PHILONOTES

Prepared and Compiled by Mr. Gerald E. Layo

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Many answers have been offered in reply to this question and most are angling at something

similar. My favorite answer is that philosophy is all of rational inquiry except for science. Perhaps you think science
exhausts inquiry. About a hundred years ago, many philosophers, especially the Logical Positivists, thought there was
nothing we could intelligibly inquire into except for scientific matters. But this view is probably not right. What branch of
science addresses the question of whether or not science covers all of rational inquiry? If the question strikes you as
puzzling, this might be because you already recognize that whether or not science can answer every question is not itself
a scientific issue. Questions about the limits of human inquiry and knowledge are philosophical questions. We can get a
better understanding of philosophy by considering what sorts of things other than scientific issues humans might inquire
into. Philosophical issues are as diverse and far ranging as those we find in the sciences, but a great many of them fall
into one of three big topic areas, metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.

What is the value of philosophy? Philosophy is a branch of human inquiry and as such it aims at knowledge and
understanding. We might expect that the value of philosophy lies in the value of the ends that it seeks, the knowledge
and understanding it reveals. But philosophy is rather notorious for failing to establish definitive knowledge on the
matters it investigates.

NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are
often held uncritically. We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or “having” a philosophy.
Usually when a person says “my philosophy is,” he or she is referring to an informal personal attitude to
whatever topic is being discussed.
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held
conceptions and beliefs. These two senses of philosophy— “having” and “doing”— cannot be treated entirely
independent of each other, for if we did not have a philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could not
do a philosophy in the critical, reflective sense. Having a philosophy, however, is not sufficient for doing
philosophy. A genuine philosophical attitude is searching and critical; it is open-minded and tolerant—willing to
look at all sides of an issue without prejudice. To philosophize is not merely to read and know philosophy; there
are skills of argumentation to be mastered, techniques of analysis to be employed, and a body of material to be
appropriated such that we become able to think philosophically. Philosophers are reflective and critical.
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole. Philosophy
seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience into some kind of consistent
world view. Philosophers wish to see life, not with the specialized slant of the scientist or the businessperson or
the artist, but with the overall view of someone cognizant of life as a totality.
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the
meaning of words and concepts. . Certainly this is one function of philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers
have used methods of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language.
Some philosophers see this as the main task of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only legitimate function
of philosophy.
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers. Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human
existence. Some of the philosophical questions raised in the past have been answered in a manner
satisfactory to the majority of philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively,

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and many problems remain unsolved.  “What is truth?”  “What is the distinction between right and wrong?” 
What is life and why am I here?  Why is there anything at all?
IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. The study of Philosophy enables us to think carefully and clearly about
important issues. 2. In studying Philosophy, we learn to take a step back from our everyday thinking and to
explore the deeper, bigger question which underpins our thought. 3. The focus in the study of Philosophy is to
learn not what to believe, but how to think. 4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling
you to identify and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in any position. 5. It hones your ability to construct
and articulate cogent arguments of your own. 6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries and to
think flexibly and creatively about problems which do not present immediate solutions. 7. Because philosophy
is an activity as much a body of knowledge, it also develops your ability to think and work independently.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Historically, philosophical concerns have been treated under these
broad categories: 1. Logic 2. Metaphysics 3. Epistemology 4. Value theory
A. LOGIC Logic is the systematic study of the rules for the correct use of these supporting reasons, rules we
can use to distinguish good arguments from bad ones. Most of the great philosophers from Aristotle to the
present have been convinced that logic permeates all other branches of philosophy. The ability to test
arguments for logical consistency, understand the logical consequences of certain assumptions, and
distinguish the kind of evidence a philosopher is using are essential for “doing” philosophy
B. METAPHYSICS Another traditional branch of Philosophy traditionally known as metaphysics. For Aristotle,
the term metaphysics meant “first philosophy,” discussion of the most universal principles; later the term came
to mean “comprehensive thinking about the nature of things.” It means, usually, the study or theory of reality.
The question of metaphysics is: what is reality? What is real? Is reality some kind of “thing”. Is it one or is it
many? If it is one, then how is it related to many things around us? Can ultimate reality be grasped by five
senses, or is it supernatural or transcendent? Metaphysics undoubtedly is the branch of philosophy that the
modern student finds most difficult to grasp. Metaphysics attempts to offer a comprehensive view of all that
exists. It is concerned with such problems as the relation of mind to matter, the nature of change, the meaning
of “freedom,” the existence of God, and the belief in personal immortality.
C. EPISTEMOLOGY The technical term for the theory of knowledge is epistemology, which comes from the
Greek word episteme, meaning “knowledge.” In general, epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies
the sources, nature, and validity of knowledge.  There are three central questions in this field:  (1) What are
the sources of knowledge? Where does genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? This is the
question of origins.  (2) What is the nature of knowledge? Is there a real world outside the mind, and if so can
we know it? This is the question of appearance versus reality.  (3) Is our knowledge valid? How do we
distinguish truth from error? This is the question of the tests of truth, of verification.
Traditionally, most of those who have offered answers to these questions can be placed in one of two schools
of thought—rationalism or empiricism.  The rationalists hold that human reason alone can discover the basic
principles of the universe.  The empiricists claim that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sense
experience and, thus, that our knowledge is limited to what can be experienced.  It should be clear that there
is a necessary relation between metaphysics and epistemology. Our conception of reality depends on our
understanding of what can be known. Conversely, our theory of knowledge depends on our understanding of
ourselves in relation to the whole of reality.
D. VALUE THEORY Value theory is the branch of philosophy that studies values. It can be subdivided into
ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy. In broad terms ethics concerns itself with the question of
morality. What is right and what is wrong in human relations? Within morality and ethics there are three major
areas: descriptive ethics, normative ethics, and metaethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify moral

