide by the use of
sodium hydroxide:
Cd2+(aq) + 2OH- → Cd(OH)2(s)
Physical Methods
 Encapsulation
Immobilizing hazardous materials by stabilization and incorporation within a solid matrix
such as cement concrete or proprietary organic polymers prior to and filling. e.g.
encapsulating beryllium in concrete
 Filtration/Centrifuging/Separation
Physically separating phases containing hazardous substances from other nonhazardous
constituents e.g. separation of oils from ship bilges waters.
 Biological Methods
These involve the use of microorganisms under optimised conditions to mineralise
hazardous organic substances e.g. the use of pseudomonas under aerobic conditions break
down phenols.
 Thermal Methods
These are the treatment processes which involve the application of heat to convert the waste
into less hazardous forms. It also reduces the volume and allows opportunities for the
recovery of energy from the waste.
 High Temperature Incineration
In North America and Europe the treatment method most commonly used to destroy
hazardous organic wastes, including organ chlorines such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), is high temperature incineration. Incineration is the controlled combustion process
which can be used to degrade organic substances. For a simple hydrocarbon, involving
complete combustion, for example the chemical reaction can be illustrated as follows:
CxHy + (x + ¼y)O2 → xCO2 + ½yH2O.
 Combustion Parameters
Incinerators for the treatment of hazardous waste must be carefully designed and operated if
they are to achieve the efficiency of destruction required. Combustion of organics occurs in
two stages. In the primary stage, volatile matter is driven off leaving the remainder to burn
to ash. The volatiles are combusted in the secondary stage. Incinerators are designed

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accordingly. High temperatures are required, for most wastes 800-900oC is sufficient but for
materials with high thermal stability 1100oC or higher is required. This temperature must be
maintained for sufficient time to allow for complete combustion. For example, two seconds
at 1200oC would be suitable for most organic waste. As well as temperature and time,
sufficient air must be provided to supply the oxygen required for combustion. The process
should be designed to ensure that the air is provided in appropriate locations and in a
manner so as to promote the turbulence necessary to achieve effective mixing with the
combustible materials
RESPONSIBILITIES FOR OCCUPIER/WASTE GENERATOR FOR HANDLING
OF HAZARDOUS WASTES:
“Occupier” in relation to any factory or premises, means a person who has,
control over the affairs of the factory or the premises. Occupier is the overall
responsible person while handling the hazardous waste. He should ensure that the
waste handled should not create any imbalance to environment, by creating accidents
and damage to human beings. He should also require to ensure that the persons
working on the site with hazardous waste Should be trained and equipped necessary
to ensure their safe working.
The four main ingredients of hazardous waste transportation are
1. Authorization
2. Packaging
3. Labeling
4. Transportation
 AUTHORIZATION
Authorization required from state pollution control board/pollution control committee for
everyone, who engaged in waste management, which includes processing, treatment,
package, transportation, collection, conversion, sale and use of hazardous waste. To obtain
such authorization from SPCB/PCC the concerned person should make application inform 1
of the rules. The hazardous waste shall be collected, stored or re processed only in
authorized facility, by the SPCB/PCC.
 PACKAGING
The container which carries the hazardous waste should withstand the handling and retain
integrity for a minimum period of six months. Container requirements for packaging
hazardous waste enclosed in annexure 1 During transportation the container should not
break open or defective. It should be packed and sealed to prevent spillage of waste during
transportation. The packaging material should not affect from the contents of the waste.
 LABELLING: There are two types of labeling requirements:
Labeling of individual transport containers (ranging from a pint-size to a tank) Labeling of
transport vehicles.
• It should be marked clearly on the container with details of contents of the waste.
• Labeling of container shall be provided with a general label as per Form 12 of the Rules.
• It must be irremovable, waterproof and firm to the container.
• Containers that contain hazardous waste shall be labelled with the words “HAZARDOUS
WASTE” in Vernacular language, Hindi / English.
• Emergency contact phone numbers shall be prominently displayed.
• The information on the label must include the code number of the waste, the waste type,
the origin (name, address, telephone number of generator), hazardous property (e.g.

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flammable), and the symbol for the hazardous property (e.g. the red square with flame
symbol).
TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES:
Transportation is not only the responsibility of waste generator; it also includes the co-
processor, who utilizes the waste and transporter, who transport the waste from generator to
co-processor. The waste generator should ensure that wastes are packaged in a manner
suitable for safe handling, storage and transport. Labeling on packaging is readily visible
and material used for packaging shall withstand physical conditions and climatic factors.
The transport of hazardous waste containers shall be in accordance with the provisions of
the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Trans boundary Movement) Rules, 2008,
(herein after referred as HW (M, H & TBM) Rules) and the rules made by the Central
Government under the Motor Vehicle Act, 1988 and other guidelines issued from time to
time.
1. In case of transportation of hazardous waste through a State other than the State of origin
or destination, the occupier should intimate the concerned State Pollution Control Board,
before handing over the hazardous waste to the transporter.
2. The occupier shall provide the transporter with relevant information in Form 11 (i.e.
Transport Emergency (TREM) Card) of the HW (M, H & TBM) Rules regarding the
hazardous nature of the wastes and measures to be taken in case of an emergency.
3. All hazardous waste containers shall be provided with a general label as given in Form 12
of the HW (M, H & TBM) rules.
4. The occupier of the hazardous waste should ensure that the waste are packed and sealed
in manner good for handling and transportation.

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SIX R Concepts:

Rethink

Reprocessing Refused

SIX R

Reuse Reduce

Recycle

The six R’s

There is a common mantra that many of us were taught as children but do not always think
of on a daily basis. The mantra is reduce, reuse, and recycle, otherwise known as the three Rs. Over
the last half century, the amount of waste created per person in the United States has almost
doubled. The concept and promotion of the three Rs was created to help combat the drastic increase
in solid waste production.
 Reduce
Let's start with the first R, which is reduce. The three Rs are really a waste management
hierarchy with reduce being the most important strategy. In order to reduce the amount of waste
produced, it is essential to focus on the source of the waste, or where the waste is originally coming
from. Source reduction is when products are designed, manufactured, packaged, and used in a way
that limits the amount or toxicity of waste created.
The first goal of source reduction is simply to reduce the overall amount of waste that is
produced. The second goal is to conserve resources by not using raw, virgin materials. In other
words, by following source reduction, fewer raw materials will have to be used to produce products.
Some common industrial examples of source reduction include the creation of merchandise
using fewer materials. For example, the waste created from disposable diapers, which has
contributed a large amount of volume to landfills over the years, has been reduced by making
diapers with 50% less paper pulp. As technology increased, absorbent gel was created that was able
to replace the paper pulp.
Aluminum cans are also a good example of source reduction because they are now made
with 1/3 less aluminum than they were twenty years ago. Both of these examples not only reduce
the amount of overall waste created, but they also conserve the natural resources, aluminum and
paper pulp, that are used in the manufacturing.
Although most examples of source reduction take place on the manufacturing side, there are
several actions an individual can take to reduce the overall amount of solid waste they produce.
Some examples include sending emails instead of tradition mail, canceling unwanted catalogs
subscriptions, and fixing products instead of throwing them out.
 Reuse
The second most important strategy of the three Rs is to reuse, which is when an item is
cleaned and the materials are used again. This concept can be difficult because we currently live in
a world with many disposable items, and it takes some imagination and creativity to see how items
can be reused.

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 There are two main ways that the concept of reusing can be applied to reduce waste. First,
when purchasing a new item, you can look for a product that can be used repeatedly instead of a
version that is only used once and thrown away. The second way to reuse is to buy an item
secondhand, borrow, or rent an item, instead of buying the product new.
Although the items you reuse may eventually end up being waste, by reusing them you are
reducing the overall amount of waste produced by giving the item a second function and expanding
the typical lifespan of the item. The process of reusing can also be fun because it gives you the
opportunity to take an old or used item and turn it into something new to you.
There are many ways that you, as an individual, can reuse items. Some common examples
include shopping at thrift stores or yard sales for second hand items. You can also donate items you
no longer need to thrift stores so that someone else can use them. Another common method of reuse
is to bring your own reusable shopping bags instead of using plastic or paper bags provided at the
store.
In addition to individual actions, there are also some industries that implement the process
of reuse. Some smaller beverage companies use glass bottles to hold their products and promote
consumers returning the bottles. The company then cleans and refills the bottles for sale. It is
estimated that the average glass beverage bottle can make about 15 round-trips between the
manufacturer and the consumer before it must be recycled due to damage.
 Recycle
The third R in the hierarchy is for recycle, which in terms of waste is the reprocessing of
disposed materials into new and useful products. Items that are commonly recycled include glass,
plastic, paper, and metal. When recycled, some of these materials are used to create more of the
same original product, while other materials are used to create entirely different products after
recycling. In the 1960s, the United States only recycled around 6% of waste! As of 2010, the United
States recycled approximately 25% of the municipal solid waste produced. Although this
percentage may seem small in comparison to other countries, such as Switzerland and Japan that
recycle around 50% of waste, the current amount recycled in the United States is a drastic
improvement.
 Rethink Waste
a) Using a product to its full extent conserves natural resources, saves energy and reduces
pollution. It also extends the life of the product.
b) Reducing, reusing and recycling also extends the life of our landfills since generating less
garbage mean less space required to “store” our waste.
c) Keeping waste out of landfills reduces the greenhouse gases that are released from as the
material breaks down.
d) Diverting waste reduces collection and disposal costs.
e) It’s the right thing to do – for our own health and well-being and for generations to come.
 Refuse:
All materials must be at the curb on every day of service. If refuse materials are not
properly prepared, the garbage hauler will tag item(s) and leave them at the curb. Trash allotment
in the curbside rubbish program is based on typical one household weekly activity. No eviction,
clean-out or move-out set outs allowed. For removal of materials not covered by MMWA's
residential solid waste service, look in the Yellow Pages under "Rubbish" for a commercial refuse
hauler.
 Unlimited number of bags or cans of household-generated garbage allowed each week.
 Refuse must be in bags or cans no larger than 35 gallons or 50 lbs. each; bags must be
securely fastened.
 Set out weekly at curb by 7 a.m. on your assigned service day. Call municipality for assigned
service day.

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  Do NOT place any refuse materials in cardboard boxes. All boxes must be flattened and cut
to 2'x3'.
 Reprocessing
A hazardous secondary material is recycled if it is used or reused (e.g., as an ingredient in a
process), reclaimed, or used in certain ways including used in a manner constituting disposal and
burned for energy recovery. A material is reclaimed if it is processed to recover a usable product or
if it is regenerated (e.g., regeneration of spent solvents).
A material is used or reused if it is either employed as an ingredient in an industrial process
to make a product (e.g., distillation bottoms from one process used as feedstock in another process)
or if it is employed as an effective substitute for a commercial product (e.g., spent pickle liquor
used as a sludge conditioner in wastewater treatment).
"Use constituting disposal" is recycling that involves the direct placement of wastes or
products containing wastes (e.g., asphalt with petroleum-refining wastes as an ingredient) on the
land. "Burning for energy recovery" is recycling that involves burning a hazardous waste for its fuel
value (either directly or when it is used to produce a fuel).
Hazardous waste recycling is not only good for the environment, but can benefit an
organization’s bottom line. Reprocessing hazardous waste can increase production efficiency and
reduce costs associated with purchasing raw materials and waste management. By recycling
hazardous materials, a business may be able to eliminate the generation of hazardous waste and
avoid RCRA regulatory requirements altogether. A business may also benefit from the positive or
"green" image associated with hazardous waste recycling efforts For example; a company who
values strong corporate stewardship can increase goodwill with shareholders and consumers and
further distinguish itself from its competitors.

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 CHAPTER: 4

GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming, also referred to as climate change, is the observed century-scale rise in the average
temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects. Multiple lines of scientific
evidence show that the climate system is warming. Many of the observed changes since the 1950s
are unprecedented in the record which extends back to the mid-19th century, and in pale
climate proxy records covering thousands of years.
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report
concluded that "It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the
observed warming since the mid-20th century."The largest human influence has been the emission
of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Climate model projections
summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century, the global surface temperature is
likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in the lowest emissions scenario, and 2.6 to 4.8
°C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in the highest emissions scenario. These findings have been recognized by the
national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific
body of national or international standing. Future climate change and associated impacts will differ
from region to region around the globe. Anticipated effects include increasing global temperatures,
rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion of deserts in the subtropics. Warming is
expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic, with the continuing
retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely changes include more frequent extreme
weather events such as heat waves, droughts, heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall; ocean
acidification; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to
humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of
populated areas due to rising sea levels. Because the climate system has a large "inertia" and
greenhouse gases will remain in the atmosphere for a long time, many of these effects will persist
for not only decades or centuries, but for tens of thousands of years to come. Possible societal
responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects,
building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future climate engineering. Most countries are
parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), whose
ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change. Parties to the UNFCCC
have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are requiredand that global warming should be limited to
well below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) compared to pre-industrial levels, with efforts made to limit warming to
1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing.
A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed that a median of 54% of all respondents asked
consider it "a very serious problem". Significant regional differences exist, with Americans and
Chinese (whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions) among the least
concerned.

Global Emissions atmospheric gases

Carbon Dioxide Emissions
 Properties of Carbon Dioxide
 Chemical Formula: CO2
 Lifetime in Atmosphere: See below*
 Global Warming Potential (100-year): 1

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Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. In 2015,
CO2 accounted for about 82.2% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.
Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle (the natural
circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals). Human activities are
altering the carbon cycle–both by adding more CO2 to the atmosphere and by influencing the
ability of natural sinks, like forests, to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. While CO2 emissions
come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are responsible for the increase
that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution.
The main human activity that emits CO2 is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil)
for energy and transportation, although certain industrial processes and land-use changes also emit
CO2. The main sources of CO2 emissions in the United States are described below.
Electricity. Electricity is a significant source of energy in the United States and is used to power
homes, business, and industry. In 2015 the combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity was the
largest single source of CO2 emissions in the nation, accounting for about 35 percent of total U.S.
CO2 emissions and 29 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. The type of fossil fuel used
to generate electricity will emit different amounts of CO2. To produce a given amount of electricity,
burning coal will produce more CO2 than oil or natural gas.
Transportation. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel to transport people and
goods was the second largest source of CO2 emissions in 2015, accounting for about 32 percent of
total U.S. CO2 emissions and 26 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. This category
includes transportation sources such as highway vehicles, air travel, marine transportation, and rail.
Industry. Many industrial processes emit CO2 through fossil fuel combustion. Several processes
also produce CO2 emissions through chemical reactions that do not involve combustion; for
example, the production and consumption of mineral products such as cement, the production of
metals such as iron and steel, and the production of chemicals. Fossil fuel combustion from various
industrial processes accounted for about 15 percent of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 12 percent of
total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2015. Note that many industrial processes also use
electricity and therefore indirectly cause the emissions from the electricity production.
Carbon dioxide is constantly being exchanged among the atmosphere, ocean, and land surface as it
is both produced and absorbed by many microorganisms, plants, and animals. However, emissions
and removal of CO2 by these natural processes tend to balance. Since the Industrial Revolution
began around 1750, human activities have contributed substantially to climate change by adding
CO2 and other heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere.

Methane Emissions

 Properties of Methane
 Chemical Formula: CH4
 Lifetime in Atmosphere: 12 years
 Global Warming Potential (100-year): 25
In 2015, methane (CH4) accounted for about 10 percent of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from
human activities. Methane is emitted by natural sources such as wetlands, as well as human
activities such as leakage from natural gas systems and the raising of livestock. Natural processes in
soil and chemical reactions in the atmosphere help remove CH4 from the atmosphere. Methane's
lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter than carbon dioxide (CO2), but CH4 is more efficient at
trapping radiation than CO2. Pound for pound, the comparative impact of CH4 is more than 25
times greater than CO2 over a 100-year period.

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Globally, over 60 percent of total CH4 emissions come from human activities.1 Methane is emitted
from industry, agriculture, and waste management activities, described below.
Energy and Industry: Natural gas and petroleum systems are the largest source of CH4 emissions in
the United States. Methane is the primary component of natural gas. Methane is emitted to the
atmosphere during the production, processing, storage, transmission, and distribution of natural gas.
Because gas is often found alongside petroleum, the production, refinement, transportation, and
storage of crude oil is also a source of CH4 emissions. For more information, see the Inventory of
U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks sections on Natural Gas Systems and Petroleum
Systems.
Agriculture: Domestic livestock such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats produce large amounts of
CH4 as part of their normal digestive process. Also, when animals' manure is stored or managed in
lagoons or holding tanks, CH4 is produced. Because humans raise these animals for food and other
products, the emissions are considered human-related. When livestock and manure emissions are
combined, the Agriculture sector is the primary source of CH4 emissions. For more information,
see the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks Agriculture chapter.
Waste from Homes and Businesses: Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes and in
the treatment of wastewater. Landfills are the third largest source of CH4 emissions in the United
States. For more information, see the U.S. Inventory's Waste chapter.
Nitrous Oxide Emissions

 Properties of Nitrous Oxide

 Chemical Formula: N2O
 Lifetime in Atmosphere: 114 years
 Global Warming Potential (100-year): 298
In 2015, nitrous oxide (N2O) accounted for about 5 percent of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions
from human activities. Nitrous oxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's
nitrogen cycle, and has a variety of natural sources. However, human activities such as agriculture,
fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management, and industrial processes are increasing the amount
of N2O in the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide molecules stay in the atmosphere for an average of 114
years before being removed by a sink or destroyed through chemical reactions. The impact of 1
pound of N2O on warming the atmosphere is almost 300 times that of 1 pound of carbon dioxide.
Globally, about 40 percent of total N2O emissions come from human activities.1 Nitrous oxide is
emitted from agriculture, transportation, and industry activities, described below.
Agriculture: Nitrous oxide is emitted when people add nitrogen to the soil through the use of
synthetic fertilizers. Agricultural soil management is the largest source of N2O emissions in the
United States, accounting for about 75 percent of total U.S. N2O emissions in 2015. Nitrous oxide is
also emitted during the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine, which contributed to
5 percent of N2O emissions in 2015.
Fuel Combustion: Nitrous oxide is emitted when fuels are burned. The amount of N2O emitted from
burning fuels depends on the type of fuel and combustion technology, maintenance, and operating
practices.
Industry: Nitrous oxide is generated as a byproduct during the production of nitric acid, which is
used to make synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the production of adipic acid, which is used to
make fibers, like nylon, and other synthetic products.
Fluorinated Gases

 Properties of F-gases

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  Chemical Formula:
 HFCs, PFCs, NF3, SF6
 Lifetime in Atmosphere:
 HFCs: up to 270 years
 PFCs: 2,600–50,000 years
 NF3: 740 years
 SF6: 3,200 years
 Global Warming Potential (100-year):
 HFCs: up to 14,800
 PFCs: 7,390–12,200
 NF3: 17,200
 SF6: 22,800
Unlike many other greenhouse gases, fluorinated gases have no natural sources and only come from
human-related activities. They are emitted through a variety of industrial processes such as
aluminum and semiconductor manufacturing. Many fluorinated gases have very high global
warming potentials (GWPs) relative to other greenhouse gases, so small atmospheric concentrations
can have large effects on global temperatures. They can also have long atmospheric lifetimes—in
some cases, lasting thousands of years. Like other long-lived greenhouse gases, most fluorinated
gases are well-mixed in the atmosphere, spreading around the world after they are emitted. Many
fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the
far upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the most potent and longest lasting type of
greenhouse gases emitted by human activities.
There are four main categories of fluorinated gases—hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per
fluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). The largest sources
of fluorinated gas emissions are described below.
Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances: Hydro fluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol
propellants, and foam blowing agents, solvents, and fire retardants. The major emissions source of
these compounds is their use as refrigerants—for example, in air conditioning systems in both
vehicles and buildings. These chemicals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) because they do not deplete the stratospheric
ozone layer. Chlorofluorocarbons and HCFCs are being phased out under an international
agreement, called the Montreal Protocol. HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with high GWPs, and
they are released into the atmosphere during manufacturing processes and through leaks, servicing,
and disposal of equipment in which they are used. Newly developed hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) are
a subset of HFCs and are characterized by short atmospheric lifetimes and low GWPs. HFOs are
currently being introduced as refrigerants, aerosol propellants and foam blowing agents.
Industry: Per fluorocarbons are compounds produced as a byproduct of various industrial processes
associated with aluminum production and the manufacturing of semiconductors. PFCs generally
have long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs. Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium
processing and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for leak detection. HFC-23 is
produced as a byproduct of HCFC-22 production.
Transmission and Distribution of Electricity: Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission
equipment, including circuit breakers. The GWP of SF6 is 22,800, making it the most potent
greenhouse gas that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has evaluated.