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experience in a descriptive way. We seek to identify, within the range of human conduct, the motives, desires,
and intentions as well as overt acts themselves.
ETHICS Descriptive ethics consider the conduct of individuals, or personal morality; the conduct of groups, or
social morality; and the culture patterns of national and racial groups.  A second level of inquiry is normative
ethics (what ought to be). Here philosophers try to work out acceptable judgments regarding what ought to be
in choice and value. “We ought to keep our promises” and “you ought to be honorable” are examples of
normative judgments— of the moral ought, the subject matter of ethics.  Third, there is the area of critical or
metaethics. Here interest is centered on the analysis and meaning of the terms and language used in ethical
discourse and the kind of reasoning used to justify ethical statements. Metaethics does not propound any
moral principle or goal (except by implication), but rather consists entirely of philosophical analysis. What is the
meaning of “good?” and Can ethical judgments be justified? are typical problems for metaethics.
AESTHETICS Concerns the theory of art and beauty. Questions of art and beauty are considered to be part of
the realm of values because many philosophical problems in aesthetics involve critical judgments. There are
wide differences of opinion as to what objects call forth the aesthetic response, and what beauty really is. Our
concepts of beauty may differ not because of the nature of beauty itself, but because of varying degrees of
preparation in discerning beauty. Therefore, if we cannot perceive beauty in objects that others find beautiful, it
may be wise to withhold judgment until we are capable ourselves of making a competent analysis of the
aesthetic experience.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY Social and political philosophy investigates value judgments
concerning society, the state, and the individual’s relation to these institutions. The following questions reflect
the concerns of social and political philosophy:  Why should individuals live in society?  What social ideals of
liberty, rights, justice, equality and responsibility are desirable?  Why should anyone obey any government? 
Why should some individuals or groups have political power over others?  What criteria are to be used in
determining who should have political power?  What criteria are to be used in determining the scope of
political power, and what rights or freedoms should be immune from political or legal control?  To what
positive goals should political power be directed, and what are the criteria for determining this?
How do we characterize the study of Philosophy? a. A way of analyzing frameworks a. Internal questions
b. External questions b. An examination of a particular area of knowledge c. A distinct area of knowledge with
its own goals, concerns and ways of doing things
What is the difference between Holistic and Partial thinking? • Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that
considers large-scale patterns in system. It requires an individual to have an open mindset and an ability to get
the general sense or impression regarding a situation. • Partial thinking focuses on specific aspects of a
situation. It is an important component of analytical thinking. • Philosophy utilizes holistic thinking in making
sense of problems and issues related to human experience.
How does one engage in reflection? • Reflection requires a person to be willing to examine one’s thoughts,
feelings, and actions and learn more about one’s life and experiences. • Reflecting on situations, activities and
decisions enables a person to gain insights that will help in effective decision-making.
Have you ever looked in the mirror and asked: The Unexamined Life is not worth living.” (Socrates) Who
am I? Why am I here? What should I do with my life?
Have you ever looked in the mirror and asked: OR???
What is ‘Philosophy’? Philia =“love” sophia = “wisdom.” (Pythagoras.) Love for wisdom Knowledge + Action =
Wisdom "The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing ." (Socrates)
17. Branches of Philosophy Philosophy Aesthetics Logic Epistemology Ethics Metaphysics

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18. Branches of Philosophy Ethics Politics Religion Metaphysics Logic Epistemology Aesthetics Science
19. Aesthetics Sensori-Emotional Values Explores the nature of beauty, art, and taste with the creation and
appreciation of beauty
20. Aesthetics Questions What is beauty? What is art? What is the value of beauty and art? Who should judge
what is beautiful or artistic? Branch of philosophy which deals with beauty and what makes things beautiful
21. Logic Rules for Thinking The systematic principles (or rules) for thinking rationally. Inferences are made by
construction of Arguments Rules of Logic determine which arguments are VALID and which are FALLACIES
Branch of philosophy which deals with correct reasoning
22. Logic A philosophical study on the correct processes of thinking. The systematic study of argument The
rule of inference Distinguishing valid from invalid argument Examination fallacies Using correct argument
patterns
23. Epistemology Knowledge Science Explores the nature and limitations of knowledge Definition of
knowledge Investigates how knowledge is obtained Explores the relationship between belief, truth and
knowledge
24. Epistemology Questions: What is knowledge? How is knowledge acquired? How do we know what we
know? Epistemology (from Greek ἐπιστήμη - episteme-, "knowledge, science" + λόγος, "logos") or theory of
knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge
25. Ethics Questions: 1. How should we live? 2. Is right and wrong the same everywhere or different
everywhere? Branch of philosophy which deals with moral questions and dilemmas
26. Metaphysics Knowledge Science Ontology Existence Objects Properties Space and Time Cause and
Effect
Metaphysics Metaphysical issues are concerned with the nature of reality. Traditional metaphysical issues include the
existence of God and the nature of human free will (assuming we have any). Here are a few metaphysical questions of
interest to contemporary philosophers: What is a thing? How are space and time related? Does the past exist? How
about the future? How many dimensions does the world have? Are there any entities beyond physical objects (like
numbers, properties, and relations)? If so, how are they related to physical objects? Historically, many philosophers have
proposed and defended specific metaphysical positions, often as part of systematic and comprehensive metaphysical
views. But attempts to establish systematic metaphysical world views have been notoriously unsuccessful.

Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge and justified belief. What is knowledge? Can we have any
knowledge at all? Can we have knowledge about the laws of nature, the laws or morality, or the existence of other
minds? The view that we can’t have knowledge is called skepticism. An extreme form of skepticism denies that we can
have any knowledge whatsoever. But we might grant that we can have knowledge about some things and remain
skeptics concerning other issues.

Ethics While epistemology is concerned with what we ought to believe and how we ought to reason, Ethics is concerned
with what we ought to do, how we ought to live, and how we ought to organize our communities.

ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS

1. Socrates (c. 469-399 BCE)

“Strong minds discuss ideas, average minds discuss events, weak minds discuss people.”
The most well-known ancient Greek Philosopher of all time, Socrates, was a master stonemason and
social critic. He never wrote anything and most of his philosophical contributions come through his
students, mainly Plato. Socrates embarked a whole new perspective of achieving practical results

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through application of philosophy in our daily lives. Socrates became famous for encouraging people
to critically question everything. Socrates' greatest contribution to philosophy was the Socratic
Method in which discussion, argument, and dialogue are used to discern the truth. Eventually, his
beliefs and realistic approach in philosophy led to his end, as he was tried and convicted for criticizing
religion and corrupting the youth. Socrates then chose death by suicide over exile from his homeland
of Athens. His legendary trial and death at the altar of the ancient Greek democratic system has
changed the academic view of philosophy as a study of life itself.

2. Plato (c. 428-348 BCE)

“We can easily forgive a child who is afraid of the dark; the real tragedy of life is when men are afraid
of the light.”
Plato, a student of Socrates, is regarded as the father of political science and the founder of one of
the world's first known institutions of higher learning, the Academy in Athens. The primary
groundwork of Plato’s philosophy is a threefold approach – dialects, ethics and physics, the central
point of unison being the theory of forms. For him, the highest of forms was that of the ‘good’, which
he took as the cause of being and knowledge. Plato wrote one of the first and most influential works
on politics, The Republic, which described an ideal or Utopian society. Like his mentor Socrates,
Plato was a critic of democracy.

3. Aristotle (c. 384-322 BCE)

“We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.”
A student of Plato and the teacher of Alexander the Great, Aristotle is considered one of the world’s
greatest ancient philosophers. Aristotle studied a wide variety of subjects, including science, ethics,
government, physics and politics, and wrote extensively on them. He believed that people’s concepts
and all of their knowledge were ultimately based on perception. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy
continue to be the object of active academic study today.

4. Thales (c. 624-546 BCE)

“The most difficult thing in life is to know yourself.”
Thales of Miletus is regarded as one of the fathers of Greek philosophy, being a pivotal point for
following generations of famous thinkers, philosophers and scientists. He was the first to try to explain
natural phenomena without the inclusion of myths, by theories and hypothesis, ergo science. Aristotle
points Thales as the first person to have investigated basic principles such as origination of matter.
Thales is also said to be the founder of school of natural philosophy.

5. Empedocles (c. 490-330 BCE)

“There are forces in nature called Love and Hate. The force of Love causes elements to be attracted
to each other and to be built up into some particular form or person, and the force of Hate causes the
decomposition of things.”
Empedocles was one of the most important pre-Socratic era philosophers. His philosophical landmark
was originating the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements. It states that all matter is
basically composed of four primary elements – earth, air, fire and water. He also put forth the idea of
opposite motive forces involved in building of the world – namely, love as the cause of union and
strife as the cause of separation. He also went on to become the first person to give an evolutionary
account on the development of species.

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6. Democritus (c. 460-370 BCE)
“Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is opinion.”
Democritus, the so called “laughing philosopher”, was an influential ancient Greek philosopher and
one of the first advocates of democracy, equality and liberty. He was also the first person, along with
his mentor Leucippus, to advance the hypothesis that all matter is composed of small invisible
particles called atoms. Many consider Democritus to be the "father of modern science". Apart from
that, Democritus was one of the first known critics and a proponent of the just theory—the idea that
people should take up arms to defend themselves from tyrants.

7. Heraclitus (c. 535-475 BCE)

“There is nothing permanent except change.”
Heraclitus is yet another pre-Socratic philosopher, mostly known for his contribution to the thought
that things are always changing. He thought that change is the fundamental essence of the universe,
as stated in the famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice". He also said that
opposites attract and that fire was the base for all things in the world. He was also called "The
Obscure" and the "Weeping Philosopher", because of the lonely life he led and the nature of his
philosophy.

8. Pythagoras (c. 570-495 BCE)

“There is geometry in the humming of the strings, there is music in the spacing of the spheres.”
Another pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, Pythagoras is a famous mathematician who is credited with
inventing the Pythagorean Theorem, one of the key computations in geometry. Although better known
for his legendary contribution to mathematics, his philosophical works and ideas have had a great
influence on modern philosophy and on Plato as well. He regarded the world as perfect harmony and
aimed his teaching on how to lead a harmonious life. Some legends also indicate that he was the first
to teach that the Earth was round.

9. Anaxagoras (c. 500-428 BCE)

“The seed of everything is in everything else.”
Anaxagoras was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Athens. His philosophical views much
revolved around the nature itself. He believed that in the physical world, everything contains a portion
of everything else. Nothing was pure on its own and ‘nous’ (which means ‘mind’) asserts a certain
motion and meaning to the entities in this chaos. As it was the case with most of the philosophers in
ancient Greece, his ideas contrasted and collided with the contemporary ideologies and beliefs that
led him to face life-threatening consequences and exile.

10. Epicurus (c. 341-270 BCE)

“Nothing is enough for the man to whom enough is too little.”
Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher as well as the founder of the school of philosophy called
Epicureanism. For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to attain the happy, tranquil life,
characterized by ataraxia-peace and freedom from fear-and aponia-the absence of pain. Epicurus
believed in atoms and taught that the humans had no control over fate. He also refused to believe in
the gods and taught that the universe was infinite and had no purpose. He often said that fear of

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death was one of the main causes of human anxiety and it often led people to despair. Epicurus
preached that death was an inescapable reality and that it was an end to the body with the soul as
well. Even though Epicurus is believed to have written 300 works, almost none of his writings are
known to have survived.

“METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING”
LOGIC truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking analysis and construction of
arguments. It serve as path to freedom from half truths and deception. According to my
research, logic is also the study of reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of
valid inference and demonstration. It attempts to distinguish good reasoning from bad
reasoning.