The Kyoto Protocol

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The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (a) global warming is occurring and (b) it is
extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused it. The Kyoto
Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997 and entered into force on February
16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties (Canada withdrew effective December 2012) to the
Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Art. 2). The Protocol is based on the principle
of common but differentiated responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on
developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second commitment
period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol, in which 37
countries have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus,
Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan and
Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the
Amendment with second round targets. Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in
Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other
developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto
Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol). As of July 2016, 66[9]
states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144
states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments, 7 have ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on
measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in the 2015
adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an
amendment of the Kyoto protocol.
Background

The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global
mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current
scientific thinking. Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the
21st century and beyond. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) has
produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be.
The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections, meaning that they assume no future efforts are
made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period from the
beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. The "likely" range (as assessed to have
a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgment) is a projected
increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C. The range in
temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions.
Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development
(e.g., economic growth, population level, energy policies), which in turn affects projections of
future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the
climate system to past and future GHG emissions (measured by the climate sensitivity).
Objectives

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 The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (i.e., human-
emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG
emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty follows the main principles
agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I
Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas
emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012).
These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol. The Kyoto
Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (Gupta et al., 2007). The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling
emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to
establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period.The first period
emission reduction commitments expired on December 31, 2012. The ultimate objective of the
UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. “Even if Annex I Parties
succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be
required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. For each of the different
anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the
objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most
important anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would
ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

 Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol is that it established
legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The
commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations
leading up to the Protocol.
 Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to
prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In
addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms
available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading,
in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
 Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate
change.
 Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
 Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments
under the Protocol.
 Signing vs. Ratification
 While almost every country in the world has signed the Kyoto Protocol, the signature alone is
symbolic; a token gesture of support. Ratification carries legal obligations and effectively becomes
a contractual arrangement.
 169 countries have ratified the agreement. Of the signatories, only 2 refused to ratify Kyoto up until
December of 2007 - Australia and the USA.
 Australia negotiated hard when the Kyoto Protocol was being developed; in fact it was to be
allowed an 8% increase in emissions. Even so, Australia refused to ratify the agreement until a
change in government in late 2007. The excuse - it will be bad for Australia's economy, the same
reasoning the USA uses.
 I seem to remember the same sorts of fears in regards to the computer age, but regardless of even
that, in order to have a healthy economy, you need a reasonably healthy environment to support it.

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What makes the USA and Australia's (previous) position even more untenable is that the USA, as
seen above, is currently the largest emitter of carbon dioxide in total of any country. Australia holds
the shameful record for the highest amount of carbon dioxide emissions per person.

Kyoto - success or failure?

The Kyoto Protocol, while well intentioned, would appear to be doomed to failing its objectives
even before the 2008-2012 averaging period commences. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
are rising at a frightening rate with no sign of slowing. Global temperatures are continuing to rise.
The science behind Kyoto was shaky due to the limited availability of crucial data and knowledge
at the time; particularly in regard to positive feedback loops in nature being revealed that amplify
warming and prevent carbon dioxide from being absorbed. Scientists studying global warming are
finding Nature fighting back in ways they never contemplated daily.
Without the USA ratifying the protocol or recently emerging economic powerhouses such as China
reducing emissions drastically; the targets will likely not be met.
Even the "permissible" degree of global warming generated by target levels (if reached) will have
far greater environmental impact that was originally envisioned. Kyoto should be viewed as a
stepping stone to more drastic action. And that action is required now.
Beyond Kyoto
Politicians and diplomats will continue to argue finger point and delay massive action due to a silo
mentality. Many elected officials are concerned only with the careers, their political parties, the
term of office or winning the next election. The patriots are concerned only with their countries.
They have not been trained to think globally in terms of the environment.
The scientific community has made it abundantly clear. We are in deep trouble. This is a global
issue that does not care about race, color or creed, nonpolitical affiliation, although ironically the
people who produce the least emissions will be the ones to suffer the most. That's always been the
way of humanity.
It's down to us as individuals to not only do what we can to reduce our own carbon emissions, but
to raise the awareness of others until collectively our shouts are such a mighty voice that no
politician can ignore it. Better they hear the shouts of protest now than the screams of agony from
wars over natural resources or the wailing of starvation in the future .. and it may well be their own
voices amongst the anguish; that's how little time we have left.

ACID RAIN
What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry
forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
Causes of Acid Rain

Both natural and man-made sources are known to play a role in the formation of acid rain. But, it is
mainly caused by combustion of fossil fuels which results in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx).

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1. Natural Sources: The major natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Volcanoes
emit acid producing gases to create higher than normal amounts of acid rain or any other form of
precipitation such as fog and snow to an extent of affecting vegetation cover and health of residents
within the surrounding. Decaying vegetation, wildfires and biological processes within the
environment also generate the acid rain forming gases. Dimethly sulfide is a typical example of a
major biological contributor to sulfur containing elements into the atmosphere. Lightning strikes
also naturally produce nitric oxides that react with water molecules via electrical activity to produce
nitric acid, thereby forming acid rain.
2. Man-made sources: Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulfur and
nitrogen are the primary contributors to acid rain. The activities include air pollution sources
emitting sulfur and nitrogen gases like factories, power generations facilities, and automobiles. In
particular, use of coal for electrical power generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous emissions
leading to acid rain. Automobiles and factories also release high scores of gaseous emissions on
daily basis into the air, especially in highly industrialized areas and urban regions with large
numbers of car traffic. These gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals
to form various acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. As a
result, these areas experience exceedingly high amounts of acid rain. The existing winds blow these
acidic compounds over large areas across borders and they fall back to the ground in the form of
acid rain or other forms of precipitation. Upon reaching the earth, it flows across the surface,
absorbs into the soil and enters into lakes and rivers and finally gets mixed up with sea water. The
gases i.e. i.e. sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are primarily gases occurring from
electric power generation by burning coal and responsible for acid rain. Forms of Acid Deposition
Wet Deposition
Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric and nitric acids
formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.

Dry Deposition
Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in the absence of moisture as dry
deposition. The acidic particles and gases may deposit to surfaces (water bodies, vegetation,
buildings) quickly or may react during atmospheric transport to form larger particles that can be
harmful to human health. When the accumulated acids are washed off a surface by the next rain,
this acidic water flows over and through the ground, and can harm plants and wildlife, such as
insects and fish. The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth through dry
deposition depends on the amount of rainfall an area receives. For example, in desert areas the ratio
of dry to wet deposition is higher than an area that receives several inches of rain each year.
Measuring Acid Rain
Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower a
substance's pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a substance's pH (greater than 7), the
more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide
(CO2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid. Acid rain usually has a pH between 4.2 and
4.4.
Policymakers, research scientists, ecologists, and modelers rely on the National Atmospheric
Deposition Program’s (NADP) National Trends Network (NTN) for measurements of wet
deposition. The NADP/NTN collects acid rain at more than 250 monitoring sites throughout the
US, Canada, Alaska, Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands. Unlike wet deposition, dry deposition is
difficult and expensive to measure. Dry deposition estimates for nitrogen and sulfur pollutants are
provided by the Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET). Air concentrations are
measured by CASTNET at more than 90 locations.

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When acid deposition is washed into lakes and streams, it can cause some to turn acidic. The Long-
Term Monitoring (LTM) Network measures and monitors surface water chemistry at over 280 sites
to provide valuable information on aquatic ecosystem health and how water bodies respond to
changes in acid-causing emissions and acid deposition.

Effects of Acid Rain:

Effect on Aquatic Environment: Acid rain either falls directly on aquatic bodies or gets run off the
forests, roads and fields to flow into streams, rivers and lakes. Over a period of time, acids get
accumulated in the water and lower the overall pH of the water body. The aquatic plants and
animals need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. If the pH level falls below that the
conditions become hostile for the survival of aquatic life. Acid rain tendency of altering pH and
aluminum concentrations greatly affects pH concentration levels in surface water, thereby affecting
fish as well as other aquatic life-forms. At pH levels below 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. Lower
pHs can also kill adult fish. Acid rain runoff from catchment areas into rivers and lakes has also
reduced biodiversity as rivers and lakes become more acidic. Species including fish, plant and
insect types in some lakes, rivers and brooks have been reduced and some even completely
eliminated owing to excess acid rain flowing into the waters.
Effect on Forests: It makes trees vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects by destroying
their leaves, damaging the bark and arresting their growth. Forest damage due to acid rain is most
evident in Eastern Europe – especially Germany, Poland and Switzerland.
Effect on Soil: Acid rain highly impacts on soil chemistry and biology. It means, soil microbes
and biological activity as well as soil chemical compositions such as soil pH are damaged or
reversed due to the effects of acid rain. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH level for the
continuity of biological activity. When acid rains seep into the soil, it means higher soil pH, which
damages or reverses soil biological and chemical activities. Hence, sensitive soil microorganisms
that cannot adapt to changes in pH are killed. High soil acidity also denatures enzymes for the soil
microbes. On the same breadth, hydrogen ions of acid rain leach away vital minerals and nutrients
such as calcium and magnesium.
Vegetation Cover and Plantations: The damaging effects of acid rain on soil and high levels of dry
depositions have endlessly damaged high altitude forests and vegetation cover since they are mostly
encircled by acidic fogs and clouds. Besides, the widespread effects of acid rain on ecological
harmony have lead to stunted growth and even death of some forests and vegetation cover.
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Effect on Architecture and Buildings: Acid rain on buildings, especially those constructed with
limestone, react with the minerals and corrode them away. This leaves the building weak and
susceptible to decay. Modern buildings, cars, airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all affected by
acid rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the old heritage buildings.
Effect on Public Health: When in atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases and their
particulate matter derivatives like sulfates and nitrates, degrades visibility and can cause accidents,
leading to injuries and deaths. Human health is not directly affected by acid rain because acid rain
water is too dilute to cause serious health problems. However, the dry depositions also known as
gaseous particulates in the air which in this case are nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide can cause
serious health problems when inhaled. Intensified levels of acid depositions in dry form in the air
can cause lung and heart problems such as bronchitis and asthma.
Other Effects: Acid rain leads to weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of
paints on surfaces. Buildings and structures made of marble and limestone are the ones especially
damaged by acid rain due to the reactivity of the acids in the rain and the calcium compounds in the
structures. The effects are commonly seen on statues, old grave stones, historic monuments, and
damaged buildings. Acid rain also corrodes metals like steel, bronze, copper, and iron.

WHAT CAN BE DONE?

The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of the pollutants that cause it. This means
burning fewer fossil fuels. Many governments have tried to curb emissions by cleaning up industry
smokestacks and promoting alternative fuel sources. These efforts have met with mixed results. But
even if acid rain could be stopped today, it would still take many years for its harmful effects to
disappear.
Individuals can also help prevent acid rain by conserving energy. The less electricity people use in
their homes, the fewer chemicals power plants will emit. Vehicles are also major fossil fuel users,
so drivers can reduce emissions by using public transportation, carpooling, biking, or simply
walking wherever possible.

Wildlife and natures mitigation measures of global warming

The challenges associated with climate change due to global warming are negatively affecting both
the physical and biological elements of nature. The impacts of sea-level rise associated with climate
change alone present not only an ecological challenge, but also a social, economic and cultural
threat exceeding anything mankind has ever faced. These physical changes and other observed
impacts are discussed in this section. Physical Changes The Earth’s climate system is extremely
responsive to changes in temperature. As a result, global warming is affecting climate patterns and
has already changed the physical world. For example, as a result of rising temperatures, lakes are
freezing later, spring ice is breaking up earlier, glaciers are retreating and the Arctic ice cap is
melting. The polar region has seen the greatest rise in temperature and is already suffering the most
extreme climate impacts. In recent years, the Arctic has experienced a dramatic decline of sea ice,
especially during summer. The increased flow of fresh water into the oceans via surface runoff from
melting snow and ice has caused sea levels to rise globally, although at different rates
geographically. The greatest rise is on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America. Rising sea
levels and increasing storm and wave intensity are claiming coastal and salt marsh habitats. Salt
marsh habitats along shorelines in the temperate zone are increasingly inundated. As a result, the
ability of many areas to function and sustain critical ecosystem services is compromised. Other
changes in the physical world not directly attributed to global warming, but correlated with
temperature increases and decreased precipitation, are the increased incidence and intensity of

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storms and wildfires. In the western United States, for example, the incidence and intensity of
wildfires are increasing following longer, hotter and drier summers and earlier snowmelt. The
frequency and intensity of hurricanes are also showing strong correlation to increased land and sea
surface temperatures. Arctic and Boreal Impacts Alaska clearly represents “ground zero” for global
warming in North America, according to Glenn Juday of the University of Alaska and Deborah
Williams of Alaska Conservation Solutions. Loss of sea ice is particularly evident, threatening the
polar bear (Ursus maritimus) and other ice-dependent species. Ice-dependent species lose both the
quality and quantity of physical seaice habitat. They can also lose access to their prey. For example,
polar bears rely on the ice platform to hunt ringed and bearded seals (Phocidae). Seals frequent the
thin edges and openings in the ice—breathing holes—where polar bears lie in wait. Now, however,
due to the rise in surface and sea temperatures, less ice is forming, making it more difficult for bears
to hunt and requiring them to expend more energy to swim between widely separated ice packs in
search of prey. It is also increasingly difficult for female polar bears to acquire food and to
successfully reproduce and rear their young. Loss of sea ice also affects prey species. For seals, sea
ice interacts with oceanography to enhance prey production in cold marine environments. As sea ice
declines, so do the numbers within fish populations that sustain these seal populations. Seals either
move farther out to sea or decline in numbers. These impacts of global warming are causing a
cascading collapse of this Arctic system.
HOW GLOBAL WARMING AFFECTS WILDLIFE

The key impact of global warming on wildlife is habitat disruptions, whereby ecosystems that animals have
spent millions of years adapting to rapidly transform in respond to climate change, reducing their ability to
fulfill the species' needs. These habitat disruptions often are due to changes in high temperatures, low
temperatures, or water availability, and often a combination of the three. In response, growing conditions
change, and the vegetation community shifts. Affected wildlife populations can sometimes move into new
spaces and continue to thrive.

But concurrent human population growth means that many land areas that might be suitable for such
“refugee wildlife” are fragmented and already cluttered with residential and industrial development. Our
cities and roads can be obstacles preventing plants and animals from moving into these alternative spots. A
recent report by the Pew Center for Global Climate Change suggests creating “transitional habitats” or
“corridors” that help migrating species by linking natural areas that are otherwise separated by human
settlement.

SHIFTING LIFE CYCLES AND GLOBAL WARMING

Beyond habitat displacement, many scientists agree that global warming is causing a shift in the timing of
various natural cyclical events in the lives of animals - a pattern called phenology. Many birds have altered
the timing of long-held migratory and reproductive routines to better sync up with a warming climate. And
some hibernating animals are ending their slumbers earlier each year, perhaps due to warmer spring
temperatures.
To make matters worse, recent research contradicts the long-held hypothesis that different species coexisting
in a particular ecosystem respond to global warming as a single entity. Instead, different species sharing like
habitat are responding in dissimilar ways, tearing apart ecological communities millennia in the making.

GLOBAL WARMING EFFECTS ON ANIMALS AFFECT PEOPLE TOO

And as wildlife species go their separate ways, humans can also feel the impact. A World Wildlife
Fund study found that a northern exodus from the United States to Canada by some types of warblers led to a
spread of mountain pine beetles that destroy economically productive balsam fir trees. Similarly, a northward
migration of caterpillars in the Netherlands has eroded some forests there.

WHICH ANIMALS IS HARDEST HIT BY GLOBAL WARMING?

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According to Defenders of Wildlife, some of the wildlife species hardest hit so far by global warming
include caribou (reindeer), arctic foxes, toads, polar bears, penguins, gray wolves, tree swallows, painted
turtles and salmon. The group fears that unless we take decisive steps to reverse global warming, more and
more species will join the list of wildlife populations pushed to the brink of extinction by a changing climate.
Earth Talk is a regular feature of E/The Environmental Magazine. Selected Earth Talk columns are
reprinted on About Environmental Issues by permission of the editors of E.

Observed Changes in Wildlife and Ecosystems:

Changes in range: Wildlife and plants that are able to adjust are shifting their ranges northward or
to higher altitudes to adjust to warming temperatures. Wildlife that already live at high altitudes or
latitudes, such as the American pika or polar bears in the Arctic, may find themselves with nowhere
to go.
Changes in timing of natural events: Many species take their cues about when to migrate, flower,
nest or mate from seasonal changes in temperature, precipitation and daylight (phenology). Global
warming is confusing those signals. The changes in the climate force wildlife to alter life cycle and
seasonal events. Sometimes they might get out of synch with other species in their ecosystem or
with other natural events. For example, some animals are laying eggs, migrating, or emerging from
hibernation much earlier than they used to, only to find that the plants or the insects they need for
food have not yet emerged.
Widespread forest loss: In the western U.S., warming and drought stress are causing trees to die and
making them more vulnerable to pine beetle and other insect infestations. Higher temperatures and
increased fuel from dead trees have led to more wildfires.
Coral bleaching: Coral bleaching occurs when colorful algae that live in corals die or are expelled
from corals under stress. The algae live symbiotically with coral polyps, providing them with
nutrients and oxygen. If the algae die and are not replaced, the corals will also die. Scientists
believe that the biggest cause of coral bleaching is warm sea surface temperatures caused by global
warming. If coral reef bleaching continues, many other marine organisms that depend on coral reefs
will also be in jeopardy.
Melting of Arctic sea ice: Arctic ice is melting at a faster pace than was predicted even a few years
ago. Some scientists are now saying that the Arctic could be ice free in the late summer as early as
2012. Many Arctic mammals, such as polar bears, walrus, and seals depend on sea ice for their
survival.
Additional Threats to Wildlife from Global Warming
Loss of wetlands: Higher temperatures will lead to drier conditions in the Midwest’s Prairie Pothole
region, one of the most important breeding areas for North American waterfowl.
Sea-level rise: Sea-level rise will inundate beaches and marshes and cause erosion on both coasts,
diminishing habitat for birds, invertebrates, fish, and other coastal wildlife.
Invasive species and disease: Higher average temperatures and changes in rain and snow patterns
will enable some invasive plant species to move into new areas. Insect pest infestations will be
more severe as pests such as mountain pine beetle are able to take advantage of drought-weakened
plants. Pathogens and their hosts that thrive in higher temperatures will spread to new areas.
EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

Deforestation can have a negative impact on the environment. The most dramatic impact is a loss
of habitat for millions of species. Eighty percent of Earth’s land animals and plants live in forests,
and many cannot survive the deforestation that destroys their homes.
Deforestation also drives climate change. Forest soils are moist, but without protection from sun -
blocking tree cover, they quickly dry out. Trees also help perpetuate the water cycle by returning
water vapor to the atmosphere. Without trees to fill these roles, many former forest lands can
quickly become barren deserts.