Truth and Knowledge Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. It is a fact that has been verified.
Knowledge is simple data that comes from the outside that pass to our senses. It must be truthful to
gain validity and acceptance.
Propositions Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value.  Propositions are statements
about the world or reality which may or may not carry truth.
What is truth and why is it important? Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of
something. It is the product of questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts. What we
know is what is observable or evident in the real world. Propositions which are observed to be real
or truthful are considered FACTS.

How do we know if something is true? Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a basis
for determining truth. We assume that everything we know about this world is true but philosophers
who pondered upon the origins of knowledge doubted everything that there is to know about themselves
and the world. In doing so, they were able to better understand the means by which humans gain
knowledge and determine the truth about everything.
It is said that there are instances when we have to unlearn something so that we may learn anew.
Philosophers questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of knowing in order to
understand themselves and the world much better. Doubt has a very important purpose in philosophy
as it drives our desire to discover truth. Nothing is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and
evidence to prove that it is indeed true. I am alive. Am I alive? I am alive. I have a body. Do I have a
body? I have a body. I can breathe. Can I breathe? I can breathe.

Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts but also provide conclusions or
perspectives regarding certain situations. They may advance a belief about certain things or provide
explanations.  Opinions are also the bases for making arguments and convincing people that a certain
claim is a fact. They are often influenced by bias. How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing truth
from opinion?

Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. To
judge the truthfulness of a belief, we must also consider things such as the person’s experiences and
views.  Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the
statement is true.

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Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a
claim or opinion is truthful.  They often take the form of statements that are either claims of facts and
are phrased in such a way that they seem reasonable.  Fallacies are arguments based on faulty
reasoning.

Argumetum ad Hominem- Ad hominem (Latin for "to the person"), short forargumentum ad hominem,
typically refers to a fallacious argumentative strategy whereby genuine discussion of the topic at hand is
avoided by instead attacking the character, motive, or other attribute of the person making the argument, or
persons. Example: (Fallacy) You’re wrong because you are ugly. (Attack) You’re wrong. Youre ugly
Argumentum ad Populum In argumentation theory, an argumentum ad populum (Latin for "argument to the
people") is a fallacious argument that concludes that a proposition must be true because many or most people
believe it, often concisely encapsulated as: "If many believe so, it is so."
Argumentum ad Baculum Argumentum ad baculum (Latin for "argument to the cudgel" or "appeal to the
stick") is the fallacy committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to bring about the acceptance
of a conclusion.
Argumentum ad Misericordiam - An appeal to pity (also called argumentum ad misericordiam, the sob
story, or the Galileo argument) is a fallacy in which someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by
exploiting his or her opponent's feelings of pity or guilt. It is a specific kind of appeal to emotion.
Fallacy of Composition
-arises when one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the
whole. Arguing that what is true of the parts must be true of the whole.
Fallacy of Division
-arguing that what is true of the whole must be true of the parts

Conclusion is a judgement based on certain facts

Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why statement is
true

Cultural bias is the phenomenon of interpreting and judging phenomena by standards inherent to one's
own culture. The phenomenon is sometimes considered a problem central to social and human
sciences, such as economics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology. It is the same for all society
and Cultural Bias brings it to the fore… Normally, bias is defined as prejudice in favor of or against one
thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. Examples may
include: Preference to work with people of one's own ethnicity.

Hindsight bias is a term used in psychology to explain the tendency of people to overestimate their
ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.
Examples of Hindsight Bias. Hindsight bias is a term used in psychology to explain the tendency of
people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been
predicted. In essence, the hindsight bias is sort of like saying "I knew it!"

Confirmation Bias
A confirmation bias is a type of cognitive bias that involves favoring information that confirms your
previously existing beliefs or biases. For example, imagine that a person holds a belief that left-handed
people are more creative than right-handed people.

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Framing is a cognitive bias that humans suffer from. We react unknowingly to things the way they're
conveyed to us. Consider the simple example of a pessimist and an optimist. ... However, when
portrayed in a negative frame, you think that the glass is half-empty.

Correspondence Bias is our tendency to to draw inferences about someone's personality based on
their behaviors, even when these behaviors can be completely explained by the situation. When we
see someone behaving in a certain way we think it is because they always behave that way. The
concept that, in contrast to interpretations of their own behavior, people tend to emphasize the agent's
internal characteristics, rather than external factors, in explaining other people's behavior.

Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person or organization is involved in multiple interests,

financial or otherwise, and serving one interest could involve working against another.may include:
influencing the recruitment, selection, appointment or promotion of employees.

2 TYPES OF REASONING

INDUCTIVE REASONING– moves from specific premises to a general conclusion.

Example:

Every tornado I have ever seen in the United States rotated counterclockwise, and I have seen
dozens of them.
We see a tornado in the distance, and we are in the United States.
I conclude that the tornado we see right now must be rotating counterclockwise.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING– Deductive reasoning moves from a general premise to a more

specific conclusion.

Example:

All men is mortal

Socrates is a man

Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

The first premise states that all objects classified as “men” have the attribute “mortal”. The
second premise states that “Socrates” is classified as a “man” – a member of the set “men”.
The conclusion then states that “Socrates” must be “mortal” because he inherits this attribute
from his classification as a “man”.

EXISTENTIALISM it is the importance of free individual choice regardless of the power of the
people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. For example, there is a
problem that you need to make a decision but you should face what would be its early
consequences.Another example of existentialism would be when a person makes a decision
about their life, follows through or does not follow through on that decision and begins to

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create their essence. It is said in existentialism that existence comes first and essence comes
second.