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Removing trees deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the sun’s rays during
the day, and holds in heat at night. This disruption leads to more extreme temperature swings that
can be harmful to plants and animals.
Trees also play a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming. Fewer
forests means larger amounts of gases entering the atmosphere—and increased speed and severity
of global warming.
The most feasible solution to deforestation is to carefully manage forest resources by eliminating
clear-cutting to make sure forest environments remain intact. The cutting that does occur should
be balanced by planting young trees to replace older trees felled. The number of new tree
plantations is growing each year, but their total still equals a tiny fraction of the Earth’s forested
land.
Tree planting: A key weapon against global warming:

Tree-planting activities - reforestation and afforestation - have come in for criticism in recent
times, giving rise to a debate over whether planting new forests in order to combat climate change
is worthwhile, and whether it can be accurately reflected in a system of economic credits.
The criticisms focus on:
The validity and accuracy of methods used to calculate the climate change benefits,
The ethics of ‘offsetting’, that is, compensating for emissions rather than eliminating them at
source, and
The social and environmental impacts of plantations.
Carbon Positive believes strongly that tree-planting can and will make a valuable contribution to
the fight against global climate change, as well as providing a host of wider environmental and
socio-economic benefits. We further believe that carbon markets in their various forms are key to
providing an effective means of financing tree-planting activities on the scale needed to make a
difference globally. There are indeed a number of pitfalls to be avoided, by both project
developers and buyers of the
carbon credits which finance climate-related plantation projects. But these are not by and large
fundamental to the planting of trees, and can largely be avoided through responsible practices and
adherence to appropriate standards.
So what are the benefits of planting trees?
Planting trees is hugely beneficial to the world in the face of accelerating climate change.
There is now a strong international scientific consensus that human activity is causing global
warming. A substantial reduction in the planet’s forest cover over recent centuries is a major
contributor to this climatic change.
As trees grow they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2), the main 'greenhouse gas' responsible for
global warming, thereby reducing the concentration of this gas in the atmosphere. Forests are
referred to as 'carbon sinks' for this function of CO2 absorption and storage. Planting trees to
bolster carbon sink area, an example of what’s termed ‘carbon sequestration’, helps offset the loss
of native forests and fights global warming.
At a local level, tree-planting on deforested lands creates further environmental benefits. Forests
play a vital role in regulating water supplies, helping to minimise both water shortages in times of
drought and damaging floods in heavy rains. Trees also reduce soil erosion, thereby conserving
soil quality upstream and water quality downstream. Forests also provide habitats for a wide array
of plant and animal species, a number of which are threatened with extinction by deforestation.
Socio-economic benefits of reforestation projects include direct employment, infrastructure
development, skills-transfer and the creation of markets for related products and services. Certain
plantation forest models may also provide local communities with additional products such as

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fuel-wood, fruit, nuts and herbs, and opportunities for agricultural activities (inter-cropping,
livestock grazing) within the forest area.
Finally, sustainable forestry can provide additional climate change and local environmental
benefits in the longer term. Once harvested, the wood from the trees may be used either as a
source of renewable energy, thereby reducing the use of fossil fuels, or for construction materials
or furniture-making, thereby reducing deforestation elsewhere.
GLOBAL WARMING EFFECT ON BIODIVERSITY
Many changes have been reported in the distribution of species. In general, many species have
expanded their ranges poleward in latitude and upward in elevation. Evidence of contraction in
species’ distribution is limited, however, possibly due to reporting difficulties and time lag in such
contractions due to a wide variety of possible mechanism such as population dynamics. Populations
of many species have declined, and although in some cases climate change is believed to have
contributed to the decline, attributing this is fraught with difficulty as it is likely to be only one
driver amongst many.
At the species level, changes observed that can be attributed to climate change involve those
surrounding phenology (the timing of events). Many birds and insects are showing changes, such as
earlier onset of migration, egg-laying and breeding. In terms of ecosystems, there has been some
evidence on changes in distribution. e.g. desert ecosystems have expanded, and tree lines in
mountain systems have changed. Changes in the composition of ecosystems have also been
observed (e.g. increased lianas in tropical forest). Such changes may affect ecosystem function and
the ecosystem services they provide. Changes in biodiversity and ecosystem services due to climate
change are not all negative, with some species either thriving or adapting.
Most of these observed changes are modest, which is possibly due to the limited change in climate
that has occurred. However, future projected changes in climate are much larger. IPCC AR4
suggests that approximately 10% of species assessed so far will be at an increasingly high risk of
extinction for every 1°C rise in global mean temperature, within the range of future scenarios
modelled in impacts assessments (typically <5°C global temperature rise). Aquatic freshwater
habitats and wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, arctic and alpine ecosystems, and cloud forests are
particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Montane species and endemic species have
been identified as being particularly vulnerable because of narrow geographic and climatic ranges,
limited dispersal opportunities, and the degree of non-climate pressures. Potential impacts of
climate change on genetic diversity are little understood, though it is thought that genetic diversity
will increase the resilience of species to climate change.
Modeling studies on the potential impact of climate change on species indicates poleward shifts and
changes in altitude, range expansions or contractions corroborating the current evidence in the most
part. However, such studies highlight the individualistic nature of species’ responses to climate
change, which is likely to have a large impact on future composition of ecosystems. Structure of
ecosystems may also change. Models suggest this may have an impact on ecosystem function. For
example, modeling suggests increases in net primary production in northern Europe but decreases
in areas where water is a limiting resource.
Changes in productivity are likely to change services such as nutrient cycling due to changes in
litter fall. Other potential changes to ecosystem services due to climate change, include changes to
the provisioning services (e.g. food, fiber, timber), carbon storage and sequestration, water
regulation and disease regulation.
Changes to ecosystems as a result of climate change are likely to have significant and often
negative social, cultural and economic consequences. However, there is still uncertainty about the
extent and speed at which climate change will impact biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the
thresholds of climate change above which ecosystems are irreversibly changed and no longer
function in their current form.

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Tipping points are points at which a system passes from one steady state to another. These are used
for either climate tipping points or ecosystem tipping points. An example of the latter is Amazon
forest dieback.
There are several methods and tools to assess the impact of climate change on biodiversity and
ecosystem services. Vulnerability assessments have particular meaning in the natural hazards and
socio-economic fields but are used more loosely and encompass a variety of methods in the field of
biodiversity and climate change.
Climate envelope modelling is by far the most common tool used to assess potential impacts (and to
infer vulnerability) on species. Although these suffer a number of limitations, they do provide a first
cut assessment of the likely magnitude and direction of change. Dynamic models, population
models and mechanistic models are other modelling tools that have been used to assess future
impact and vulnerability on both species and ecosystems, though ecosystem service modeling is
still in its infancy. These latter models need to become more prominent as climate envelop
modeling mainly provide species exposure to climate change and thus only one facet of
vulnerability. Indeed vulnerability is defined as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive
capacity.
What are Carbon Credits
In order to work out just what exactly carbon credits are, where they come from and how they
work, we could use the analogy of our own credit cards which most of us still take for granted.
Now, ask anyone who has fallen prey to not managing their finances properly about the
consequences of this. Essentially, credit, when used responsibly, can achieve a great number of
positive things in our lives, such as financing and paying off our dream hybrid or college tuition
fees. But the danger is always there that this form of credit can be abused and when it is, the
consequences can be quite dire, reversing the quality of life immeasurably. There’s another old
saying which says; give credit where it is due. In the context of global warming and climate change,
this philosophy has become ironic.
It is ironic because giving (carbon) credit is largely overdue and time is rapidly running out in order
to address the long-overdue balance. It needs to be paid back as soon as possible. There is no longer
an available period of grace. Forget about main purposes for now, and let’s look at a brief summary
of what carbon credits are.
Permission – Permission is granted to a country, company or organization to produce a certain
number of emissions which can be traded in, if not used.
License to trade – Another explanation says that a certificate is issued giving the prospective
emitter the right to produce up to one ton of CO2 or its equivalent.
Another common term – Another widely used term refers to a carbon offset as a financial tool to
reduce (not increase) carbon emissions by storing carbons for future or later use.
So, in a nutshell, carbon credit (often called carbon offset) is a credit for greenhouse emissions
reduced or removed from the atmosphere from an emission reduction project, which can be used,
by governments, industry or private individuals to compensate for the emissions they are
generating.
How It Works

Emissions limits and trading rules vary country by country, so each emissions-trading market
operates differently. For nations that have signed the Kyoto Protocol, which holds each country to
its own C02 limit, greenhouse gas-emissions trading is mandatory. In the United States, which did
not sign the environmental agreement, corporate participation is voluntary for emissions schemes
such as the Chicago Climate Exchange. Yet a few general principles apply to each type of market.
Under a basic cap-and-trade scheme, if a company’s carbon emissions fall below a set allowance,
that company can sell the difference — in the form of credits — to other companies that exceed
their limits. Another fast-growing voluntary model is carbon offsets. In this global market, a set of

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middlemen companies, called offset firms, estimate a company’s emissions and then act as brokers
by offering opportunities to invest in carbon-reducing projects around the world. Unlike carbon
trading, offsetting isn’t yet government regulated in most countries; it’s up to buyers to verify a
project’s environmental worth. In theory, for every ton of C02 emitted, a company can buy
certificates attesting that the same amount of greenhouse gas was removed from the atmosphere
through renewable energy projects such as tree planting.
Why It Matters Now
Industry watchers say carbon markets will continue to grow at a fast clip — especially in the United
States, where Fortune 500 powerhouses such as DuPont, Ford, and IBM are voluntarily capping and
trading their emissions. Even though a national cap on carbon emissions doesn’t yet exist in the
United States, most consider it inevitable, and legislators are already pushing the issue in Congress.
It’s not just governments who are demanding emissions compliance — consumers want it, too. The
commitment a company makes to curb its pollutant output is an increasingly public aspect of
strategy. More and more employees are taking these factors into account when deciding where to
work. A recent study from MonsterTRAK found that 80 percent of young professionals want their
work to impact the environment in a positive way, and 92 percent prefer to work for an
environmentally friendly company.

Why It Matters to You

Let’s say a company can’t afford to modify its operations to reduce C02. Purchasing carbon credits
or offsets buys it time to figure out how to operate within C02 limits. For others, it can be a cost-
effective tool to help lower emissions while earning public praise for the effort. Each credit a
company buys on the Chicago Climate Exchange — usually for about $2 — means another
company will remove the equivalent of one metric ton of carbon.
The Advantages

Companies in different industries face dramatically different costs to lower their emissions. A
market-based approach allows companies to take carbon-reducing measures that everyone can
afford. “The private sector is better at developing diversified approaches to manage the costs and
risks [of reducing emissions],” says Jesse Fahnestock, spokesman at Swedish power company
Vattenfall, which is a member of a global Combat Climate Change coalition.
Reducing emissions and lowering energy consumption is usually good for the core business. For
example, in 1997 British Energy Company BP committed to bring its emissions down to 10 percent
below 1990 levels. After taking simple steps like tightening valves, changing light bulbs, and
improving operations efficiency, BP implemented an internal cap-and-trade scheme and met its
emissions goal by the end of 2001 — nine years ahead of schedule. Using the combined C02
reduction strategy, BP reported saving about $650 million.
Then there’s the long-term investment angle: Buying into the carbon market boom now suggests
significant dividends later on. Carbon credits are relatively cheap now, but their value will likely
rise, giving companies another reason to participate.
The Disadvantages
As with any financial market, emissions traders are vulnerable to significant risk and volatility. The
EU’s trading scheme (EU-ETS), for instance, issued so many permits between 2005 and 2007 that
it flooded the market. Supply soared and carbon prices bottomed out, removing incentives for
companies to trade. Enforcement of trading rules can be just as unpredictable, though Fahnestock
says the EU is working to correct the problems. Carbon offsets have their own drawbacks, which

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reflect a fast-growing and unregulated market. Some offset firms in the United States and abroad
have been caught selling offsets for normal operations that do not actually take any additional C02
out of the atmosphere, such as pumping C02 into oil wells to force out the remaining crude. In 2008
the Climate Group, the International Emissions Trading Association, and the World Economic
Forum will work to develop a Voluntary Carbon Standard to verify that offsetting projects are
beyond business-as-usual and have lasting environmental value.
The lack of offset regulations has also made marketing problematic. Recently, companies have
taken to declaring themselves “carbon neutral.” But until the Federal Trade Commission determines
the guidelines for such terms, it’s unclear which companies actually merit the distinction. Already
Vail Resorts, the organizers of the Academy Awards, and other organizations have taken heat for
touting their investments in carbon offset projects that were not entirely environmentally sound.

Ozone-Depleting Substances
Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) generally contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon,
and hydrogen in varying proportions and are often described by the general term halocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform are important human-
produced ozone-depleting gases that have been used in many applications including refrigeration,
air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronics components, and as solvents. Another
important group of human-produced halocarbons is the halons, which contain carbon, bromine,
fluorine, and (in some cases) chlorine and have been mainly used as fire extinguishers.
These substances are effective ozone-depleters for two reasons. The first is that they do not
break down in the lower atmosphere - they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or
more. Unlike most chemicals released into the atmosphere at the Earth's surface, ozone-depleting
substances are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed by other chemicals, which means
they drift up into the stratosphere. The second is that they contain either/both chlorine and/or
bromine and thus help the natural reactions that destroy ozone. Once they reach the stratosphere,
ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks up these molecules into chlorine (for example, from CFCs, methyl
chloroform, or carbon tetrachloride) or bromine (for example, from halons or methyl bromide)
which, in turn, break up ozone (O3).

Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs) are a group of chemical substances that contain one, two or
three carbon atoms and at least one atom each of chlorine and fluorine. CFCs were first developed
in the 1920s to replace sulphur dioxide as a coolant gas. In the 1930s they began to replace
ammonia for cooling uses. Their non-toxicity, non-flammability, stability and heat-absorption
effectiveness earned them early respect as wonder chemicals of the 20th Century. In the late 1940s
they began to be used as the propellant in aerosols. This use hit its peak in the late 1970s, when
CFC was identified as an ODS and aerosols became the main target of public action. CFCs were
also used in the production of packaging, insulation and other foams. In the 1980s they were widely
used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as solvents in degreasers and cleaners and to
dilute sterilant gas mixtures, and as blowing agents in the production of foams. The manufacture
and use of CFCs in industry has been severely curtailed following the Montreal Protocol. They have
been almost completely phased-out in developed countries, with remaining uses limited to metered-
dose inhalers. Starting in 2010, developing countries need to completely phase out CFCs.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons: Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are a group of chemical
substances that contain one, two or three carbon atoms and at least one atom each of hydrogen,
chlorine and fluorine. The hydrogen makes them less stable and therefore less damaging to the

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ozone layer. Except for a few HCFCs already in use in Canada - mainly used as refrigerants - most
HCFCs have been developed for use as transitional chemicals to replace the more damaging ozone-
depleting substances, mainly CFCs. HCFCs have only two to five per cent of the ozone-depleting
potential of CFCs, which makes them a good temporary replacement for applications where
alternatives completely safe for the ozone layer are not yet available. HCFCs are mainly used for
foam blowing, refrigeration and air conditioning, solvent cleaning and to a lesser extent, aerosols
and fire protection. At the 19th Meeting of the Montreal Protocol, it was agreed to accelerate the
phase-out of HCFCs in both developed and developing countries. Developed countries agreed to
phase-out the production and consumption of HCFCs by 75% in 2010, by 90% in 2015, and
complete this accelerated phase-out by 2020, while allowing for the continued use of 0.5% for
servicing until 2030.
Halons: Halons are a group of chemical compounds containing bromine, chlorine, fluorine or
carbon in its structure. Halons are very effective for extinguishing fires. They do not leave a solid
residue and are not a threat to people when used at the recommended concentrations. The combined
characteristics of halons make them suitable for all types of fire-extinguishing equipment, ranging
from industrial/commercial total-flooding equipment to the hand-held fire extinguishers popular for
office and home use. Although halons do not present a direct hazard to people, they have a very
high ozone-depleting potential (ODP) because they contain bromine. In fact, halon 1301 - which is
largely used in total-flooding systems - has the highest ODP of all known ozone-depleting
substances (10 times greater than that of CFC-11). Canada has never produced halons but has
imported some to satisfy its domestic needs. The importation of newly produced halons has been
banned since January 1, 1994. Developed countries no longer produce new halons but use from
stockpiles for airplanes and military applications is still allowed and continues. Developing
countries must completely phase-out halons by 2010.

Chlorofluorocarbons
Methyl
Chloroform Hydrochlorofluorocar
bons

Methyl Ozone-depleting
Bromide substances

Halons

Carbon
Tetrachloride Bromochloromethane

Bromochloromethane
Bromochloromethane is a chemical substance that contains chlorine, bromine, carbon and
hydrogen. It is also known as Halon 1011 or Chlorobromomethane. Total elimination of
consumption and production of bromochloroethane has been in place since January 1st, 2002.

Carbon Tetrachloride

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 Carbon tetrachloride is a chemical substance consisting of one carbon atom and four
chlorine atoms. It was widely used as a raw material (feedstock) in the production of CFCs. CFCs
are no longer produced in Canada, eliminating the leading use of carbon tetrachloride in Canada.
Carbon tetrachloride is also used in the manufacture of other chemicals that do not deplete the
ozone layer. Smaller quantities of carbon tetrachloride were used in fire extinguishers, as a dry
cleaning agent, and as an ingredient in pesticides, pharmaceuticals, paints and solvents.Total
elimination of consumption and production of carbon tetrachloride has been in place since January
1, 1996, with the exception of feedstock for manufacturing substances that do not deplete the ozone
layer - this use not being controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Developing countries are due to
achieve the same phase-out in 2010.

Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide is a chemical substance containing bromine, hydrogen and carbon and is an
important contributor to ozone depletion. This substance has a wide variety of agricultural uses as a
fumigant. It is used for soil fumigation and fumigation of some food production facilities. Methyl
bromide is also used in quarantine applications and pre-shipment applications for commodities in
trade. This use of methyl bromide is not controlled under the Montreal Protocol. Methyl bromide is
not manufactured in Canada, but is registered for use under the Pest Control Products Act.
Developed countries were to achieve the phase-out of agricultural uses by 2005. However,
alternatives are often either not well known, developed, accepted or allowed by regulatory
authorities. Therefore, there are still a number of critical use exemptions under the Protocol,
meaning that significant volumes of methyl bromide continue to be used. Developing countries are
scheduled to phase-out methyl bromide by 2015.

Methyl Chloroform
Methyl chloroform is a chemical compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine. It was
popular because of its versatility and efficiency as a solvent in cleaners, degreasers and adhesives. It
first appeared as a substitute for carbon tetrachloride in the mid-1950s, and by the 1980s was
widely used by the electronics and equipment manufacturing industries. Under the Montreal
Protocol, its use has been phased-out in developed countries since January 1, 1996 and developing
countries have until 2015 to do the same.
Hydrobromofluorocarbons
Hydrobromofluorocarbons are a group of chemical substances that contain one, two or three
carbon atoms and at least one atom each of hydrogen, bromine and fluorine. HBFCs were never
commercialized in Canada. They were banned in 1996 in all countries.

IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT
Effects on Human Health
Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth’s surface.
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-melanoma skin cancer
and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. In addition, UVB has been linked to
the development of cataracts, a clouding of the eye’s lens.
Because all sunlight contains some UVB, even with normal stratospheric ozone levels, it is always
important to protect your skin and eyes from the sun. See a more detailed explanation of health
effects linked to UVB exposure.

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EPA uses the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework model to estimate the health benefits of
stronger ozone layer protection under the Montreal Protocol. Updated information on the benefits of
EPA’s efforts to address ozone layer depletion is available in a 2015 report, Updating Ozone
Calculations and Emissions Profiles for Use in the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework
Model.

Effects on Plants
UVB radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of plants. Despite
mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and an ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB,
plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation.
Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are distributed
within the plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary metabolism) may be equally or
sometimes more important than damaging effects of UVB. These changes can have important
implications for plant competitive balance, herbivory, plant diseases, and biogeochemical cycles.

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton productivity is
limited to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water column in which there is sufficient
sunlight to support net productivity. Exposure to solar UVB radiation has been shown to affect both
orientation and motility in phytoplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these organisms.
Scientists have demonstrated a direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to ozone
depletion-related increases in UVB. UVB radiation has been found to cause damage to early
developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians, and other marine animals. The most severe
effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Small increases in
UVB exposure could result in population reductions for small marine organisms with implications
for the whole marine food chain.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

Increases in UVB radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, thus
altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically important trace gases (e.g., carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulfide, ozone, and possibly other gases). These potential
changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks that mitigate or amplify the
atmospheric concentrations of these gases.

Effects on Materials
Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers, as well as some other materials of
commercial interest are adversely affected by UVB radiation. Today's materials are somewhat
protected from UVB by special additives. Yet, increases in UVB levels will accelerate their
breakdown, limiting the length of time for which they are useful outdoors.
Contact Us to ask a question, provide feedback, or report a problem.
Coastal Zone regulations

India has about 7500 kms of coastal areas including islands, many segments of which are
fragile and sensitive from the environmental angle. Apart from the high population density, the
coastal areas are also vulnerable and sensitive to the impacts of possible sea level rising, rise in the
high tide levels, cyclones and storms etc. which are influenced by climate change. Development

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activities in the coastal areas are regulated by means of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
Notifications and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plans made under them. The
National Environment Policy (NEP) recognizes that there is need to ensure that the regulations are
firmly founded on scientific principles, in order to ensure effective protection to valuable coastal
environmental resources without impeding livelihoods or legitimate coastal economic activity or
settlements, or infrastructure development. The NEP accordingly envisaged an action plan to
strengthen the ICZM and review the same at pre-determined intervals. The Plan also provided for
decentralization of the responsibility for the clearances of specified projects to State Environmental
Authorities, exempting activities which do not cause significant environmental impacts and are
consistent with approved ICZM plans.
Coastal Regulation Zone:
Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 a notification was issued in February,
1991, for regulation of activities in the coastal area by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF). As per the notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide Line (HTL) and a
stage of 100m along banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater and rivers subject to tidal fluctuations, is
called the Coastal Regulation Zone(CRZ). CRZ along the country has been placed in four
categories. The above notification includes only the inter-tidal zone and land part of the coastal area
and does not include the ocean part. The notification imposed restriction on the setting up and
expansion of industries or processing plaits etc. in the said CRZ.
Classification of Coastal Regulation Zone:
For regulation of developmental activities, the coastal stretches within 500m of HTL on
the landward side are classified into four categories, viz..
 Category I (CRZ-I)
 Category II (CRZ - II)
 Category III (CRZ-III)
 Category IV (CRZ-IV)
 Category I (CRZ -I):
a) Areas that are ecologically sensitive and important, such as national parks/marine parks,
sanctuaries, reserve forests, wild habitats, mangroves, corals/coral reefs, area close to breeding and
spawning grounds of fish and other marine life, areas of outstanding natural beauty, historical and
heritage areas, areas rich in genetic biodiversity, areas likely to be inundated due to rise in sea level
consequent upon global warming and such areas as may be declared by the authorities.
b) Areas between the Low Tide Line and High Tide Line
Regulations:
No new constructions shall be permitted within 500m of the HTL.
Category II (CRZ -II):
The area that have already been developed up to or the shoreline. For this purpose, ' Developed
Area' is referred to as that area within the municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas
which is already substantially built up and which has been provided with drainage and approach
roads and other infrastructural facilities, such as water supply and sewerage mains.
Regulations:
a) Buildings shall be permitted neither on the seaward side of the existing road(or roads proposed
in the approved Coastal Zone Plane of the area) nor on the seaward side of the existing and
proposed road. Existing authorized structures shall be subject to the existing local Town and
Country Planning regulations including the existing norms of FIS/FAR
b) Reconstruction of the authorized building to be permitted subject to the existing FSI/FAR
norms and without change in the existing use.
c) The design and construction of buildings shall be consistent with the surrounding landscape and
architectural style

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Category III (CRZ -III):
Areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either Category I or II.
These will include coastal zone in the areas (developed and undeveloped) and also areas within
Municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which are not substantially built up.
Regulations:
a) The area up to 200m from the HTL is be earmarked as 'No Development Zone'. No
construction shall be permitted in this zone except for repairs of existing authorized structures not
exceeding existing FSI, existing plinth area and existing density. However, the following uses may
be permissible in this zone-agriculture, horticulture, gardens, pastures, parks, play fields, forestry
and salt manufacture from sea water.
b) Development of vacant plots between 200 and 500m of High Tide Line in designated areas of
CRZ-III with prior approval of Ministry of Environment and forests permitted for construction of
hotels/beach resorts for temporary occupation of tourists / visitors.
c) Construction/ reconstruction of dwelling units between 200m and 500m of the High Tidal Line
permitted so long as it is within the ambit of traditional rights and customary uses such as existing
fishing villages and gothans. Building permission for such Construction/reconstruction will be
subject to the conditions that the total member of dwelling unit shall not be more than twice the
number of existing units; total area covered on all floors shall not exceed 9 meters and construction
shall not be more than 2 floors (ground floor plus one floor).
d) Reconstruction/alteration of an existing authorized building permitted subject to (1) to (3)
above.
Category IV (CRZ-IV):
Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakhadweep and small islands, except those
designated as CRZ I, CRZ II and CRZ III.
Regulations
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
1. No new construction of buildings shall be permitted within 200m of HTL.
2. The buildings between 200m and 500m from the HTL shall not more than 2 floors, the total area
covered on all floors shall not be more than 50% of the plot size and total height of construction
shall not exceed 9m.
3. The design and construction of buildings shall be consistent with the surrounding landscape and
local architectural style.
4. Corals and sand from the beaches and coastal waters shall not be used for construction and
purposes.
5. Dredging and underwater blasting in and around coral formations shall not be permitted
6. However, in some of the islands, coastal stretches may also be classified into categories of CRZ-I
or II or III with the prior approval of the MoEF and in such designated structures.
Activities prohibited within the CRZ
The following activities are declared as prohibited within the CRZ
1. Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries, except those directly related to
water front or directly needing foreshore facilities.
2. Manufacture or handling or disposal of hazardous substances.
3. Setting up and expansion of fish processing units including warehousing ( excluding hatchery
and natural fish drying in permitted areas)
4. Setting up and expansion of units/mechanism for disposal of waste and effluents into the water
course.
5. Discharging of city untreated waters and effluents from industries, cities or towns and other
human settlements.

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6. Dumping of city or town waste for the purposes of land filling or otherwise; the existing practice,
if any, shall be phased out within a reasonable time not exceeding three years from the date of
notification.
7. Dumping of ash or any wastes form the date of notification.
8. Land reclamation, building or disturbing the natural course of sea water with similar
observations, except those required for control of coastal erosion and maintenance or sandbars
except tidal regulators, storm water recharge.
9. Mining of sand, rocks and other substrata materials not available outside CRZ areas.
10. Harvesting or drawl of groundwater and construction of transfer within 200m of HTL; in the
200m to 500m zone it shall be permitted only when done manually through ordinary wells for
drinking, horticulture, agriculture and fisheries.
11. Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas
12. Any construction between LTL and HTL except facilities for carrying treated effluents and
waste discharges, oil, gas and similar pipelines and dressing or altering of sand dunes, hills natural
features including landscape changes for beautification, recreational and other such purposes.
"Bio-medical waste
"Bio-medical waste" means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunisation of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the
production or testing of biological, and including categories mentioned in Schedule I.
"Bio-medical waste treatment facility” means any facility wherein treatment disposal of bio-
medical waste or processes incidental to such treatment or disposal is carried out [and includes
common treatment facilities.
Statutory provision for bio medical waste

Management
Biomedical waste must be properly managed and disposed of to protect the environment,
general public and workers, especially healthcare and sanitation workers who are at risk of exposure
to biomedical waste as an occupational hazard. Steps in the management of biomedical waste
include generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal.

On-site versus off-site

Two people wearing full protective clothing move a plastic trash bag into a marked spot,
while their trainer watches them. Their trainer.
These healthcare workers are being trained to safely handle contaminated wastes before being
assigned to an outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever.
Disposal occurs off-site, at a location that is different from the site of generation. Treatment
may occur on-site or off-site. On-site treatment of large quantities of biomedical waste usually
requires the use of relatively expensive equipment, and is generally only cost effective for very
large hospitals and major universities who have the space, labor and budget to operate such
equipment. Off-site treatment and disposal involves hiring of a biomedical waste disposal service
(also called a truck service) whose employees are trained to collect and haul away biomedical waste
in special containers (usually cardboard boxes, or reusable plastic bins) for treatment at a facility
designed to handle biomedical waste.

Generation and accumulation

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 Biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently
strong to prevent breakage during handling. Containers of biomedical waste are marked with a
biohazard symbol. The container, marking, and labels are often red.
Discarded sharps are usually collected in specialized boxes, often called needle boxes.
Specialized equipment is required to meet OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1450[4] and EPA 40 CFR 264.173.
standards of safety. Minimal recommended equipment includes a fume hood and primary and
secondary waste containers to capture potential overflow. Even beneath the fume hood, containers
containing chemical contaminants should remain closed when not in use. An open funnel placed in
the mouth of a waste container has been shown to allow significant evaporation of chemicals into
the surrounding atmosphere, which is then inhaled by laboratory personnel, and contributes a
primary component to the threat of completing the fire triangle. To protect the health and safety of
laboratory staff as well as neighboring civilians and the environment, proper waste management
equipment, such as the Burkle funnel in Europe and the ECO Funnel in the U.S., should be utilized
in any department which deals with chemical waste. It is to be dumped after treatment.

TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL:

(1) Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed of in accordance with Schedule I, and in
compliance with the standards prescribed in Schedule V.
(2) Every occupier, where required, shall set up in accordance with the time-schedule in Schedule
VI, requisite bio-medical waste treatment facilities like incinerator, autoclave, microwave system
for the treatment of waste, or, ensure requisite treatment of waste at a common waste treatment
facility or any other waste treatment facility.

SEGREGATION, PACKAGING, TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE:

(1) Bio-medical waste shall not be mixed with other wastes.
(2) Bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers/bags at the point of generation in
accordance with Schedule II prior to its storage, transportation, treatment and disposal. The
containers shall be labeled according to Schedule III.
(3) If a container is transported from the premises where bio-medical waste is generated to any
waste treatment facility outside the premises, the container shall, apart from the label prescribed in
Schedule III, also carry information prescribed in Schedule IV.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, or rules thereunder,
untreated bio-medical waste shall be transported only in such vehicle as may be authorised for the
purpose by the competent authority as specified by the Government.
(5) No untreated bio-medical waste shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours: Provided that
if for any reason it becomes necessary to store the waste beyond such period, the authorized person
must take permission of the prescribed authority and take measures to ensure that the waste does
not adversely affect human health and the environment.
(6) The Municipal body of the area shall continue to pick up and transport segregated non bio
medical solid waste generated in hospitals and nursing homes, as well as duly treated bio-medical
wastes for disposal at municipal dump site

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 CHAPTER: 5
ENERGY CONSERVATION:
Use of clean technology:
Photovoltaics (PV): Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power
systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small
beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaics
were initially, and still are, used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator
powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. They are an
important and relatively inexpensive source of electrical energy where grid power is inconvenient,
unreasonably expensive to connect, or simply unavailable. However, as the cost of solar electricity
is falling, solar power is also increasingly being used even in grid-connected situations as a way to
feed low-carbon energy into the grid.
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current
using the photovoltaic effect. The array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces
direct current (DC) power which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this
usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use
of inverters. Multiple solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form
arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the
desired frequency/phase. Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available,
especially in developed countries with large markets.[8] In these grid-connected PV systems, use of
energy storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing
countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups. Such stand-alone
power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight.
The important point of this slide is that it emphasizes that there is another type of solar
energy, solar thermal, that converts sunlight energy into heat. This workbook does not cover solar
thermal. We are not concerned about the heat content of sunlight, PV cells and modules do not
utilize the heat, only the light.
Light (photon) Energy== Electric Energy
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to
convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of
light exciting electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an
electric current. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar
cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include
monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper
indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array
cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the
manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years. The
operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.
 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
The solar cell works in several steps:
 Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such
as silicon.
 Electrons are excited from their current molecular/atomic orbital. Once excited an electron
can either dissipate the energy as heat and return to its orbital or travel through the cell until
it reaches an electrode. Current flows through the material to cancel the potential and this

185
 electricity is captured. The chemical bonds of the material are vital for this process to work,
and usually silicon is used in two layers, one layer being bonded with boron, the other
phosphorus. These layers have different chemical electric charges and subsequently both
drive and direct the current of electrons.[1]
 An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity.
 An inverter can convert the power to alternating current (AC).
Solar cells are typically named after the semiconducting material they are made of. These materials
must have certain characteristics in order to absorb sunlight. Some cells are designed to handle
sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, while others are optimized for use in space. Solar cells can
be made of only one single layer of light-absorbing material (single-junction) or use multiple
physical configurations (multi-junctions) to take advantage of various absorption and charge
separation mechanisms. Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third generation cells.
The first generation cells—also called conventional, traditional or wafer-based cells—are made of
crystalline silicon, the commercially predominant PV technology, that includes materials such as
polysilicon and monocrystalline silicon. Second generation cells are thin film solar cells that
include amorphous silicon, CdTe and CIGS cells and are commercially significant in utility-scale
photovoltaic power stations, building integrated photovoltaic or in small stand-alone power system.
The third generation of solar cells includes a number of thin-film technologies often described as
emerging photovoltaic—most of them have not yet been commercially applied and are still in the
research or development phase.
Silicon solar photovoltaic cells = a device made of semiconductor materials that produce
electricity under light.
● A p-n junction is created in silicon by a doping process.
The photons from exposed the light - prompted electrons flowing from n junction to the p-junction
→Electric current flow.
 Types of Solar PV Cell
A. Flat plate systems:
 On rigid flat surface
 Usually from single wafers
 from 300 to 250 to 200 μm tk
 Area: 170 cm2 approx.
 Output power: 1 - 2 W approx.
 Output Voltage: 0.5 v approx.
Concentrator systems:

 With optical components, e.g.

 lenses to direct and concentrate
 sunlight on the PV cells of small areas
 Involving tracking mechanisms
 for directing the sunlight
 Can increase power flux of sunlight hundreds of times
 Heat dissipation required
Solar collector
It is possible to harness the energy from the sun and convert it into either electricity or
heat using PV (photo-voltaic) or ST (solar thermal) technologies respectively.
PV (Photo-Voltaic) PV converts sunlight into electricity using a semiconductor material (normally
silicon). When light strikes the cell a portion is absorbed within the semiconductor material
knocking electrons loose and allowing them to flow. This results in an electric current and thus

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electricity production. PV panels primarily absorb the visible portion of the light spectrum. PV
panels are normally connected to an inverter to convert from DC (Direct current) to AC
(Alternating current) and subsequently the electricity is fed into the power grid. The PV panels may
also directly run devices with DC power such as solar powered calculators, or lights.The DC
electricity can also be stored in batteries. Standard PV panels are able to convert available sunlight
into electricity with optimal conversion efficiency of around 15%, with some panels able to reach as
high as 20%. It is important to note that a panel rated at 200Watts will not consistently provide
200Watts of electricity throughout the day. The 200Watt rating is based on maximum summer sun
radiation level of 1000W/m2 ( 317.1Btu/ft2) in an ambient temperature of 25oC / 77oF. So on a
clear summer day a 200Watt panel can be expected to provide around 0.7 - 0.8kWh of electrical
energy.
ST (Solar Thermal) Solar thermal panels are referred to by a number of different names such as
Solar Water Heater, Solar Hot Water Panel, Solar Hot Water Collector, Solar Thermal Panel or
Solar Thermal Collector. These terms all describe the same generic device. Solar water heaters
work by absorbing sunlight and converting it into usable heat. A simply analogy is to think about a
dark coloured object sitting in the summer sun. Over time it can become very hot from absorbing
the sunlight. Solar water heaters work in the same way by using materials that are specially
designed to maximise the efficiency of that absorption. High quality absorber coatings, as used by
Apricus products, are able to absorb up to 95% of the energy in sunlight throughout the full spectral
range (PV only absorbs a portion of the spectrum).
Solar concentrator
Solar concentrator is a device that allows the collection of sunlight from a large area and focusing
it on a smaller receiver or exit. A conceptual representation of a solar concentrator used in
harnessing the power from the sun to generate electricity. The material used to fabricate the
concentrator varies depending on the usage. For solar thermal, most of the concentrators are made
from mirrors while for the BIPV system, the concentrator is either made of glass or transparent
plastic. These materials are far cheaper than the PV material. The cost per unit area of a solar
concentrator is therefore much cheaper than the cost per unit area of a PV material. By introducing
this concentrator, not only the same amount of energy could be collected from the sun, the total
cost of the solar cell could also be reduced. Arizona Public Service has concluded that the most
cost-effective PV for commercial application in the future will be dominated by high
concentration collector incorporated by high-efficiency cell. For the past four decades, there have
been a lot of developments involving the designs of the solar concentrators. This paper presents
some of the distinguish designs which have shown significant contribution to the solar technology.
They are:
• Parabolic Concentrator The two dimensional design of a parabolic concentrator is equals to a
parabola. It is widely used as a reflecting solar concentrator. A distinct property that it has is that it
can focus all the parallel rays from the sun to a single focus point, F. It is not necessary to use the
whole part of the parabola curve to construct the concentrator. Most of the parabolic concentrator
employs only a truncated portion of the parabola.
• Hyperboloid Concentrator The general design of a hyperboloid concentrator is shown. It
consists of two hyperbolic sections, AB and A’B’. The hyperboloid concentrator can be produces
by rotating the two dimensional design along its symmetrical axis. The diameters of the entrance
and exit aperture are labeled as d1 and d2 respectively. If the inside wall of the hyperbolic profile
is considered as a mirror, the sun rays entering the concentrator from AA’ will be reflected and
focused to the exit aperture BB’.The advantage of this concentrator is that it is very compact,
since only truncated version of the concentrator needs to be used. Because of this factor, it is
mainly used as a secondary concentrator.
• Fresnel Lens Concentrator Fresnel lens function is similar to the conventional lens, by
refracting the rays and focusing them at one focal point. It generally has two sections; a flat upper

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surface and a back surface that employs canted facets. There are two ways to use this
concentrator; a point focus Fresnel lens or a line focus Fresnel lens. The advantage of a Fresnel
lens over a conventional lens is that it is thinner and requires a lesser amount of material to
fabricate. It also has the capability to separate the direct and diffuse light, making it suitable to
control the illumination and temperature of a building interior [26]. One of the disadvantages of
this concentrator will be due to the sharpness of the facet. An error in the manufacturing process
could create a rounder shape at the edges of the facets, causing the rays improperly focused at the
receiver.
• Flat High Concentration Devices have successfully produced a different class of nominating
concentrators. The concentrators are able to achieve theoretical maximum acceptance-angle-
concentration. Currently, Light Prescription Innovators (LPI) is working closely with UPM to
further develop and market these concentrators. Basically concentrator means that the rays in this
concentrator will first experience a reflection followed by refraction, before reaching the receiver
of which a PV cell is attached. These concentrators have two major benefits; they are very
compact and offer very high concentration.
However, there are some disadvantages of this design. Due to the cell’s position, it is difficult to
create Electrical connection and heat sinking. The cell dimension must be designed to be as
minimal as possible to reduce shadowing effect.
• Quantum Dot Concentrator (QDC) Quantum dot concentrator, (QDC) is a planar device that
consists of three parts; a transparent sheet of glass or plastic made doped with quantum dots
(QDs), reflective mirrors mounted on the three edges and back surface, and an exit where a PV
cell is attached. When the sun radiation hits the surface of a QDC, a part of the radiation will be
refracted by the fluorescent material and absorbed by the QDs. Photons are then reemitted in all
direction and are guided to the PV cell via total internal reflection. The total geometrical
concentration will be the ratio of the large surface area of glass to the area of PV cell. QDC major
advantage is that it does not requires any tracking as other conventional concentrator. It can also
make full use of both direct and diffuse solar radiation. However, the drawback of the QDC is that
the development of QDC is restricted to high requirements on the luminescent dyes; i.e. high
quantum efficiency, suitable absorption spectra and redshifts, and stability under illumination.
Solar thermal energy
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar
energy to generate thermal energy or electrical energy for use in industry, and in the residential
and commercial sectors. The first installation of solar thermal energy equipment occurred in the
Sahara Desert approximately in 1910 when a steam engine was run on steam produced by
sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines were developed and found more convenient, the Sahara
project was abandoned, only to be revisited several decades later. Solar thermal collectors are
classified by the United States Energy Information Administration as low-, medium-, or high-
temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat
swimming pools. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for
heating water or air for residential and commercial use. High-temperature collectors concentrate
sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300
deg C / 20 bar pressure in industries, and for electric power production.
Low-temperature collectors: Unglazed solar collectors are primarily used to pre-heat make-up
ventilation air in commercial, industrial and institutional buildings with a high ventilation load.
They turn building walls or sections of walls into low cost, high performance, unglazed solar
collectors. Also called, "transpired solar panels", they employ a painted perforated metal solar heat
absorber that also serves as the exterior wall surface of the building. Heat conducts from the
absorber surface to the thermal boundary layer of air 1 mm thick on the outside of the absorber
and to air that passes behind the absorber. The boundary layer of air is drawn into a nearby