According to my research, Existentialism has general characteristics:

EXISTENCE BEFORE ESSENCE: Existentialism gets its name from an insistence that life is
only understandable in terms of an individual’s existence, his particular life experience.
REASON IS UNABLE TO DEAL WITH THE DEPTHS OF LIFE: There are two parts to this idea:
first, that reason is relatively weak and imperfect, (people often do not do the “right” thing),
and second, that there are dark places in life which are “non-reason,” to which reason
scarcely penetrates, (meaning we often commit acts which seem to defy reason, to make no
sense).
ALIENATION: Existentialism holds that, since the Renaissance, people have slowly been
separated from concrete earthly existence. Individuals have been forced to live at ever higher
levels of abstraction, have been collectivised out of existence, and have driven God from the
heavens, (or, what is the same thing to the existentialist), from the hearts of men. It is believed
that individuals live in a fourfold condition of alienation: from God, from nature, from other
people, and from our own “true” selves.
“FEAR AND TREMBLING“and ANXIETY: The optimism of the 18th and 19th centuries gives
way, after WW I, to the Great Depression, WW II and the Holocaust, to a feeling of pessimism,
fear and anxiety. Another kind of anxiety facing individuals in the 20th C when the philosophy
of existentialism develops is “the anguish of Abraham,” the necessity which is laid upon
people to make “moral” choices on their own sense of responsibility.
THE ENCOUNTER WITH NOTHINGNESS: According to the existentialists, for individuals
alienated from God, from nature, from other people and even from themselves, what is left at
last but Nothingness? This is, simply stated, how existentialists see humanity: on the brink of
a catastrophic precipice, below which yawns the absolute void, black Nothingness, asking
ourselves, “Does existence ultimately have any purpose?”
FREEDOM: Sooner or later, as a theme that includes all the others mentioned above,
existentialist writings bear upon freedom. All of these ideas either describe some loss of
individuals’ freedom or some threat to it, and all existentialists of whatever sort are
considered to enlarge the range of human freedom.
ANALYTICAL TRADITION, one of the methods of philosophizing ,is the conviction that the
some significant structure. Any of various philosophical methodologies holding that clear and
precise definition and argumentation are vital to productive philosophical inquiry. For
example, the definition of a concept can be determined by uncovering the underlying logical
structures, or “logical forms,” of the sentences used to express it.

According to my research analytical tradition has a characteristics paragraph by Russell:

It develop a powerful logical technique.It is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve
definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy.It has the
advantage, in comparison with the philosophies of the system-builders, of being able to tackle
its problems one at a time, instead of having to invent at one stroke a block theory of the
whole universe. Its methods, in this respect, resemble those of science.

Analytical traditions has three main foundational planks:

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that there are no specifically philosophical truths and that the object of philosophy is the
logical clarification of thoughts.
that the logical clarification of thoughts can only be achieved by analysis of the logical form of
philosophical propositions, such as by using the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical
system.
a rejection of sweeping philosophical systems and grand theories in favuor of close attention
to detail, as well as a defense of common sense and ordinary language against the
pretensions of traditional metaphysics and ethics.
PHENOMENOLOGY it is careful inspection and description of phenomena or appearance. it is
also a scientific study of essential structure. According to my research, phenomenology is
commonly understood in either of two ways: as a disciplinary field in philosophy, or as a
movement in the history of philosophy. An example of phenomenology is studying the green
flash that sometimes happens just after sunset or just before sunrise.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHENOMENOLOGY

According to my research phenomenology has main characteristics.

1.In phenomenology, the objective is the direct investigation and description of phenomena as
they are consciously experienced, without theories about the causal explanations or their
objective reality.
2.Phenomenology therefore seeks to understand how people construct meaning.
3.It investigates experiences as they are lived by those experiencing them, and the meaning
that these people attach to them.
4.Critical truths about reality are grounded in peoples lived experiences.

There are four aspects of these lived experiences, namely:

lived space
lived body
lived time
lived human relations.
5.Phenomenology consists mainly of in-depth conversations.

6.In phenomenology, the researcher and the informants are often considered as co-
participants.

7.A very important characteristic in phenomenology is person-centred rather than being

concerned with social processes, cultures, or traditions.

For me I learned that it is important to study the methods of philosophizing to know what we
say and spoke to others. If they continue to teach this until next generation. It helps to extend
the knowledge of the people especially the youth like me.

The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

Man – the general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race.

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Human – refers to man as a species.
Human being – used to distinguish man from other animals.
Person – refers to a human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection, responsibilities, and dignity
above all. It is the totality of an individual, possessing awareness, self-determination, and the capacity to
interact with others and with himself/herself.
Personhood – refers to the state of being a person.
Human nature – refers to the characteristics (like thinking, feeling and acting) that distinguish humans from all
other creatures. These traits are considered to form the essence of humanity, and without them, an individual
may not be considered a human person.
The Human Person
Is an important subject in Philosophy and an understanding of the nature and condition of the person is one of
the foremost goals of the discipline.
The Human Person
Is an important subject in Philosophy and an understanding of the nature and condition of the person is one of
the foremost goals of the discipline.
Man
Is the general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race.
Person
Is a much more complex term which generally refers to a human being granted recognition of certain rights,
protection, responsibilities and dignity.
Human Nature
Refers to the characteristics that distinguish humans from all other creatures.
The first trait that defines a person is
SELF AWARENESS – refers to the person having a clear perception of oneself, including his or her thoughts,
emotions, identity and actions.
Awareness gives rise to the notion of the “SELF”, which Philosophers describes as the person who is actively
aware that he or she is perceiving and experiencing reality.
The fact that we can day dream, get lost our thoughts, imagine, fantasize and reflect. We are able to reach
within ourselves and experience INTERIORITY.
Which is the quality of being focused on one’s inner life and identity.
Free Will – enables us to do actions whenever we want to and makes self-determination possible.
A PERSON…
HAS AWARENESS OF SELF
HAS SELF-DETERMINATION
IS ABLE TO REACH OUT AND INTERACT WITH OTHERS

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 HAS DIGNITY
What is in our human nature that enables us to become person?
Our body is not the only thing that define us.
The intangible element is the SPIRIT which is enables us to exercise thought, possess awareness, interiority
and the capacity to reach out to the outside world and other persons.
a union of body and soul
-Aristotle
According to Plato, there are three parts of the soul, namely, the rational, the spiritual, and the appetitive
The kind of soul that is found in plants, according to Aristotle, is called vegetative, while those found in animals
and humans are called sensitive and rational souls respectively.
Situations
Lucia likes to listen to classical music. She listens to music when she paints, as it inspires her to make
beautiful landscapes on her canvas.