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perforation before the heat can escape by convection to the outside air. The heated air is then
drawn from behind the absorber plate into the building's ventilation system.
Medium-temperature collectors These collectors could be used to produce approximately 50%
and more of the hot water needed for residential and commercial used. Medium-temperature
installations can use any of several designs: common designs are pressurized glycol, drain back,
batch systems and newer low pressure freeze tolerant systems using polymer pipes containing
water with photovoltaic pumping. This innovation reduces or even eliminates the occurrence of
no-flow high temperature stresses called stagnation which would otherwise reduce the life
expectancy of collectors.
High-temperature collectors Where temperatures below about 95 °C are sufficient, as for space
heating, flat-plate collectors of the no concentrating type are generally used. Because of the
relatively high heat losses through the glazing, flat plate collectors will not reach temperatures
much above 200 °C even when the heat transfer fluid is stagnant. Such temperatures are too low
for efficient conversion to electricity. Heat storage allows a solar thermal plant to produce
electricity at night and on overcast days. This allows the use of solar power for baseload
generation as well as peak power generation, with the potential of displacing both coal- and
natural gas-fired power plants. Additionally, the utilization of the generator is higher which
reduces cost.
Heat is transferred to a thermal storage medium in an insulated reservoir during the day, and
withdrawn for power generation at night. Thermal storage media include pressurized steam,
concrete, a variety of phase change materials, and molten salts such as calcium, sodium and
potassium nitrate

Solar electricity generation energy : Solar panels turn energy from the sun’s rays directly into
useful energy that can be used in homes and
businesses. There are two main types: solar
thermal and photovoltaic, or PV. Solar
thermal panels use the sun’s energy to heat
water that can be used in washing and
heating. PV panels use the photovoltaic
effect to turn the sun’s energy directly into
electricity, which can supplement or replace
a building’s usual supply. A PV panel is
made up of a semiconducting material,
usually silicon-based, sandwiched between
two electrical contacts. To generate as
much electricity as possible, PV panels
need to spend as much time as possible in
direct sunlight. A sloping, south-facing roof
is the ideal place to mount a solar panel.
A sheet of glass protects the semiconductor
sandwich from hail, grit blown by the wind,
and wildlife. The semiconductor is also coated in an antireflective substance, which makes sure
that it absorbs the sunlight it needs instead of scattering it uselessly away.
When sunlight strikes the panel and is absorbed, it knocks loose electrons from some of the atoms
that make up the semiconductor. The semiconductor is positively charged on one side and
negatively charged on the other side, which encourages all these loose electrons to travel in the
same direction, creating an electric current.
The electricity PV panels generate is direct current (DC). Before it can be used in homes and
businesses, it has to be changed into alternating current (AC) electricity using an inverter (3). The

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inverted current then travels from the inverter to the building’s fuse box and from there to the
appliances that need it.
PV systems installed in homes and businesses can include a dedicated metering box that measures
how much electricity the panels are generating. As an incentive to generate renewable energy,
energy suppliers pay the system’s owner a fixed rate for every unit of electricity it generates - plus
a bonus for units the owner doesn’t use, because these can help supply the national grid. Installing
a PV system is not cheap, but this deal can help the owner to earn back the cost more quickly -
and potentially even make a profit one day.
Light striking a silicon semiconductor causes electrons to flow, creating electricity. Solar power
generating systems take advantage of this property to convert sunlight directly into electrical
energy.
There are two types of solar power generating systems: grid-connected systems, which are
connected to the commercial power infrastructure; and stand-alone systems, which feed electricity
to a facility for immediate use, or to a battery for storage.
Grid-connected systems are used for homes, public facilities such as schools and hospitals,
and commercial facilities such as offices and shopping centres. Electricity generated during the
daytime can be used right away, and in some cases surplus electricity can be sold to the utility
power company. If the system doesn’t generate enough electricity, or generates none at all (for
example, on a cloudy or rainy day, or at night) electricity is purchased from the utility power
company. Power production levels and surplus selling can be checked in real time on a monitor,
an effective way to gauge daily energy consumption. Stand-alone systems are used in a variety of
applications, including emergency power supply and remote power where traditional
infrastructure is unavailable.
Solar cooker a solar cooker is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or
pasteurize food or drink. Many solar cookers presently in use are relatively inexpensive, low-tech
devices, although some are as powerful or as expensive as traditional stoves, and advanced, large-
scale solar cookers can cook for hundreds of people.
Principles
 Concentrating sunlight: A mirrored surface with high specular reflectivity is used to concentrate
light from the sun onto a small cooking area. Depending on the geometry of the surface, sunlight
can be concentrated by several orders of magnitude producing temperatures high enough to melt
salt and smelt metal. For most household solar cooking applications, such high temperatures are
not required. Solar cooking products, thus, are typically designed to achieve temperatures of
150°F (65°C) (baking temperatures) to 750°F (400°C) (grilling/searing temperatures) on a sunny
day.
 Converting light energy to heat energy: Solar cookers concentrate sunlight onto a receiver such
as a cooking pan. The interaction between the light energy and the receiver material converts
light to heat. This conversion is maximized by using materials that conduct and retain heat. Pots
and pans used on solar cookers should be matte black in color to maximize the absorption.
 Trapping heat energy: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside the cooker
from the air outside the cooker. Simply using a glass lid on your pot enhances light absorption
from the top of the pan and provides a greenhouse effect that improves heat retention and
minimizes convection loss. In resource constrained settings, a high-temperature plastic bag can
serve a similar function, trapping air inside and making it possible to reach temperatures on cold
and windy days similar to those possible on hot days.
There are three main components to most solar cookers, or you could say three main principles to
effective solar cooking; these being:
 Concentration (reflection, or reflectance)
 Absorption (ability to attract or hold heat.
 Retention (means or capacity to retain heat)

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 Concentration of the sun's rays is performed most often by reflecting panels, petals and such
surfaces that can "focus" or concentrate the rays of light (UV) to a point or concentration.These
reflecting panels are usually made of materials that are shiny and reflective due to the substance
used in their manufacture, such as silver, chromium and aluminum.Without a means to concentrate
the sun's rays it can take longer to heat objects or surfaces, thus most solar cookers are constructed
with reflector panels to speed up the process of heat accumulation.
 Absorption of the sun's energy (heat)in solar cooking is best achieved when a surface is dark
in color, thus the most common solar oven interiors are usually black in color as well as the color of
the cookware used for cooking the food.
Dark colors absorb the heat, whereas light colors do not absorb heat well. And some colors can
reflect the sun's energy away, such as silver for example. Generally, the best cookware for solar
cooking is the dark, thin variety because it absorbs the heat (energy) well; and because it is thin, it
can then transfer the heat more quickly and evenly to the food.
 Retention is the final principle in solar cooking. If a solar cooker is not well insulated and if
it does not have a cover, or lid, then all of the concentrated heat (energy) and all of the absorbed
heat would quickly dissipate into the air and be lost to the surrounding environment. A solar cooker
must have the means to "trap" or hold the concentrated heat allowing it to accumulate and to "build
up" to sufficiently high enough levels to be able to effectively cook.
Wind Energy Wind power is extracted from air flow using wind turbines or sails to produce
mechanical or electrical power. Windmills are used for their mechanical power, wind pumps for
water pumping, and sail to propel ships. Wind power as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful,
renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation, and
uses little land. The net effects on the environment are generally less problematic than those from
non-renewable power sources. Wind power is very consistent from year to year but has significant
variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in conjunction with other sources to give a
reliable supply. As the proportion of wind power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid
and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur. Power management
techniques such as having excess capacity, geographically distributed turbines, dispatch able
backing sources, sufficient hydroelectric power, exporting and importing power to neighbouring
areas, using Vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low, can in
many cases overcome these problems. In addition, weather forecasting permits the electricity
network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur.
Wind Energy for power generation
Wind Energy, like solar is a free energy resource. But is much intermittent than solar. Wind speeds
may vary within minutes and affect the power generation and in cases of high speeds- may result in
overloading of generator. Energy from the wind can be tapped using turbines.
Setting up of these turbines needs little research before being established. Be it a small wind turbine
on a house, a commercial wind farm or any offshore installation, all of them, at first, need the Wind
Resource to be determined in the area of proposed site. The Wind Resource data is an estimation of
average and peak wind speeds at a location based on various meteorological. The next step is to
determine access to the transmission lines or nearest control centre where the power generated from
the turbines can be conditioned, refined, stored or transmitted. It is also necessary to survey the
impact of putting up wind turbines on the community and wildlife in the locality. If sufficient wind
resources are found, the developer will secure land leases from property owners, obtain the
necessary permits and financing; purchase and install wind turbines. The completed facility is often
sold to an independent operator called an independent power producer (IPP) who generates
electricity to sell to the local utility, although some utilities own and operate wind farms directly.
The range of wind speeds that are usable by a particular wind turbine for electricity generation is
called productive wind speed. The power available from wind is proportional to cube of the wind's
speed. So as the speed of the wind falls, the amount of energy that can be got from it falls very

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 rapidly. On the other hand, as the wind speed rises, so the amount of energy in it rises very rapidly;
very high wind speeds can overload a turbine. Productive wind speeds will range between 4 m/sec
to 35 m/sec. The minimum prescribed speed for optimal performance of large scale wind farms is
about 6 m/s. Wind power potential is mostly assessed assuming 1% of land availability for wind
farms required @12 ha/MW in sites having wind power density exceeding 200 W/sq.m. at 50 m
hub-height.
The energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is
connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity. Wind turbines are
mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above ground, they
can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind. Wind turbines can be used to produce
electricity for a single home or building, or they can be connected to an electricity grid (shown
here) for more widespread electricity distribution.
Windmill
A windmill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes
called sails or blades.Centuries ago, windmills usually were used to mill grain, pump water, or both.
Thus they often were gristmills, wind pumps, or both. The majority of modern windmills take the
form of wind turbines used to generate electricity, or wind pumps used to pump water, either for
land drainage or to extract groundwater. In wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a
rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity. Wind
turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above
ground, they can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind. Wind turbines can be used to
produce electricity for a single home or building, or they can be connected to an electricity grid
(shown here) for more widespread electricity distribution.
Horizontal windmills: The first practical windmills had sails that rotated in a horizontal plane,
around a vertical axis. Horizontal windmills were built, in small numbers, in Europe during the 18th
and nineteenth centuries.
Vertical windmills: Due to a lack of evidence, debate occurs among historians as to whether or not
Middle Eastern horizontal windmills triggered the original development of European windmills. In
north Western Europe, the horizontal-axis or vertical windmill (so called due to the plane of the
movement of its sails) is believed to date from the last quarter of the twelfth century in the triangle of
northern France, eastern England and Flanders.
Wind turbine is made up of the following components:
1. Tower and foundation: In order to guarantee the stability of a wind turbine a pile or flat
foundation is used, depending on the consistency of the underlying ground. The tower
construction doesn’t just carry the weight of the nacelle and the rotor blades, but must also
absorb the huge static loads caused by the varying power of the wind. Generally, a tubular
construction of concrete or steel is used. An alternative to this is the lattice tower form.
2. Rotor and rotor blades: The rotor is the component which, with the help of the rotor blades,
converts the energy in the wind into rotary mechanical movement. Currently, the three-blade,
horizontal axis rotor dominates. The rotor blades are mainly made of glass-fibre or carbon-
fibre reinforced plastics (GRP, CFRP). The blade profile is similar to that of an aeroplane
wing. They use the same principle of lift: on the lower side of the wing the passing air
generates higher pressure, while the upper side generates a pull. These forces cause the rotor to
move forwards, i.e. to rotate.
3. Nacelle with drive train : The nacelle holds all the turbine machinery. Because it must be able
to rotate to follow the wind direction, it is connected to the tower via bearings. The build-up of
the nacelle shows how the manufacturer has decided to position the drive train components
(rotor shaft with bearings, transmission, generator, coupling and brake) above this machine
bearing.

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 a) Gearbox : The gearbox converts the rotor motion of 18-50 rpm into the approx. 1,500 rpm
which the generator requires.
The gearbox thus takes on the task of matching the rotation speeds of the slow-moving rotor
and the fast-moving generator, and generally has several steps to cover for various wind
conditions.
b) Generator: For high power wind turbines, doubly-fed asynchronous generators are most
frequently used. Here, the operating rotation speed can be varied somewhat, unlike when using
conventional asynchronous generators. Another concept uses synchronous generators. A grid
connection of synchronous generators is only possible via transformers, due to the fixed
rotation behaviour. The disadvantage of requiring complicated control systems is countered by
the overall efficiency and better grid compatibility.
4. Electronic equipment: The electronic equipment of a wind turbine is composed of the generator
(see above), the system for the grid in feed of the electricity, and various sensors. The sensors
for measuring temperature, wind direction, wind speed and many other things can be found in
and around the nacelle, and assist in turbine control and monitoring.
Wind energy potential in India :
Geographic Location and Wind Potential: The potential is far from exhausted. It is estimated that
with the current level of technology, the ‘on-shore’ potential for utilization of wind energy for
electricity generation is of the order of 65,000 MW. India also is blessed with 7517km of coastline
and its territorial waters extend up to 12 nautical miles into the sea. The unexploited resource
availability has the potential to sustain the growth of wind energy sector in India in the years to
come. Potential areas can be identified on Indian map using Wind Power Density map. C-WET,
one of pioneering Wind Research organization in the country is leading in all such resource studies
and has launched its Wind Resource map. In a step towards identifying and properly exploiting
these wind resources, MNRE has estimated state-wise wind power potential in the country.
Clean Wind to overcome power shortage: Electricity losses in India during transmission and
distribution have been extremely high over the years and this reached a worst proportion of about
24.7% during 2010-11. India is in a pressing need to tide over a peak power shortfall of 13% by
reducing losses due to theft. Theft of electricity, common in most parts of urban India, amounts to
1.5% of India’s GDP. Due to shortage of electricity, power cuts are common throughout India and
this has adversely affected the country’s economic growth. Hence a cheaper, non-polluting and
environment friendly solution to power rural India is needed.
Wind energy as job generator: Wind energy utilization creates many more jobs than centralized,
non-renewable energy sources. Wind Energy companies have opened up huge career options. Also
the ease and accessibility of manufacturing technology has given entrepreneurs with new business
options to venture in. The wind sector worldwide has become a major job generator: Within only
three years, the wind sector worldwide almost doubled the number of jobs from 235,000 in 2005 to
440,000 in the year 2008. These highly skilled employees are contributing to the generation of 260
Tw of electricity.
Capacity Installed : A notable feature of the Indian programmer has been the interest among
private investors/developers in setting up of commercial wind power projects. Several companies
have established themselves in wind technology manufacturing.
Wind Energy Conversion Systems
The major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind turbine,
generator, interconnection apparatus and control systems, as shown in Figure 3. Wind turbines
can be classified into the vertical axis type and the horizontal axis type. Most modern wind
turbines use a horizontal axis configuration with two or three blades, operating either down-
wind or up-wind. The major components in the nacelle of a typical wind turbine are illustrated.
A wind turbine can be designed for a constant speed or variable speed operation.Variable

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 speed wind turbines can produce 8% to 15% more energy outputas compared to their constant
speed counterparts, however, they necessitate power electronic converters to provide a fixed
frequency and fixed voltage power to their loads. Most turbine manufacturers have opted for
reduction gears between the low speed turbine rotor and the high speed three-phase generators.
Direct drive configuration, where a generator is coupled to the rotor of a wind turbine directly,
offers high reliability, low maintenance, and possibly low cost for certain turbines.
Several manufacturers have opted for the direct drive configuration in the recent turbine
designs. At the present time and in the near future, generators for wind turbines will be
synchronous generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, and induction generators,
including the squirrel cage type and wound rotor type. For small to medium power wind
turbines, permanent magnet generators and squirrel cage induction generators are often used
because of their reliability and cost advantages. Induction generators, permanent magnet
synchronous generators and wound field synchronous generators are currently used in various
high power wind turbines.
Interconnection apparatuses are devices to achieve power control, soft start and
interconnection functions. Very often, power electronic converters are used as such devices.
Most modern turbine inverters are forced commutated PWM inverters to provide a fixed
voltage and fixed
frequency output with a high power quality. Both voltage source voltage controlled inverters
and voltage source current controlled inverters have been applied in wind turbines. For certain
high power wind turbines, effective power control can be achieved with double PWM (pulse
width modulation) converters which provide a bi-directional power flow between the turbine
generator and the utility grid.
Hydroelectric energy
It is made by moving water. Hydro comes from the Greek word for water.
Hydroelectric energy has been in use for thousands of years. Ancient Romans built turbines,
which are wheels turned by flowing water. Roman turbines were not used for electricity, but for
grinding grains to make flour and breads.
Water mills provide another source of hydroelectric energy. Water mills, which were common
until the Industrial Revolution, are large wheels usually located on the banks of moderately
flowing rivers. Water mills generate energy that powers such diverse activities as grinding grain,
cutting lumber, or creating hot fires to create steel.
The first U.S. hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in 1882 in Appleton,
Wisconsin. This plant powered two paper mills and one home.
Harnessing Hydroelectricity
To harness energy from flowing water, the water must be controlled. A large reservoir is
created, usually by damming a river to create an artificial lake, or reservoir. Water is channeled
through tunnels in the dam.
The energy of water flowing through the dam's tunnels causes turbines to turn. The turbines
make generators move. Generators are machines that produce electricity.
Engineers control the amount of water let through the dam. The process used to control this flow
of water is called the intake system. When a lot of energy is needed, most of the tunnels to the
turbines are open, and millions of gallons of water flow through them. When less energy is
needed, engineers slow down the intake system by closing some of the tunnels.
During floods, the intake system is helped by a spillway. A spillway is a structure that allows
water to flow directly into the river or other body of water below the dam, bypassing all tunnels,
turbines, and generators. Spillways prevent the dam and the community from being damaged.
Spillways, which look like long ramps, are empty and dry most of the time.