Consequence is the result or effect of an action or condition. Philosophers believe that a person acts freely
and with due regard for the consequences of his actions.
Morality is the goodness or ‘badness’ of an act.
Human action is such an important aspect of the person that many philosophers consider human action as a
way to reveal a person’s true nature. Human acts complete the person, as it is through his actions that his
inner self is revealed to others, and it is through action that a person is able to explore and fulfill his potential.

Self-determination
I am a person. My actions are my very own and are made freely. I know that I am the cause of my actions. I
know that my actions have consequences. This refers to the capability of a person to reach out and interact with
others and the world. The realization that we are not alone and that there are indeed other people around us
enables us to reach out and establish meaningful relationships with others. Philosophers consider man as a
social being and that a person never exist in isolation. Man has the natural tendency to seek out fellow human
beings, and the relationships established by this interaction is a vital component for survival. Externality Our
interactions with others define our existence as persons. We grow and develop not only through our thoughts
and actions, but also through the influence of other people in our lives, and the individuals we meet and interact
with.

HOW DOES MY HUMAN NATURE ENABLE ME TO EXPLORE MY LIMITS?

The ability to surpass limits is called TRANSCENDENCE and it is also one important trait that distinguishes the
human person from other beings in existence.
Plato and his successors’ transcendental philosophy: The earthly realm is flawed, so we must
therefore transcend this world and go to a higher realm.

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Kant’s transcendental philosophy: Knowledge that is gained through logic and reasoning, knowledge that
is synthetic a priori (from the earlier).

German idealist transcendental philosophy: Hegel and Schelling claimed the world was a manifestation of
a transcendent Absolute, a living Spirit of consciousness that pervades reality; and Fichte said
the transcendental ego creates the world as a moral landscape.
Transcendentalism: Emerson combined Kant’s critical philosophy with German idealism to create a
philosophy based on transcendence, on uniting with the World-Soul through intuition, which transcends regular
reason.
MORALITY
The goodness and the badness of an act.
Essay Review
1. What is in our human nature that enables us to become persons?
Your Answer:_________________________________________________________________________
2. How are the body and the spirit related?
Your Answer:_________________________________________________________________________

One of the dominant themes in the course Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person is
the idea that the human person is an embodied spirit. But first of all, we need to define terms here
because, as it appears, the meaning of the concept “embodied spirit” is not directly clear to students
who do not have a strong background and orientation in philosophy. So, what do we exactly mean
by “embodied spirit”?

The most direct connotation that comes to mind when we say something is “embodied” is that it is
being materialized or incarnated. Hence, when we say “embodied spirit”, we normally thought of a
spirit being incarnated. However, the idea of the human person as an “embodied spirit” does not
necessarily refer to the incarnation or materialization of spirit as an immaterial entity. The
embodiment of the spirit in the context of Christian philosophy (as is well known, the concept of
the embodied spirit is specific to Christian philosophy) specifically refers to the inseparable union
of body and soul. Thus, when we say “embodied spirit” we mean that the body is not separate from
the soul, just as the soul is not separate from the body.

So, when we say that the human person is an embodied spirit, we specifically mean that the human
person is the point of convergence between the material and spiritual entities, that is, between the
body and soul. We cannot talk, therefore, of the human person without the union of body and soul,
just as we cannot talk of anything without the union of (as Aristotle would have us believe) matter
and form.

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Now, to understand the specificity of the human person as an embodied spirit is important because
aside from the fact that it enables us to know our potentialities and limitations, it also exposes us to
a thorough and deeper understanding of ourselves as a unique creature united by body and soul.
With this caveat in mind, let us now proceed to an engagement with one of the most famous
philosophers in this particular scholarship, namely, Aristotle.

Aristotle on the Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

Before we engage Aristotle’s account on the human person as an embodied spirit, that is, again, as
a union of body and soul, it is important at this point to provide the theoretical context of this issue.
As we may already know, Aristotle’s account of the human person as an embodied spirit is in large
part a reaction against Plato’s take on the nature of the human person.

For Plato, the nature of the human person is seen in the metaphysical dichotomy between body and
soul. This dichotomy implies that there is an inherent contradiction between the body and the soul.
On the one hand, the body, according to Plato, is material; hence, it is mutable and destructible. On
the other hand, the soul is immaterial; hence, it is immutable and indestructible.

Inasmuch as the body is material, mutable, and destructible, while the soul is immaterial,
immutable, and indestructible, Plato contends that in the context of the nature of the human person,
the body’s existence is dependent on the soul while the soul’s existence is independent of the body.
In fact, in the Timaeus, Plato argues that the soul existed prior to the body. Plato writes: “…the
gods made the soul prior to the body and more venerable in birth and excellence to the body’s
mistress and governor”.[1] Interestingly then, as Eddie Babor claims, the contention above made
Plato conclude that the human person is just a soul using a body.[2]

According to Plato, there are three parts of the soul, namely, the rational, the spiritual, and
the appetitive. Plato tells The Myth of the Charioteer to comprehend the complex nature of the
soul, but we will not discuss this topic here since our task here is just to provide an overview of
Plato’s account of the human person, which serves as a background to Aristotle’s account of the
human person as an embodied spirit.

For Plato, the rational soul is located in the head, the spiritual soul in the chest, and the appetitive in
the abdomen. According to Plato, the spiritual and appetitive souls contribute to the motion and
activity of the whole person, while the rational soul’s function is to guide the spiritual and
appetitive souls.