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 Hazards related to hydropower generation:
Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river
plants. Large-scale hydroelectric dams continue to be built in many parts of the world (including
China and Brazil), but it is unlikely that new facilities will be added to the existing U.S. fleet in
the future.
Instead, the future of hydroelectric power in the United States will likely involve increased
capacity at current dams and new run-of-the-river projects. There are environmental impacts at
both types of plants.
Wildlife Impacts: Dammed
reservoirs are used for multiple
purposes, such as agricultural
irrigation, flood control, and
recreation, so not all wildlife
impacts associated with dams
can be directly attributed to
hydroelectric power. However,
hydroelectric facilities can still
have a major impact on aquatic
ecosystems. For example,
though there are a variety of
methods to minimize the
impact (including fish ladders
and in-take screens), fish and
other organisms can be injured
and killed by turbine blades.
Apart from direct contact, there
can also be wildlife impacts both within the dammed reservoirs and downstream from the
facility. Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river water. As a result, the
reservoir will have higher than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can
cultivate an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd out other river
animal and plant-life, and they must be controlled through manual harvesting or by
introducing fish that eat these plants. In addition, water is lost through evaporation in dammed
reservoirs at a much higher rate than in flowing rivers.
Hydropower generation:
A hydrogenating station generally consists of a dam that traps a large quantity of water, a
spillway that releases surplus water in controlled fashion and a powerhouse. Dykes and other water
containment and control structures may also be part of the hydroelectric power station, although
they are not directly involved in generating electricity. The powerhouse contains conducting
channels that guide water through turbines that convert the linear flow of the water into a rotating
flow. Water will either fall through the blades of the turbine or else flow horizontally through them.
The turbine and generator are connected to each other. Thus, rotation of the turbine causes rotation
of the rotor of the generator.
The electric power potential from water flow is the product of the mass of the water, the height
through which it falls and gravitational acceleration. The mass is a function of the amount of water
that is available and its rate of flow. The design of the power station will determine the height of the
water. Most designs draw in water from near the top of the dam and then discharge it at the bottom
into an existing downstream riverbed. This optimizes height while maintaining reasonable and
controllable flow.
In most modern hydroelectric generating stations, the turbo generators are oriented vertically. These
are the familiar structures that protrude above the main floor in these stations. However, almost all
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of the structure is located below what is visible at main-floor level. This includes the generator pit,
and below that the turbine pit and intake and discharge tube. These structures and the water-guiding
channels are entered on occasion.
A magnetic field is maintained in the windings of the rotor in the generator. The power for this field
is provided by banks of lead-acid or caustic-filled nickel cadmium batteries. The motion of the rotor
and the magnetic field that is present in its windings induce an electromagnetic field in the windings
of the stator. The induced electromagnetic field provides the electrical energy which is supplied to
the power grid. Electric voltage is the electrical pressure that arises from the flowing water. In order
to maintain the electrical pressure—that is, the voltage—at a constant level requires changing the
flow of water across the turbine. This will be done as demand or conditions change.
The flow of electricity can lead to electrical arcing, as for example, in the exciter assembly in the
rotor. Electrical arcing can generate ozone, which, even at low levels can adversely affect the
rubber in fire hose and other materials.
Hydroelectric power generators produce very high currents and high voltages. Conductors from the
generators connect to a unit transformer and from this to a power transformer. The power
transformer boosts the voltage and reduces the current for transmission over long distances. Low
current minimizes energy loss due to heating during transmission. Some systems use sulphur
hexafluoride gas in place of conventional oils as an insulator. Electrical arcing can produce
breakdown products which can be significantly more hazardous than sulphur hexafluoride.
The electric circuits include breakers that can rapidly and unpredictably cut out the generator from
the power grid. Some units utilize a blast of compressed air to break the connection. When such a
unit kicks in, it will produce an extremely high level of impulsive noise.
Environmental Effects:
Hydroelectric generation of power has been promoted as being environmentally friendly. Of
course, it does provide tremendous benefit to society through the provision of energy and the
stabilization of the flow of water. But such generation of energy does not come without an
environmental cost, which has in recent years received more and more public recognition and
attention. For example, it is now known that flooding large areas of the earth and of rock by acidic
water leads to the leaching of metals from these materials. Bioaccumulation of mercury has been
found in fish that have been caught in the water from such flooded areas.
Flooding also changes the turbulence patterns in the water as well as the level of oxygenation.
Both of these can have serious ecological effects. For example, salmon runs have disappeared on
dammed rivers. This disappearance has occurred, in part, because the fish either cannot locate or
traverse a path to the higher water level. In addition, the water has come to resemble a lake more
than a river, and the still water of a lake is not compatible with salmon runs.
Flooding also destroys fish habitat and can destroy the breeding areas for insects, upon which fish
and other organisms depend for nourishment. In some cases, flooding has destroyed productive
agricultural and forest lands. Flooding of large areas has also raised concern about climatic change
and other changes in the ecological balance. The holdback of fresh water that had been destined to
flow into a body of salt water has also raised concern about changes in salinity.
HYDROTHERMAL:
 Hydrothermal energy is the process of obtaining heat or energy from a large body of water.
 "Heat", in this case should not be associated with high temperature (as it may be
with geothermal energy) but rather a relative heat content or relative temperature difference.
 "The energy flowing through the surface layer of the tropical ocean is about 10,000 times
greater than the energy used by human societies. As such it is the only energy resource on
Earth that is large enough to replace fossil fuel."
WHAT ARE HYDROTHERMAL RESOURCES?
A geothermal resource requires fluid, heat, and permeability to generate electricity.
Conventional hydrothermal resources contain all three components naturally. These

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 geothermal systems can occur in widely diverse geologic settings, sometimes without clear
surface manifestations of the underlying resource.
The lack of ability to accurately predict temperature and permeability at depth from the
surface is a major cause of exploration risk. Additionally, subsurface characterization and
imaging are critical for the efficient utilization of all types of geothermal resources, including
low temperature and coproduced, permeable sedimentary and enhanced geothermal systems.
The Geothermal Technologies Office is also focused on reducing the operations and
maintenance (O&M) costs of hydrothermal systems.
Tides and Waves
Tides and Waves are two types of natural phenomena that occur on water and are similar in
nature; hence a lot of people can confuse the terms to mean the same thing. Though, both of
these are related to bodies of water, such as oceans and seas, they differ from each other.
Tides are the rise and fall of sea level that is caused by the gravitational pull of the moon
and the sun on the Earth. Tides are not only limited to the oceans, but can also occur in other
systems, whenever a gravitational field is present. A majority of the Earth is affected by the
gravitational force of the sun, though it is not as easily visible as it is on water. The moon has a
more prominent affect on the tides, as it is much closer to the Earth compared to the sun.
Many shorelines experience two high tides and two low tides daily, this is known as a semi-
diurnal tide. Shorelines can also experience one high tide and one low tide, known as diurnal
tide. A shoreline experiencing two uneven tides is known as a mixed tide. The tides are affected
by a number of factors such as the alignment of the sun and the moon, by the pattern of tides in
the deep ocean, by the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and by the shape of the coastline and
near-shore bathymetry.
As the moon rotates around the Earth, its gravitational force creates a wave beneath the
moon that moves across the Earth, on the opposite side of the Earth another wave forms; these
are known as high tides, between two high tides are two low tides. When a new moon of a full
moon occurs, the Earth experiences the combined gravitational force of the sun and the moon
causing high tides to be very high and low tides to be very low, this is called as a spring tide.
During the moon’s quarter phases, the moon is at a right angle to the sun, causing the waves to
cancel each other out; this is called as a neap tide.
Waves
Waves are also encountered on shore lines; though we also come across it in physics in
forms of energy (ex: radio waves, sound wave). Similar to that, waves are actually energy that
moves across the surface of the water. In the scientific community, this is more commonly
known as wind waves as these waves are generated by wind. These waves occur on the free
surface of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and canals or even on small puddles and ponds. There are
three types of waves, capillary waves or ripples, seas and swells.
A wave’s size and shape can reveal the origins of the wave. While a small, steep and choppy
wave may suggests that it was probably formed by a local storm, a large, stead wave which high
crests and that plunges into foam suggests that it came from far away, may be from a storm in
another hemisphere. According to meteorologists, no two waves are the same, though they may
share the same characteristics. Each wave differs in height, and the distance from its crest (high
point) to its trough (low point). Various factors that shape a wave are wind speed, duration, fetch
or the distance it blows over open water, width of the area that is affected by the fetch and the
depth of the water. The height of the wave decreases as the wind dies and as it reaches the shore,
the back of the wave overtakes the front and it tumbles onto the shore, this is known as breaking.
Though waves can be small and delightful, the intensity of the wave can be just as powerful.
Depending on conditions, a wave can range from a 2 feet in height to over 90 feet. Powerful
waves that are caused by factors such as underwater earthquake, landslides or volcanic eruptions
are known as tidal waves or Tsunamis.

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 Problems or Disadvantages
The disadvantages of using tidal and wave energy must be considered before jumping to
conclusion that this renewable, clean resource is the answer to all our problems.
Despite the fact that it's expensive, you must realise that the technique isn't fully developed.
There are still some uncertainties surrounding the conversion devices.
 Construction of strong, cheap and efficient conversion devices may be problematic
 Technology isn't fully developed
 Problems exist with the transportation of hydroelectricity
 Ecological impacts relating to the alteration of tides and waves is not fully understood
 Appropriate waves and tides are highly location dependent
 Waves are a diffuse energy source, irregular in direction, durability and size
 Extreme weather can produce waves of great intensity
In the future or prospects:
Tidal and wave energy as a replacement for fossil fuels is uncertain, because the technology of
the energy generators isn't fully developed. In addition the technology isn't fully commercially
available making this a relatively expensive energy choice; remember the enormous cost for a
tidal power plant 1.2 billions. Another factor that is standing in the way for tidal and wave
energy is the growing popularity for other renewable sources, probably will wave and tidal
power be important as alternative renewable source, with today's equipment it's possible to
determine the wave energy devices output two days ahead. Therefore it's possible to make a
nice fitting interplay between, wave energy and the present ordinary, energy type on shore.
Indeed, tidal and wave energy is still a viable option for the future. Although the world's
electricity demand could probably never be met by tidal and wave energy alone, but they have
the potential to decrease our reliance on fossil fuels. You can assume that with increased
knowledge and interest in this renewable energy source, costs will decline and engineering
efficiency will improve, with these facts in mind, it seems that tidal and wave energy will
encounter a bright future.
The ABB Alstom Power's future in wave technology lays in their knowledge about turbines;
every wave power plant so far uses some kind of turbine device to extract the power from the
waves. So if these wave power plants would become used in a larger scale, ABB have to be
among the first to be a competitive producer.
Hydropower
Hydropower is a renewable energy resource because it uses the Earth's water cycle to
generate electricity. Water evaporates from the Earth's surface, forms clouds, precipitates back
to earth, and flows toward the ocean. The movement of water as it flows downstream creates
kinetic energy that can be converted into electricity. 2700 TWH is generated every year.
Small Hydropower
• Small hydropower meets the definition of renewable because it uses the energy of flowing
water repeatedly generates electricity without fear of depletion
• SHP is a cost effective and sustainable source of energy: simple and less expensive
construction work
• Proper utilization of water resources: various streams and rivers can safely provide energy
to run a small hydro electric plant. No big water storage is required in such projects which
prevents resettlement and rehabilitation of the population
• SHP aids in conserving scarce fossil fuels: no fossil fuels and other petroleum products are
required in small hydro electric project
• SHP projects are known for low carbon energy production
• The development of small hydro has low effect on the environment

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 • SHP development provides electricity, transportation, communication links and economy to
such rural areas
• SHP also gives additional benefits along with power generation such as irrigation, water
supply, flood prevention, fisheries and tourism
Other Renewable Energy System:
 Solar Energy
• Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy
• only a small amount of this form of energy could be used, it will be one of the most
important supplies of energy specially when other sources in the country have depleted
energy comes to the earth from the sun
• Electricity can be produced from the solar energy by photovoltaic solar cells, which convert
the solar energy directly to electricity.
• The most significant applications of photovoltaic cell in India are the energisation of pump
sets for irrigation, drinking water supply and rural electrification covering street lights,
community TV sets, medical refrigerators and other small power loads
 Wind Energy
• Wind energy, which is an indirect source of solar energy conversion, can be utilized to run
windmill, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity
• India generally wind speeds obtainable are in the lower ranges
• the development of low cost, low speed mills for irrigation of small and marginal farms for
providing drinking water in rural area
• The developments are being mainly concentrated on water pumping wind mill suitable for
operation in a wind speed range of 8 to 36 km per hour.
 Biomass & Biogas Energy
• agricultural and forest resources for production of biomass
• Biomass is produced in nature through photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion
• Biomass energy co-generation programme is being implemented with the main objective of
promoting technologies for optimum use of country’s biomass resources
• Exploitation of the biomass power generation potential, estimated at 19500 mw.
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
• This is also an indirect method of utilizing solar energy
• A large amount of solar energy is collected and stored in tropical oceans
• The surface of the water acts as the collector for solar heat, while the upper layer of the sea
constitutes infinite heat storage reservoir
• Utilization of this energy, with its associated temperature difference and its conversion into
work, forms the basis of ocean thermal energy conversion systems
 Tidal Energy
• This periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea is called tide
• These tides can be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power
• By using reversible water turbines, turbines can be run continuously, both during high tide
and low tide
• The turbine is coupled to generator, potential energy of the water stored in the basin as well
as energy during high tides used to drive turbine, which is coupled to generator, generating
electricity
 Geo Thermal Energy
• The steam and the hot water come naturally to the surface of the earth in some locations of
the earth
• This may be particularly useful at places of fresh volcanic activity, where the molten interior
mass of earth vents to the surface through fissures and substantially high temperatures

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 • The hot geothermal water and or steam is used to operate the turbines directly.

What is Stream water harvesting?

 It is a simple but result oriented innovative way of harvesting rain water flowing in the stream by
constructing series of underground lakes, underground check dams, percolation pits and Recharge
Shafts to recharge our sub-soil, deeper soil and underground water.
 There are 4 types namely: Surface Dyke, Underground Bund-cum-Lake, Lake with Lake
 Type Bore well Recharging Unit, Percolation with polyurethane sheet Tanks
 Unlike surface check dams, stream water harvesting is done underground to harvest the hidden
stream which flows below the stream bed.
 Hidden stream flow (as shown in the below image) is obstructed by the underground plastic dam
or underground bund which results in recharging natural springs resulting in water in nearby open
wells and borewells.
 If ten such systems are created along a stream in 500 mts, water will be available all the twelve
months of a year downstream.
 Nearly 10 villages drinking and agricultural water needs can be addressed.
 In this system no land is encroached for creating a reservoir, no loss of water due to evaporation,
it is a onetime installation, zero evaporation.

ECO-FRIENDLY ENVIRONMENTALLY
What is being Eco-friendly?
Being eco-friendly or environmentally friendly is becoming more and more important. You can
see the term used in everything from job ads to dating profiles to even listings houses and vacation
homes. So, what is being eco-friendly?
The simplest way to define what being eco friendly means is to say that it is the act of living with
intent. The intent is focused on not creating harm to environment, and to prevent as much harm
from occurring to the environment through your interactions with it. It goes beyond an idea and
extends to actual practices that influence how communities, businesses and individuals conduct
themselves. Being eco-friendly goes far beyond just turning off lights when you leave the room or
separating your garbage for recycling – it is about changing the purpose of how you live.
How to Become Eco-friendly?
You can start to become eco-friendly by becoming aware of the how your choices effect the
environment. There are three basic stages to becoming eco-friendly, they are –

1. Learning to consume items that cause minimal environmental harm.

2. Discovering the extent of your carbon footprint and acting to lessen that footprint on the
environment.
3. Striving to support others that work to live and produce eco-friendly and sustainable
communities.
As you can see, the first step is about you immediately acting to change the way you consume
things in life. This means changing your habits about driving, what types of packaging you use,
how you dispose of waste and how you use natural resources.
The second step looks at the extent of your carbon imprint that you may not be able to change –
such as living in a house, having to drive a car or the type of employment you have and acting with
the responsibility to lessen that imprint to the best of your ability.
The last one involves actively seeking connections with other eco-friendly persons, communities
and businesses and choosing to network and support them to create a more sustainable life. That
may not be as easy as it seems, which is why it is the third step. To live in and support a sustainable
community and economy you may not have many of the conveniences that you are used to – by far
this is the hardest thing to adjust to.

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Here are 10 Steps to Become Eco-friendly:-
1. 3 R’s of Waste Hierarchy: The 3 R’s of waste hierarchy can reduce the amount of waste
generated and improve the waste management processes. Reducing what is produced and what is
consumed can reduce the amount of waste that is generated. Reuse items for different purposes
instead of disposing them off. Recycle items like aluminum cans, plastic, paper, glass that can be
shaped into a new item.
2. Conserve Water and Electricity: It takes energy to produce fresh water and electricity. Few
simple ways like turning off lights when not in use, fixing leakages, proper insulation, using
maximum daylight, installing energy efficient windows, purchasing energy efficient gadgets can
reduce your daily energy consumption. Learn here more about 151 ways to conserve energy.
3. Plant More Trees: We all know why we need more trees on this planet. They give us oxygen,
fruits, timber, prevent soil erosion, control floods, provide shelter to wildlife. Massive scale
deforestation in last couple of decades has reduced forest area by significant percentage. The need
of hour is to work with environmental groups to educate more people and plant more trees so as to
make this planet clean and eco-friendly.
4. Protect Local Water Sources: Hazardous waste materials like paint, oil, ammonia and other
strong chemical solutions should never be disposed on the ground as they’ll seep into the
groundwater. Join local water conservation groups and fight against water polluters who dump their
industrial waste in rivers.
5. Drive Less, Walk More: A simple and yet more effective way to live eco-friendly life is to
either take public transportation for your daily commuting needs or try pooling in with your office
colleagues to save fuel and reduce your carbon footprint. If your office is couple of miles away
from home, you can either start half an hour early and walk on foot or ride a bicycle. If you’re and
avid traveler, you can follow these green travel tips.
6. Buy Energy Efficient Products: Energy efficient products with 5 start energy rating consume
less energy and prove to be eco-friendly. For instance, CFL bulbs consume 40% less energy and
last 10 times longer than traditional bulbs.
7. Buy locally Grown Products: When you buy or produce locally grown products, you are
actually reducing your carbon footprint in the form of using less plastic bags, saving fuel to get
vegetables from the market, using less packaged material….. . Apart from this, you can also sell
surplus to your friends or relatives.
8. Prevent Littering: Litter can originate from construction and demolition sites, households,
industries, uncovered trucks, pedestrians, and moving vehicles. Littering can have big impact on
environment, wildlife and local tourism industry. Being a responsible citizen, it’s our responsibility
to make our cities clean and impart same education to our kids.
9. Buy Recycled Products: Always look out for recycling symbol when you visit grocery shop to
buy items for your home. That will make you environmentally responsible and eco-friendly. Also,
try to carry grocery bag with you to avoid buying items in plastic bags that will later end up in
landfills.
10. Join Environmental Groups to Combat Pollution: Protecting mother Earth is everyone’s
responsibility including you. The best you can do is to join different environmental groups in your
city and provide helping hand to make this planet environmentally friendly.
What does being eco friendly mean?
(1) Waste:- Living in a throwaway society means that there is a great deal of waste and waste
damages the planet. By reducing waste, reusing and recycling items, a reduction in items ending up
in landfill is achieved along with a reduced need for replacement products.
(2) Energy Conservation:- Everyone benefits by reducing energy usage and the simplest way to do
this is by insulating homes to a high standard and use high efficiency heating appliances. Some
people go further and opt for the use of heat pumps, solar panels, wind turbines or wood fired

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heating systems although the latter is rather controversial being a high emitter of carbon dioxide
whilst remaining carbon neutral and 100% renewable.
(3) Tree Planting:- Deforestation is a major cause of greenhouse gas increase and the world needs
more trees. Tree felling should only be carried out in ethically managed woodlands and timber
products should have suitable certification such as that provided by the FSC.
(4) Pollution Prevention:- In addition to avoiding atmospheric pollution, water pollution should
also be prevented and any potentially damaging products avoided.
(5) Impact of Travelling:- Travelling is a major contributor to harmful emissions and low emission
vehicles should be used although even electric cars have some impact as their energy originates
from power stations. Walking or cycling is best or using public transport or car sharing schemes.
Air flights are huge polluters and should be avoided at all costs.
(6) Energy Efficient Products:- Using energy efficient products is better for the environment and
also makes sound financial sense.
(7) Buy Local Produce:- Locally produced food reduces the need for packaging and transport.
Growing your own is even better.
(8) Litter:- Litter is bad for wildlife both on land and sea so litter avoidance and removal is good
practice.
(9) Buy Recycled Products:- Recycling is a great idea but depends on consumers buying recycled
products.
(10) Recycle:- Before throwing an item away, consider recycling it. There are some great recycling
sites online, the best known being “Freecycle”, where old items may find new homes and upcycling
old items can also be great fun.

Life cycle impact assessment:

Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment.This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the
significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle
impact assessment (LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:
 selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;
 the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific
impact categories; and
 Impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many
possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to
provide an overall impact category total.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last compulsory stage
according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other
optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and weighting – may be conducted depending
on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In normalization, the results of the impact categories from
the study are usually compared with the total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for
example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories.
During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so that
they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental impact. ISO
14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be used in LCA
studies intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public”. This
advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high degree of subjectivity as a
result of weighting.
Life cycle impacts can also be categorized under the several phases of the development, production,
use, and disposal of a product. Broadly speaking, these impacts can be divided into "First Impacts,"

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use impacts, and end of life impacts. "First Impacts" include extraction of raw materials,
manufacturing (conversion of raw materials into a product), and transportation of the product to a
market or site, construction/installation, and the beginning of the use or occupancy. Use impacts
include physical impacts of operating the product or facility (such as energy, water, etc.),
maintenance, renovation and repairs (required to continue to use the product or facility). End of life
impacts include demolition and processing of waste or recyclable materials.

Life cycle inventory

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to
nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and
releases to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is
constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow
chart that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives
a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. The input and output data needed for the
construction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from
the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the techno sphere).
The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition. Data
can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The results of
the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the form of
elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the study.
Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For product
LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative industry averages) or brand-specific level, that data
is typically collected through survey questionnaires. At an industry level, care has to be taken to
ensure that questionnaires are completed by a representative sample of producers, leaning toward
neither the best nor the worst, and fully representing any regional differences due to energy use,
material sourcing or other factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and outputs,
typically aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in its
production and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if they fall within the 1% level of inputs.
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the techno sphere. The
techno sphere is more simply defined as the man-made world. Considered by geologists as
secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable; however, in a practical sense,
the primary goal is salvage.[12] For an LCI, these techno sphere products (supply chain products)
are those that have been produced by man and unfortunately those completing a questionnaire about
a process which uses a man-made product as a means to an end will be unable to specify how much
of a given input they use. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs
for previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to
secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own previous studies. National
databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the
usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source
properly reflects regional or national conditions.
Interpretation: Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and
evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact
assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during
the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and
recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:

 identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an
LCA;
 evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and

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  conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the
final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results
of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"!
Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy of the results, and
ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that
contribute significantly to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data
elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and
recommendations based on a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results
were developed.
LCA uses:
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006[15] LCA is mostly used to
support business strategy (18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in
education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%). LCA will be continuously
integrated into the built environment as tools such as the European ENSLIC Building project
guidelines for buildings or developed and implemented, which provide practitioners guidance on
methods to implement LCI data into the planning and design process.
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or
commissioning studies, while governments support the development of national databases to
support LCA. Of particular note is the growing use of LCA for ISO Type III labels called
Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental data for a product with
pre-set categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excluding
additional environmental information". This third-party certified LCA-based labels provide an
increasingly important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing products.
Third-party certification plays a major role in today's industry. Independent certification can show a
company's dedication to safer and environmental friendlier products to customers and NGOs. LCA
also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste management and
pollution studies.
GREEN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT (GSCM)
What is Green Supply Chain Management: Green Supply Chain Management is all about
delivering products and services from suppliers, manufacturers to end customers through material
flow, information flow and cash flow in the context of environment. Traditional Supply Chain
Management focuses on Total Quality, optimum Cost and best service which in some way
contributed to environment. Today's Green Supply chain management mandates to incorporate the
environmental idea in each and every stage of the product and service in a Supply Chain. Hence
Supply chain managers have a great role in developing innovative environmental technologies to
tackle the problems faced by the economy on environmental problems and communicate this to
every stake holder in the chain. Lean Manufacturing is eliminating waste in every stage of supply
chain. It focuses on producing economically and environmentally friendly quality products which
meets the customer expectation. It is the best practice to be followed since it reduces inventory,
saves space and energy. Hence Lean manufacturing contributes to the Green environment. EPI is to
measure the effectiveness of environmental performances of a country. This measure provides the
details on how close the countries can establish environmental friendly policies and procedures.
Ways to build Green Supply Chain
 Product Selection: Designing the product in such a way that it should be safe for use, creating
least pollution and consumes less energy. It should not be hazardous during storage,
transportation and also while disposing once it reaches end of its product life cycle. DFE
(Design for Environment) is about developing products that has no negative side effect for

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 human and environment, cost effective and environment friendly. This practice has to be
implemented in product design stage.
 Process and production: Process has to be designed so that it conforms to the Green Supply
Chain Management initiatives to reduce environmental negative impact. Efficient and effective
production strategy to reduce energy consumption which includes reducing waste material, air
and water emissions. This contributes to lean manufacturing. All possibilities have to be
checked for recycling the Scrap materials.
 Business Partners selection: Selecting suppliers who have proven track records on practicing
lean manufacturing and using environment friendly material. Involving vendors during product
conception and design so that they can share their best practices to best align your strategy with
the customer strategy on going greener supply chain. Ultimately it results in customer delight
and satisfaction.
 Logistics Design: Efforts should be practiced to reduce fuel consumption. This we can achieve
by setting up suppliers near to the OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and its Hubs.
Less use of air freight, increased use of rail and sea transport. Logistics partners have to be
included while product designs so that it improves cubic space utilization and effective fleet
management. Back hauling should be practiced where the empty vehicle should be used to
collect the goods from other sources once after delivering finished goods.
 Packaging Material: Replacing package materials which are eco-friendly. Fumigation certificate
should be obtained for international shipments for wooden pallets and crates. Packaging
material has to be designed in such a way it can be re-used and re-cycled. Packaging should be
robust so that any hazardous material inside it doesn't spill over and cause environmental
hazard.
 Reverse logistics Design: Materials after consuming should be effectively used for re-use,
repair, recycle, remanufacture and redistribution. It calls for reusing containers and pallets,
redesigning and recycling package materials etc. Reducing pollution during transportation are
important activities of reverse logistics. Proper design of Reverse logistics contributes greater
towards Green Supply Chain Management.
 Information Technology: A Green approach to IT has to be achieved through various automatic
processes thereby reducing carbon foot prints. Paper usage has to be minimized through
automatic invoice/payment processing. Using EDI for creating/transmitting orders.
 Green Building: Deploying greener practices in Design, construction and maintaining the
buildings. Using energy efficient bulbs, natural lightning saves considerable energy. Water has
to be recycled for day to day use. LEED certification (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
design recognized by US and other countries) has to be obtained. Investment in Renewable
energy sources such as solar, wind etc. are needed for sustainable green practice.
Benefits of GSCM
1. GSCM will help us to gain a competitive advantage and help us to attract new customers.
2. Increased use of resources, improved efficiency and reduced production cost.
3. It contributes greater towards improved financial performance.
4. Reduces risk by avoiding hazardous material that leads to environmental effect.
5. Improved quality of products and services gives higher customer delight and reputation.
Hence trying to deploy all the above designs in each and every stage of a supply chain will
in turn creates values financially and socially to the customer. Hence we can go a step further and
call the chain as a value chain. Ultimately all these practices have to be sustainable and should keep
improving continuously by researching and innovating new ideas.
Product Stewardship
What is Product Stewardship?

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 Product stewardship is an integrated business process for identifying, managing and
minimizing the environmental, health and safety (EHS) impacts at every stage of a product’s life
cycle.
At Huntsman, product stewardship demonstrates our commitment to responsible EHS
management through active assessment of our products at every stage in their life cycles, from the
sourcing of raw materials, through manufacture and use, to eventual disposal. This involves
working very closely with our customers, suppliers and others in the supply chain to ensure that
they understand the EHS opportunities relating to our chemicals.
Product stewardship is not new, but it is an important aspect of the EHS management
programs launched by many national chemical industry associations worldwide. At Huntsman,
product stewardship has been given sharper attention as one of seven strategic focus areas of our
20:20 Vision, a 10-year EHS strategy aligned with our rapidly evolving business needs and the
dynamic markets in which we operate.
Why is it Important?
We believe that an effectively managed product stewardship process shows our commitment
to EHS management and enables us to meet the increasing demands for safer and more
environmentally sustainable products. The product stewardship process adds value to our products
by minimizing the risk of harm to both mankind and the environment, reducing the risk of
marketing a defective product and, in consequence, reducing potential liabilities.
Principles for Product Stewardship Policy
The NWPSC uses following principles to guide the development of product stewardship
policies and legislation.
1. Producer Responsibility: All producers selling a covered product into the State are
responsible for designing, managing, and financing a stewardship program that addresses the
lifecycle impacts of their products including end-of-life management. Producers have flexibility to
meet these responsibilities by offering their own plan or participating in a plan with others. In
addressing end-of-life management, all stewardship programs must finance the collection,
transportation, and responsible reuse, recycling or disposition of covered products. Stewardship
programs must:
 Cover the costs of new, historic and orphan covered products.
 Provide convenient collection for consumers throughout the State.
Costs for product waste management are shifted from taxpayers and ratepayers to producers and
users. Programs are operated by producers with minimum government involvement.
2. Shared Responsibilities: Retailers only sell covered products from producers who are in
compliance with stewardship requirements. State and local governments work with producers and
retailers on educating the public about the stewardship programs. Consumers are responsible for
using return systems set up by producers or their agents.
3. Governance: Government sets goals and performance standards following consultation with
stakeholders. All programs within a product category are accountable to the same goals and
performance standards. Government allows producers the flexibility to determine the most cost-
effective means of achieving the goals and performance standards. Government is responsible for
ensuring a level playing field by enforcing requirements that all producers in a product category
participate in a stewardship program as a condition for selling their product in the jurisdiction.
Product categories required to have stewardship programs are selected using the process and
priorities set out in framework legislation. Government is responsible for ensuring transparency and
accountability of stewardship programs. Producers are accountable to both government and
consumers for disclosing environmental outcomes.
4. Financing: Producers finance their stewardship programs as a general cost of doing business,
through cost internalization or by recovering costs through arrangements with their distributors and
retailers. End of life fees are not allowed.

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5. Environmental Protection: Framework legislation should address environmental product
design, including source reduction, recyclability and reducing toxicity of covered products.
Framework legislation requires that stewardship programs ensure that all products covered by the
stewardship program are managed in an environmentally sound manner. Stewardship programs
must be consistent with other State sustainability legislation, including those that address
greenhouse gas reduction and the waste management hierarchy. Stewardship programs include
reporting on the final disposition, (i.e., reuse, recycling, disposal) of products handled by the
stewardship program, including any products or materials exported for processing.
The following 10 principles are key to achieving product stewardship and apply to each of us
involved in any product's lifecycle:
1. Shared Responsibility: Take responsibility to ensure products are managed safely throughout
their lifecycle for the products that you supply, manufacture, distribute, use, dispose/recycle or
regulate. The manufacturer of a product does not have complete control over every actor throughout
a product's lifecycle. No matter how "foolproof" a product is, each of us has an obligation not to be
foolish.
2. Lifecycle Thinking: Work to prevent or significantly reduce risks and increase sustainability
throughout the product lifecycle. This could range from simple communications to redesign to
regulations to withdrawing the product from the market. A product take-back program may be an
effective and efficient component of product stewardship in some cases, as might substituting safer
components. But beware of unintended consequences as you fix one problem only to create another.
3. Knowledge: Understand the potential environmental, health and safety risks of your actions – the
inherent hazards associated with the materials you use and the exposures you may cause. In
addition, understand how others in the product's lifecycle impact risk. The biggest burden for
developing knowledge of a product's hazards falls on the manufacturer because it defines what the
product is. Understanding the other necessary component of risk, exposure, is tougher. The
challenges of acquiring the right kinds of information are addressed by some of the principles
below and are the subjects of vigorous discussions around science, business proprietary
information, transparency and public policy on what and when something is "safe enough."
4. Supply Chain Communication: Share information necessary for others to understand hazards
and manage exposures in their portion of the supply chain. Products are part of complex systems
involving a series of suppliers and customers (including waste handlers). You need to help those
upstream and downstream from you minimize total lifecycle impacts and use more sustainable
practices.
5. Stakeholders: Understand the concerns of the range of stakeholders who influence the success
of the product – employees, stockholders, suppliers, neighbors, governments, peers and public
interest groups. Determine what you need to do to assure these stakeholders that a product is being
managed safely. Work together to find the best solutions that preserve benefits and reduce risks.
Stakeholders determine what is "safe enough."
6. Teamwork: Determine who knows the what, where, why and how of a product to find more
sustainable solutions. Product stewards do not work alone. They must work closely with and rely on
experts who understand each aspect of a product's lifecycle so that risks can be characterized and
controlled (manufacturing, marketing, research, legal, health and environmental, public affairs,
etc.). Expert teams are also needed to continue developing reliable standards to evaluate and
communicate risk information to customers.
7. Awareness: Watch for new information relating to risks and safer products. Have processes in
place that manage and quickly respond to changes that can impact product safety such as changes in
resources, processes, science, technologies, uses, users/customers and societal and regulatory
expectations. Try to anticipate and get ahead of changes.
8. Innovation: A commitment to product stewardship stimulates innovation in reducing risks and
improving value to meet customer and societal needs with new and better products and processes.
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Building in sustainability and safety during the product design phase is the most effective way for a
company to accomplish product stewardship.
9. Management: Implement practices that will continually move product stewardship forward. An
ongoing plan-do-check-act cycle and all the other management tools you already use apply to
product stewardship just like any other activity. Most importantly, product stewardship is not a one-
time project; it's a way of thinking and acting responsibly.
10. Integration: Product stewardship should be integral to how a business operates and be part of
the culture. It cannot be a stand-alone program performed by a staff group in a far off branch of an
organization chart. Every function contributes to the lifecycle impacts of a product. Individual
consumers also need to be product stewards whenever they buy, use and discard any product. We
should all ask ourselves, "Is this the responsible thing to do?" The principles of product stewardship
should become common sense.

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 CHAPTER: 6
WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING?
 A sustainability report is a report published by a company or organization about the
economic, environmental and social impacts caused by its everyday activities. A
sustainability report also presents the organization's values and governance model,
and demonstrates the link between its strategy and its commitment to a sustainable
global economy.
 Sustainability reporting can help organizations to measure, understand and
communicate their economic, environmental, and social and governance
performance, and then set goals, and manage change more effectively. A
sustainability report is the key platform for communicating sustainability
performance and impacts – whether positive or negative.
 Sustainability reporting can be considered as synonymous with other terms for non-
financial reporting; triple bottom line reporting, corporate social responsibility (CSR)
reporting, and more. It is also an intrinsic element of integrated reporting; a more
recent development that combines the analysis of financial and non-financial
performance.
 IMPORTANCE OF TRUST Expand-Collapse
 Building and maintaining trust in businesses and governments is fundamental to
achieving a sustainable economy and world. Every day, decisions are made by
businesses and governments which have direct impacts on their stakeholders, such as
financial institutions, labor organizations, civil society and citizens, and the level of
trust they have with them. These decisions are rarely based on financial information
alone. They are based on an assessment of risk and opportunity using information on
a wide variety of immediate and future issues.
 The value of the sustainability reporting process is that it ensures organizations
consider their impacts on these sustainability issues, and enables them to be
transparent about the risks and opportunities they face. Stakeholders also play a
crucial role in identifying these risks and opportunities for organizations, particularly
those that are non-financial. This increased transparency leads to better decision
making, which helps build and maintain trust in businesses and governments.
 WHO SHOULD REPORT? Expand-Collapse
 Sustainability reports are released by companies and organizations of all types, sizes
and sectors, from every corner of the world. Thousands of companies across all
sectors have published reports that reference GRI’s Sustainability Reporting
Guidelines. Public authorities and non-profits are also big reporters. GRI’s
Sustainability Disclosure Database features all known GRI-based reports.
 Major providers of sustainability reporting guidance include:
 GRI (GRI's Sustainability Reporting Standards)
 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD Guidelines
for Multinational Enterprises) The United Nations Global Compact (the
Communication on Progress)
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO 26000, International
Standard for social responsibility)

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 To learn more about how sustainability reporting is developing worldwide, visit the
Report or Explain and Report Services pages.

Elements of a Good Sustainability Report

Not all corporate sustainability reports (CSRs) are created equal. Some reports are glossy
marketing brochures that lack substantive data. Others are so data focused that reading them
requires a strong cup of coffee to resist boredom-induced sleep. The best reports provide a
balance of accessible, engaging text and comprehensive, material data presented in a well-
designed format. It is both art and science. Referencing the most recent reports from
companies on that list as examples, here are five elements we believe are vital to producing
a quality report:
 Transparency
Aside from collecting and compiling the data, which is no small challenge, transparency
requires putting new company information into the public domain. There is organizational
inertia and a fear that additional data could reflect poorly on the organization, or even on
individuals. The other fear is that the information could in some way benefit the
competition. As a result, many reporters take a shortcut by including superficial data rather
than truly transparent information. True transparency requires context and parameters. For
example, if a company reports a 20% reduction in water usage, readers shouldn’t have to
ask; “20% of what baseline? Over what time period?”
The UPS Corporate Sustainability Report demonstrates a solid commitment to transparency.
The data is detailed and well defined in the body of the report, but extensive backup is also
included in the appendices. All this is evidence of a meticulous dedication to full disclosure
of the data scope and boundary. In addition, UPS’s report is examined in detail and assured
by an external assessor.
 Authenticity
We all know that no one is perfect. And no company is perfect either. But most companies
have been so conditioned to portray themselves as perfect in the marketplace, that admitting
to flaws and challenges is tremendously difficult. A sustainability report is not the place to
portray perfection. That does adisservice to stakeholders – because it simply isn’t
believable. Good reports acknowledge challenges and failures provide context and
communicate next steps.
The Seventh Generation Sustainability Report clearly shows the company’s dedication to
authenticity. Seventh Generation lists not just highlights, but also challenges up-front and
on the same page. Additionally, the report does not shy away from discussing the very
public ouster of Founding-CEO Jeffrey Hollender. Rather than gloss over this open wound
in passing, the report dedicates a full page to the difficulties surrounding the leadership
changes, the impact on the company, and the way the company continues to address those
challenges.
Stakeholder Engagement
Good CSRs provide evidence that the transparent and authentic information included is also
a true reflection of stakeholder interests. Many reports handle this GRI requirement by
describing channels and perhaps volume of communication with various stakeholder
groups. True stakeholder engagement, however, is apparent when there is evidence of an
authentic two-way exchange resulting in some degree of change in the company. This

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proves that the company is really listening and incorporating stakeholder feedback into their
business.
The Baxter Sustainability Report does an excellent job of detailing the company’s
stakeholder engagement. This report features a dedicated web page that explains the
channels and frequencies of the company’s communication with employees, patients,
healthcare professionals, shareholders, and communities. The report includes narrative, a
detailed graphic, and a well-organized chart that effectively explains the channels of
engagement with each stakeholder group. It also outlines specific ways that the company
responded to each of the concerns raised.
 Intuitive Structure
Sustainability reports have a wide array of audiences – each with very different
expectations. If your audience can’t find the information they need, any hard work put into
the other elements will go unnoticed. It is important to develop a good structure for content
and navigation whether reporting in a printed piece, a PDF, a website or a mobile app. Good
structure and design will organize the complex range of information into a structure simple
enough that all readers will be able to navigate intuitively.
The GE Sustainable Growth Report is particularly successful at creating a structure that
leads readers through the company’s sustainability story. The content is divided into three
easy-to-understand sections: People, Planet, and Economy. Then each of those sections has
three layers of information from the high-level, at-a-glance “Highlights,” to the narrative
details in “Progress,” to the detailed data in “Metrics.” This enables readers to easily find
the information that interests them. The structure is always visible in the navigation,
providing readers the signposts that allow them to feel comfortable exploring the report with
the confidence of knowing where they are and how to get back to where they started.
 Meaningful
Finally, successful reports will do all of the above in a way that is truly meaningful to each
audience. At Emotive Brand, we believe that people(i.e. stakeholders) are increasingly
skeptical and sophisticated, and that they will support companies that offer them meaning.
Sustainability reports present an opportunity for organizations to communicate authentically
about issues that matter to people. So, it is important to tie each of the previous elements
together in a way that speaks clearly and directly to stakeholder interests, while providing
an opportunity for continued dialogue. The Nike Responsibility Report, which won the last
Ceres-ACCA awards, effectively connects each of the first four elements together in a way
that is truly meaningful. Through clear writing, straightforward infographics, and engaging
photography, the Nike report tells a compelling story of the company’s commitment to
sustainability. For example, the CEO letter says, “We’ve made significant progress in these
areas. But as we all know at Nike, there is no finish line.” This statement recognizes the
need for continued improvement with an image connected to the roots of Nike’s business in
sports. That is meaningful.
Quality sustainability reports will have all five of these characteristics. So, make sure your
report has transparency, authenticity, stakeholder engagement, intuitive structure and
design, as well as meaning. For more inspiration, check out the Ten Outstanding
Sustainability Reports from earlier this year on Triple Pundit.
What's the purpose of sustainability reporting?
We all know the mantra that what gets measured gets acted on, but is sustainability
reporting changing the world and what does the future hold. This is a particularly poignant
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moment to be asking these questions. At the very moment the Global Reporting Initiative
(GRI) has grasped the nettle by unveiling new simplified G4 guidelines, the broader
territory of measurement and transparency is in danger of becoming more complex and
potentially confusing. The GRI has been the go-to place for sustainability reporting for
years and has responded to growing concerns at the sheer weight of metrics by going back
to core principles such as materiality and dropping its perverse incentive of giving a better
score to companies that ticked more of the boxes. But the sigh of relief is tempered by
practitioners now having to grapple with how to relate their sustainability programs to the
emerging integrated reporting movement. In particular, the International Integrated
Reporting Committee (IIRC) is currently piloting its methodology for companies to produce
one combined financial, environmental and governance report that can illustrate how they
are creating value over time. There are also new reporting tools being developed, with
particular interest focused on the US-based Sustainability Accounting Standards Board
(SASB), which is developing sector-specific key performance indicators to appeal to the
financial markets. Sustainability practitioners need to get to know these new frameworks
and understand how they relate to each other. This is important. While financial analysts
like clarity and common metrics, so they can benchmark performance, it is also vital that
companies take the time to think through their specific societal impacts and build relevant
associated KPIs. While these questions need to be wrestled with, it is also important at
moments of great change to go back to the beginning of the journey and to remember the
purpose of reporting and what difference it can truly make. To help build our understanding
of the opportunities and challenges, we have asked some of the world's top reporting experts
to give their views on the purpose of reporting in the current, more complex business
environment. We would love it if you can add your comments below to deepen and broaden
the debate.
 Advantages of sustainability reports
 Internal benefits
o Increased understanding of risks and opportunities
o Emphasizing the link between financial and non-financial performance
o Influencing long term management strategy and policy, and business plans
o Streamlining processes, reducing costs and improving efficiency
o Benchmarking and assessing sustainability performance with respect to laws,
norms, codes, performance standards, and voluntary initiatives
o Avoiding being implicated in publicized environmental, social and
governance failures
o Comparing performance internally, and between organizations and sectors
 External benefits of sustainability reporting can include:
o Mitigating – or reversing – negative environmental, social and governance
impacts
o Improving reputation and brand loyalty
o Enabling external stakeholders to understand the organization’s true value,
and tangible and intangible assets
Demonstrating how the organization influences, and is influenced by, expectations about
sustainable development.
What is GRI Reporting?