According to Plato, the appetitive part of the soul drives the human person to experience thirst,
hunger, and other physical wants, while the spiritual soul drives the human person to experience
abomination, anger, and other emotional feelings. Lastly, it is the rational part of the soul that
enables the human person to think, reflect, analyze, comprehend, draw conclusions, and the like.

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As we can see, the rational soul, which is the highest of all parts of the soul, guides the other two
parts, namely, the appetitive and the spiritual. “What else could perform this guiding function, from
Plato’s point of view, than the rational part of the soul? Think of a desperately thirsty man in the
desert. He sees a pool of water and approaches it with all the eagerness that deprivation is able to
create. But when he reaches the pool, he sees a sign: ‘Danger. Do not drink. Polluted.’ He
experiences conflict within. His desire urges him to drink. But reason tells him that such signs
usually indicate the truth, that polluted water will make him very ill or may kill him, and that if he
drinks he will probably be worse off than he doesn’t. He decides not to drink. In this case, it is the
rational part of the soul that opposes his desire. His reason guides him away from the water.”[1]

The principle then that drives the person to drink is called “appetite”, while the principle that
forbids the person to drink the water because it is polluted is called “reason”.

“Another example could be that of a man who is angry with another person who insulted him. Out
of anger, he may desire to kill his mocker but does not actually kill the culprit because he knows
that if he does he will be imprisoned. With the same thread of reasoning, Plato argues that it is the
spirit in man that makes the person angry with his derider, yet his anger is curbed by reason, that is,
by the rational soul.”[4]

Hence, again, for Plato, desire, spirit, and reason make up the soul. Desire motivates,
spirit animates, and reason guides. And for Plato, if reason can successfully guide desire and spirit,
then the human person will attain a well-balanced personality.

If we recall, for Plato, the soul exists prior to the body; hence, the soul is an entity distinct from the
body. Now, it is important to note that if we talk about the human person, we talk about the body
and soul and that they are inseparable. But this is not the case for Plato. Plato believes that the body
and soul are separable. In fact, for Plato, as already mentioned, the human person is just a soul
using a body. And Plato believes that the soul is imprisoned in the body and that the soul survives
the death of the body because it is immaterial, immutable, and indestructible. This means that for
Plato, when the person dies, the body decomposes (because it is material, mutable, and destructible)
while the soul leaves the body and goes back to the World of Forms. It must be noted that in Plato’s
doctrine of form, there are two kinds of worlds, namely, the World of Forms and the World of
Matter. And for Plato, everything comes from the World of Forms and everything that exists
(World of Matter) will go back to the World of Forms after it perishes. Again, when the human
person dies, the body decomposes and the soul will go back to the World of Forms and lives there
eternally. It is here where Aristotle’s notion of the human person as an embodied spirit comes in.

Indeed, Aristotle disagrees with Plato’s dualism which implies the concept of “otherworldliness”.
Aristotle believes that there is no dichotomy between the person’s body and soul. The body and
soul for Aristotle are in a state of unity. They are inseparable. Hence, unlike Plato, Aristotle
believes that we cannot talk about the soul apart from the body and vice versa. Now, how does
Aristotle view the human person as an embodied spirit?

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First, we need to understand that the term soul is the English translation of the Greek word psyche.
And for Aristotle, the general definition of the soul involves the concept of life. Thus, the soul for
Aristotle is the principle of life. This suggests, therefore, that anything that has life has a soul.

As the principle of life, the soul causes the body to live; indeed, it is the soul that animates the
body. If the soul is the animator of the body, the body acts as the matter to the soul. Hence,
Aristotle believes that the soul is the form to the body, while the body is the matter to the soul. For
Aristotle, everything that exists is composed of matter and form, and matter and form are indeed
inseparable. Hence, we cannot talk about any object if either of these entities is not present. In the
context of the human person, Aristotle believes that body and soul are inseparable. Body and soul,
therefore, constitute the human person as a whole.

Because for Aristotle anything that has life has a soul, then it follows that plants and animals (in
addition to humans) have souls. Thus, Aristotle distinguishes three levels of soul, namely, that of
plants, that of animals, and that of humans.

The kind of soul that is found in plants, according to Aristotle, is called vegetative, while those
found in animals and humans are called sensitive and rational souls respectively.

According to Aristotle, plants have souls because they possess the three basic requirements for
something to be called a “living being”, that is, the capacity to grow, reproduce, and feed itself.
However, plants do not share the higher levels of soul; although they grow, reproduce, and feed
themselves, plants are not capable of feeling and thinking.

Sensitive souls also grow, reproduce, and feed themselves; but unlike vegetative souls, sensitive
souls are capable of sensation. As Aristotle writes:

“Plants possess only the nutritive faculty, but other beings possess both it and the sensitive faculty;
and if they possess the sensitive faculty, they must also possess the appetitive; for appetite consists
of desire, anger, and will. All animals possess at least one sense, that of touch; anything that has a
sense is acquainted with pleasure and pain, with what is pleasant and what is painful; and anything
that is acquainted with these has desire, since desire is an appetite for pleasant.” [5]

Finally, rational souls grow, reproduce, feed themselves, and feel; but unlike the sensitive souls,
rational souls are capable of thinking. According to Aristotle, this highest level of soul is present
only in humans.

Now, since humans possess all the characteristics of animals, that is, the capacity to grow,
reproduce, feed itself, and feel, in addition to being rational, Aristotle concludes that the human
person is just an animal that thinks. As Aristotle’s famous dictum on the human person goes, “Man
is a rational animal.”