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 A GRI report is a sustainability report that uses the Global Reporting Initiative’s
sustainability reporting guidelines. The GRI guidelines were designed to be used by organizations
of any size and sector, in any region. The guidelines assist companies to report on ‘What matters
and where it matters’. Sustainability reporting using the GRI framework aims to promote
organizational change. The framework does this by providing organizations with the opportunity to
closely examine how they are performing in their day to day activities in the economic, social and
environmental categories, and then further drilling down into material aspects and specific
indicators.
But the last few months have seen the framework undergo a significant overhaul, as GRI consults
stakeholders on a new 'G4' version, and though G4's final content won't be known until its launch in
May, it's already causing some consternation in business. If the reporters I've spoken to about G4
are anything to go by, this concern could amount to a serious wobble for GRI, and have significant
implications for the future of reporting. Rumors abound as to what exactly will be in G4, but the
concerns center on four potential changes:
• G4 will abandon the reporting 'levels' (A, B, C etc.) that companies can achieve. There's a paradox
here: these levels are often misunderstood as indicators of sustainability performance, rather than
what they are, which is simply the extent of disclosure. But justifying the huge effort of getting a
report you can press-release as "A+" is a lot easier than committing even more resource to achieve a
report which just meets the same standard as everyone else. Try selling that to your CEO.
• G4 shifts the focus to value chain materiality. It's hard to argue with the value chain being where
the greatest impacts are for many companies, but for those with complex, and in many cases,
multiple value chains (probably the majority), it's an utterly daunting prospect for any systematic
approach.
• G4 increases the number of indicators – from 79 to over a hundred. The sheer volume of data
collection looks set to tie up limited resources in chasing numbers and filling in spreadsheets, to the
detriment of practical action on performance.
• G4 does nothing to improve the experience for readers. There's a worry that G4 will make reports
less engaging as it pushes reporters to satisfy a tiny band of expert stakeholders – and a lurking
sense that nobody is reading anyway.
What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem, a term very often used in biology, is a community of plants and animals
interacting with each other in a given area, and also with their non-living environments. The non-
living environments include weather, earth, sun, soil, climate and atmosphere. The ecosystem
relates to the way that all these different organisms live in close proximity to each other and how
they interact with each other. For instance, in an ecosystem where there are both rabbits and foxes,
these two creatures are in a relationship where the fox eats the rabbit in order to survive. This
relationship has a knock on effect with the other creatures and plants that live in the same or similar
areas. For instance, the more rabbits that foxes eat, the more the plants may start to thrive because
there are fewer rabbits to eat them. Ecosystems can be huge, with many hundreds of different
animals and plants all living in a delicate balance, or they could be relatively small. In particularly
harsh places in the world, particularly the North and South Poles, the ecosystems are relatively
simple because there are only a few types of creatures that can withstand the freezing temperatures
and harsh living conditions. Some creatures can be found in multiple different ecosystems all over
the world in different relationships with other or similar creatures. Ecosystems also consist of
creatures that mutually benefit from each other. For instance, a popular example is that of the clown
fish and the anemone – the clown fish cleans the anemone and keeps it safe from parasites as the
anemone stings bigger predators that would otherwise eat clown fish.
Concept of an Ecosystem:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the latter
provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction between a biotic

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community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient unit which is
known as an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is, therefore, defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of
living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physicochemical) environment
that interact to form a stable self-supporting system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest
etc. are common examples of ecosystems.
Structure of an Ecosystem:

Structure of an Ecosystem

Abiotic Biotic

(1) Abiotic
(2) Biotic

(1) Abiotic Components:

The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the
abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behavior and inter-
relationship of organisms.
(a) Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc
(b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of weathered rock
fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms. Soils provide
nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms. The vegetation found
growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this component of an ecosystem through nutrient
cycling. The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration and
precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. Solar radiation is used in
ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water into the atmosphere.
Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth
and metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life. Most living tissue is composed of a
very high percentage of water, up to and even exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells
can survive if their water content drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-
50%.Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is also
necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical
reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original
source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic Components: The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms
(Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components. On the basis of
their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classified into three main groups:

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 (A) Producers

(B) Consumers

(C) Decomposers or Reducers.

Biotic Components

Producers Consumers Decomposers

(A) Producers:
The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and change it into
chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds namely water and carbon
dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their own food
they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder). The chemical energy stored by
the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own growth and survival and the
remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.
(B) Consumers:
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food. Therefore, they depend
on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other, trophos =
feeder). The consumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores: These are the animals which
feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores. Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle
etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores: The animals
which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats, foxes, snakes
etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers: These are the large carnivores which feed on
the secondary consumers. Example is Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores: These are the largest
carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other animal.
Examples are lions and tigers.
(C) Decomposers or Reducers: Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown
the dead organic materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release
to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products of their
metabolisms. These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange
of materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The
decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder).
MONITORING OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT TREATMENT
In today business, environmental management has been an integral part of operations and its
importance cannot be overemphasized. Typically, industries will discharge some form of effluents.
Industrial effluents vary significantly in pollution characteristics hence different unit processes and

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unit operations are utilized to treat them. Industrial outfits discharging industrial effluents are
required to build and operate industrial effluent treatment systems (IETS) in accordance with the
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluents) Regulations 2009. IETS is a rather complicated
industrial system involving various equipment and processes which required monitoring and
maintenance to ensure it produce desired result. In helping the industry, Department of
Environment issued `Technical Guidance On Performance Monitoring of Industrial Effluent
Treatment Systems’. This two-day training program is aimed at imparting knowledge to
participants on how to monitor and maintain industrial effluents treatment system.
Temperature: Temperature affects chemical, biological reactions in water. In the present study, it
varies from 28 to 29.5 0C, but there are cases where that temperature has been reported more than
40 0C due to reactions in the plants (nuclear and thermal power plants).Generally the effluents are
suitably diluted before they are released to the sewage.
pH The pH values are in the range 6.5-8. This is in accordance with the WHO permissible limit
(6.0-8.5). But two samples E10 and E16 show very high acidic range (pH1.17 to 1.55).The extreme
pH of wastewater are generally not acceptable, as lower pH cause problems to survival of aquatic
life. It also interferes with the optimum operation of wastewater treatment facilities. Water with
high or low pH is not suitable for irrigation. At low pH most of the metals become soluble in water
and therefore could be hazardous in the environment. At high pH most of the metals become
insoluble and accumulate in the sludge and sediments. The toxicity of heavy metals also gets
enhanced at particular pH.
Electrical conductivity The electric conductivity of water is a measure of the ability of a solution
to conduct an electric current; this ability depends upon the presence of ions, their total
concentration, mobility and temperature of water. The conductivity of the water is one of the
important parameter used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation. It is useful indicator for
salinity or total salt content of waste water7. In present study, only two samples E7 and E22 shows
EC within limits prescribed by WHO(1400μS/cm) and other samples exceeds limits, and hence they
are unfit for irrigation .Thus suitable treatments are required before they are released to the sewage.
WHAT IS GREEN BUILDINGS?
A green Building uses less energy, water and other natural resources creates less waste &
Green House Gases and is healthy for people during living or working inside as compared to a
standard Building. Another meaning of Green Structure is clean environment, water and
healthy living. Building Green is not about a little more efficiency. It is about creating
buildings that optimize on the local ecology, use of local materials and most importantly they
are built to cut power, water and material requirements. Thus, if these things are kept in mind,
then we will realize that our traditional architecture was in fact, very green. Today, we have
forgotten that how to make natural environment, instead copying it from developed countries.
Buildings are a major energy consuming sector in the economy. About 35 to 40% of total
energy is used by buildings during construction. The major consumption of Energy in
buildings is during construction and later in lighting or air-conditioning systems. This
consumption must be minimized. Possibly, this should be limited to about 80-100 watts per
sqm.
Introduction
We have heard of climate change. The air is getting warmer - summer comes sooner in
most continents including Europe and America. Sea level is rising, - Maldives is sinking.
Rivers like the Amazon, the Nile, the Danube, etc, are drying or recede several meters every
year. But it's not just happening elsewhere but also happening in India. The glaciers feeding
water for the Ganga are melting faster than it should. It means the Ganga could dry up in
another about 60 years or so. This would leave over 50 million people thirsty who are living on
the banks.

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 Mangrove forests of Sunderban are the world's most prosperous group of 104 Rainforest
Islands. However, it appears that these very unique islands are likely to be wiped out from
earth's map very soon or over the period of time. In fact, 15% of Indian side Sunderban and
17% of Bangladesh side of Sunderban Island are already submerged in the ocean. Now the
threat of submerging is looming large on Sagardeep, the 4th biggest of the existing island. It is
also on this Island, that the annual Mela of Gangasagar is held and visited by Millions of
pilgrims every year. This is all because of the generation of Green house gases (GHG) and sea
level is rising. A third of all Carbon Dioxide emissions produced are absorbed in the oceans.
Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean water becomes a corrosive acid which kills sea life. Thus
fish catches are falling. That would leave hundreds of coastal communities hungry. The coal is
burnt in electric power plants, which is a major source of the CO2generation and it is doing all
the damage - melting the glaciers, poisoning the sea, disrupting the monsoon etc. Alternate
source of Energy like Renewable energy - from the sun's rays, wind, seas' waves & geo sources
- is clean, doesn't release CO2 and is not hostage to a resource that will die out. In India, we are
blessed with a tropical sun, fast winds and thousands of miles of sea coast. Renewable energy
is thus the answer for all these ills. Similarly, building Industry is producing second largest
amount of Demolition Waste and GHG (almost 40%). Buildings have major environmental
impacts over their entire life cycle. Resources such as ground cover, forests, water, and energy
are depleted to construct and operate buildings. Resource-intensive materials provide the
building envelope and landscaping add beauty to it – in turn using up water and pesticides to
maintain it. Energy-consuming systems for lighting, space conditioning and water heating
provide comfort to its occupants. Hi-tech controls add intelligence to ‘inanimate' buildings so
that they can respond to varying conditions, and intelligently monitor and control resource use,
security, and usage of fire systems etc. in the building. Water is another vital resource for the
occupants, which gets consumed continuously during building construction and operation.
Several building processes and occupant function generate large amount of waste. These all are
polluting the environment and increasing (GHG).
Climate Change and Its Effect
Climate is changing fast globally because of increased energy consumption and thus
increase Green house gases (GHG) like CO2. This gives rise to global Warming. The World
produces about 0.6 tones / year / per capita CO2. India is the 5th largest producing GHG. This
impacts the climate change resulting in:
 Water stress and reduction in the availability of fresh water due to potential decline in
rainwater.
 Threats to agriculture and food scarcity
 Shifts in area and boundary of different forest and threat to biodiversity with adverse
implications for forest dependent activities.
 Sea level rising on coastal areas and effect on agriculture & habitation.
 Green Building Concept and Architecture Planning
 To have Green Building Concept, we should look after the following:
 Optimum use of Energy or power
 Water conservation
 Solid and Water Waste management, its treatment and reuse
 Energy efficient transport systems
 Efficient Building System Planning etc.
If all Buildings in urban areas were made to adopt green Building concepts, India could save more
than 8400 MW of power which is enough to light half of Delhi or 5.5 lakh homes a year according
to estimates by TERI. A green building depletes very little of the natural resources during its
construction and operation. The aim of a green building design is to minimize the demand on non-

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renewable resources and maximize the utilization efficiency of these resources when in use and
utilization of renewable resources. Architects & planners should start thinking green in the planning
of Buildings. Integrating living & vegetation with architecture is fast gaining popularity around the
world and now a new term "Vegitecture" has been coined for it and it is becoming common. Thus
the Architect may think to bring concrete jungles to green jungles through "Vegitecture". This is
similar to the scenario shown in figure here. The Architect can use large windows with Double
glass system. The glazed trapping will act as insulating layer of air between the two layers of glass.
One of these layers of glass filters and disperses light and heat without reflecting it back outside the
building. The air conditioning system will also be less intensive because the double glazing system
insulates the building. Further, hollow fly ash bricks can be used in walls during construction. This
will also provide good insulating properties apart from using waste materials. Contribution of
Concrete towards Green House Gases Among the primary concrete making materials, the emission
of CO2 is largely attributable to cement production. It is estimated that modern cements contain on
an average of about 84% Portland cement clinker and the clinker manufacturing process releases
about 0.9 ton of CO2 per ton of clinker. The Concrete Industry World wide consume more than 3.5
billon tons of cement, so the carbon contribution of this industry is obviously quite large. Thus
minimizing concrete consumption through innovative architecture and structural designs is one way
to save on the use of cement. Another way is to use smart concrete mixture proportioning approach.
This can be done through following approaches:
 Minimize concrete consumption through innovative architecture and Structural Design methods.
 Use smart concrete mixture or i-crete as proportioning approach to save on cement in concrete
mix.
 Consume less Cement in concrete / mortar mixtures.
 Consume less Clinker in Cement making by adding Pozzolana like fly ash or GGBFS in
Cement or Concrete.
Characteristics of Green Building
Building construction and its upkeep for livable conditions requires huge energy in lighting,
air-conditioning, operation of appliances etc. Green Building i.e. energy efficient building is the one
which can reduce energy consumption by at least 40% as compared to conventional building. The
cost of constructing energy efficient building is estimated to be 15 – 20% higher as compared to
conventional building without energy efficiency. However, this is more than compensated over the
period of time i.e during life cycle cost and operation & living. Using green building materials and
products, promotes conservation of nonrenewable resources internationally. In addition, integrating
green building materials into building projects can help reduce the environmental impacts
associated with the extraction, transport, processing, fabrication, installation, reuse, recycling, and
disposal of these building industry source materials.
Green Building Products and Materials
Building and Construction activities worldwide consume about 3 billion tons of raw
materials each year. Using green building materials and products promotes conservation of
dwindling nonrenewable resources. In addition, integrating green building materials into building
projects can help reduce the environmental impacts associated with the excavation, extraction,
transport, processing, recycling and disposal of these building industry source materials. Green
building materials are composed of renewable, rather than nonrenewable resources and are
environmentally responsible because impacts are considered over the life cycle period. Depending
upon project-specific goals, an assessment of green materials may involve an evaluation of one or
more of the following parameters
 Resource efficiency
 Energy efficiency
 Affordability
 Possible Recycling of Material and Waste generation
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  Water conservation
 Effective Indoor air quality
A) Resource Efficiency: It can be accomplished by utilizing materials that meet the following
criteria. Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with resource-efficient
processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled, recyclable and or
source reduced product packaging) and thus reducing greenhouse gases. Local availability:
Building materials, components and systems found locally or regionally will save energy and
resources in transportation to the project site. Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: It avoids
the material from disposal and renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the
appearance, performance, quality, functionality or value of a product. Durable: Materials that are
longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products with long life expectancies.
B) Energy Efficiency: It can be maximized by utilizing materials and systems that meet the
various criteria that help reduce energy consumption in buildings and facilities as indicated above.
C) Affordability: It can be considered as the cost for the building product when life-cycle costs
are comparable to conventional materials or as a whole it is within a project-defined percentage of
the overall budget. Recyclable Content Products with identifiable recycled content and minimum
waste generation, including post use content with a preference for post-consumer use content
should be considered. Reusable or recyclable Select materials that can be easily dismantled and
reused or recycled at the end of their useful life.
E) Water Conservation: It can be judged from utilizing the materials and systems that help reduce
water consumption in buildings and conserve water in landscaped areas. This is similar to chemical
admixture used in concrete to reduce water content.
F) Effective Indoor Air Quality: It should enhance by utilizing such material and meet the
following criteria: Low or non-toxic Materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive
toxicants or irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through appropriate testing. Minimal
chemical emissions Products that have minimal emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).
Products that also maximize resource and energy efficiency while reducing chemical emissions.
Low-VOC assembly Materials installed with minimal VOC-producing compounds, or no-
VOC mechanical attachment methods with minimal hazards. Moisture resistant Products and
systems that resist moisture or inhibit the growth of biological contaminants in buildings.
Some Steps for Material Selection
Material selection can begin after the establishment of project-specific environmental goals.
The environmental assessment process for building material involves three basic steps.
1. Survey
2. Evaluation
3. Selection
1. Survey: This step involves gathering of all technical information about the material
which can be identified, including manufacturers' information such as Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS), Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) test data, product warranties, source material characteristics,
recyclable content data, environmental, performance and durability information. In addition, this
step may also involve investigating other issues like building codes, government regulations,
building industry performance, model green building product specifications etc. Such survey will
help in identifying the full range of the project's material options.
2. Evaluation: This step involves confirmation of the technical information, as well as
filling in information gaps. For example, the evaluator may request product certifications from
manufacturers to help sort out possible exaggerated environmental product claims. Evaluation and
assessment is relatively simple when comparing similar types of building materials using the
environmental criteria. However, the evaluation process is more complex when comparing different
products with the same function. Then it may become necessary to process both descriptive and
quantitative forms of data. A life cycle assessment (LCA) is an evaluation of the relative

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"greenness" of building materials and products. LCA addresses the impact of a product through all
of its life stages. This tool that can be used is the LCA methodology through a software evaluation
like BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) software. Such software can
easily be developed or otherwise available commercially. It allows users to balance the
environmental and economic performance of building products.
3. Selection: This step often involves the use of an evaluation matrix for scoring the
project-specific environmental criteria. The total score of each product evaluation will indicate the
product with the highest environmental attributes. Individual criteria included in the rating system
can be weighted to accommodate project-specific goals and objectives.
Advantages of Green Building Materials
 Green building materials offer some or all of the following benefits to the building
owner and building occupants:
 Reduced maintenance/ replacement costs over the life of the building
 Energy conservation
 Improved occupant health and productivity
 Life cycle cost savings
 Lower costs associated with changing space configurations.
 Greater design flexibility
Some Benefits of a Green Building Concept
 Green buildings are designed to be healthier and having more enjoyable working
environment. Workplace qualities that improve the environment and which help in
developing the knowledge of workers and may also reduce stress and lead to longer lives for
multidisciplinary teams.
 Reduced energy and water consumption without sacrificing the comfort level.
 Significantly, better lighting quality including more day lighting, better daylight harvesting
and use of shading, greater occupancy control over light levels and less glare.
 Improved thermal comfort and better ventilation.
 Limited waste generation due to recycling process and reuse.
 Increase productivity of workers and machines. It is reported that productivity can be
increased by about 25% while following such green house norms.
 Attracting and retaining the best employees, can be linked to the benefits and qualities of
workers receive, including the physical, environmental and technological aspects.
 Green building activities result in reduction of operating costs by 25-30%.

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