Philosophers consider the human person as defined by the union of the body and the spirit. THE HUMAN
PERSON IS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT. The body and the spirit are not only united, but they are integrated with
each other. Embodiment enables us to do and experience all the things that make us human persons. How are

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the body and spirit related? Science: Love is a result of various biological reactions associated with an increase
in hormones, which may have certain effects on the body. Philosophy: Human persons do not love just with the
heart nor the brain. We love another person with our entire being. Embodiment is the one thing that enables us
to feel love and love others.
The human body stands as the mediator between the material world and the spiritual world. Being an embodied
spirit, the person is able to encounter the world of objects (and other personal subjects) in a manner that
transcends the physical. This feature allows him to form intimate relationship with those outside him.  Human
embodiment allows persons to attach certain feelings or ideas not only to people but also to objects. (pair of
shoes as a present from a loved one) Embodiment
With human embodiment, physical acts are no longer purely physical acts, because the body conveys something
from a person’s inner world. A pat on the shoulder from your idol, a smile from your crush, a kiss from your
partner will create intense emotional reaction in you. These examples show that it is through embodiment that a
person in able to have a very unique relationship with the world. And it is this unique relationship that defines us
as humans.
Philosophy gives us useful tools to explore our limits and possibilities. The essence of transcendence is to
acknowledge our limitations, identify possibilities for development and change ourselves for the better. Opening
yourself to new experiences and ideas is another aspect of transcendence. Our capacity for transcendence
gives us the opportunity to work toward becoming better versions of ourselves.
The ability to surpass limits is called TRANSCENDENCE and it is also one important trait that
distinguishes the human person from other beings in existence.

Transcendentalism: Emerson combined Kant’s critical philosophy with German idealism to create a
philosophy based on transcendence, on uniting with the World-Soul through intuition, which transcends regular
reason.

THE HUMAN PERSON AND THE ENVIRONMENT

“No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of main.”
-John Donne
How does PHILOSOPHY define the person’s relationship with environment?
Humanity and
the Environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY OR ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
The discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its
non-human contents.
THREE (3) MAJOR VIEWS
ANTHROPOCENTRISM
Do you consider your classroom clean and orderly?
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ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS
SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT PROBLEM HAPPENING IN OUR COUNTRY. ANALYZE IT USING
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS.
The Socratic method, also known as method of Elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic debate, is a form of
cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to
stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions.
Calculative thinking VS
Meditative thinking
The word meditation may suggest something you do when you go into the woods or out on a lake, trying to get
away from the hustle and bustle of everyday life.
Meditative Thinking finds itself floating unaware above reality.
Calculative thinking never stops, never collects itself.Calculative thinking is not meditative thinking,
notthinking which contemplates the meaning which reigns in everything that is. There are, then, two kinds
of thinking, each justified and needed in its own way:calculative thinking and meditative thinking.
Two Types of Thinking believe as being real. Holistic thinking assumes the existence of a mental and
spiritual dimension. These are as real and influential as the physical dimension, according to holistic thinking.
...Partial tends to lead to direct action more often than holistic thinking.
Holistic Thinking is a wider concept that involves → perceiving a system through sensing its large-scale
patterns. 'holistic thinking' is a wider concept that involves → perceiving a system through sensing its large-
scale patterns.
Big Questions during Pre-Socratic Period
“How did the world came into being?”
“How can we explain the process of change?”
“What is the world made of?”

ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY OR ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

The discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its
non-human contents.
THREE (3) MAJOR VIEWS
ANTHROPOCENTRISM
BIOCENTRISM
ECOCENTRISM
ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS
SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT PROBLEM HAPPENING IN OUR COUNTRY. ANALYZE IT USING
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS.
ENVIRONMENTALISM

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Urgent need for humanity to address the challenges in our environment.
Environmentalist seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to
environmentally harmful human activities".
SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while
simultaneously sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem
services upon which the economy and society depend.
THREE (3) PRINCIPLES OF
SUSTAINABILITY
1. Environmental Integrity – maintaining the state of environment.
THREE (3) PRINCIPLES OF
SUSTAINABILITY
2. Economic Efficiency – prudence in decision making regarding the use of resources o ensure that there is
minimum to zero waste.
3. Equity –demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so that the
next generation can use them.
Philosophers believe that persons have a special relationship with nature because of their rationality.
We can transform, shape and cultivate.
Deep Ecology Is an ecological philosophy developed by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in the early
1970’s asserting that all life forms have an equal right to exist, and human needs and desires have no priority
over those of other organisms. Believes that the living environment should be respected and regarded as
having rights to flourish, independent of its utility to humans.
Social Ecology It is a critical social theory founded by American anarchist and libertarian socialist author
Murray Bookchin. Conceptualized as a critique of current social, political, and anti- ecological trends, it
espouses a reconstructive, ecological, communitarian, and ethical approach to society.
Ecofeminism It is also called ecological feminism, branch of feminism that examines the connections between
women and nature. Its name was coined by French feminist Francoise d’Eaubonne in 1974. A philosophical
idea that combines feminism and ecology concerns, emphasizing that both suffer from their treatment by a
male dominated society. Comes from the idea that women and nature have significant connection, since
women most often have a close association with nature in many societies due to the nature of their traditional
roles.
Anaximander a pre-Socratic philosopher and scientist said about the Creation-Destruction. According to him,
the sketch of the genesis of the world (cosmology), the evolution of the world begins with the generation of
opposites in a certain region Nature. Nature is indeterminate-boundless in the sense that no boundaries
between the warm and or the moist and dry regions are originally present within.
While, according to Pythagoras, ‘universe is a living embodiment of nature’s order, harmony and beauty.’
He sees our relationship with the universe involving biophilia (love of other living things) And cosmophilia (love
of other living beings).

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For Modern Thinker, Immanuel Kant, ‘beauty is ultimately a symbol of morality (goodness). He believes that
the orderliness of nature and the harmony of nature with our faculties guide us toward a deeper religious
perspective.’
Herbert Marcuse said about the power of humans over nature, while George Herbert Mead tackled about our
duties and responsibilities in nature.
Our environment is created for every humans, so you as good as one being must take Good care of
nature! Remember LIFE is all about BALANCE.
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