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Review of Indian research on innovative breakwaters

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Indian Journal of Geo Marine Sciences
Vol. 46 (03), March 2017, pp. 431-452

Review Article

Review of Indian research on innovative breakwaters

Rajendra, K1, Balaji, R2*& Mukul, P3
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay, Mumbai-400076, India
*[E.mail: rbalaji@iitb.ac.in]

Received 31 October 2014; revised 12 January 2016

In this paper, a detailed review of Indian research studies on the development of innovative breakwaters is
attempted. Historical studies by Indian researchers and scientists were collected and classified in to two broad
categories; fixed and floating breakwaters. The first part, Part I, discusses the studies pertaining to different types
of fixed breakwaters, whereas, the Part II describes the studies related to floating breakwaters.

[Keywords: Breakwaters, Porous structures, Rubble-mound, Submerged Structures]

Introduction
Breakwaters help us in safe navigation of
vessels in and out of harbors and provide clam
water area inside harbor boundary for safe
loading and unloading of cargo. There is a
constant urge for innovation in breakwater
systems, to reduce cost, time of construction, to
improve efficiency and to satisfy some site
specific conditions. The primary requirement of a
breakwater is to allow least wave to be
transmitted on to its harbor side. However, in
many locations, a minimal reflection of incident
wave energy is also preferred. Breakwaters are
primarily classified as; fixed types, which are sea-
bottom-connected structures and floating types,
which float on the surface, held by mooring lines.
The special type of breakwaters are generally
adopted for specific site requirements and
therefore not commonly applied, for example, a
pneumatic breakwater, in which air bubble from
under water is continuously pumped for reducing
wave energy. Under the broad classification of
fixed type, breakwaters are further sub-divided
into many types, a typical of which is depicted in
Fig. 1. Depending upon degree of shelter required
and prevailing environment conditions, a
particular type of breakwater is chosen for
construction.

Fig. 1—Classification of different types of breakwaters.

*
Corresponding author
432 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017
In the process of improving the efficiency of
breakwater systems, various Indian researchers
have carried out experimental, theoretical and
numerical studies to assess hydrodynamic
performances of different types of breakwaters.
This paper explores past studies on hydrodynamic
characteristics of innovative breakwaters from
Indian research perspective. Though the main
focus of these studies was to find reflection and
transmission characteristics of breakwaters, in
some studies, dynamic pressures, forces and wave
run-up were also estimated. Based on available
literatures, innovative breakwaters studies by
Indian researchers have been classified into two
major types; fixed and floating. The details of
fixed and floating type of breakwaters are
discussed in Part I and Part II, respectively.
Part I: Fixed type
General
Fixed type of breakwaters belongs to a
category where the structures assumed to rigidly
fixed, either emerging from seabed or supported
on piles. Rubble mound, vertical wall and barrier
type of breakwaters fall in this category. The
conventional rubble mound breakwaters are most
widely adopted breakwater in the world.
Depending on the requirement, rubble mound
breakwater could be used as a composite type. As
wave kinematics are significantly high around
still water level, some of vertical wall or barrier
type of breakwaters were partially submerged
from still water level is adopted, which allowing
part of wave energy to transmit to harbor side, for
better circulation of water and to minimize
reflection. In addition, for aforementioned
reasons, barrier types of breakwaters with pre-
defined porosity were also used to improve the
performance in which porosity of barrier dictates
reflection and transmission characteristics of the
breakwater system. In order to minimize
reflection further, without compromising
transmission characteristics, more than one
porous barrier were kept with certain distance
between them. In this case, spacing between
barriers influences reflection characteristics.
Barrier types of breakwaters are also used as
artificial reefs, in which case, structures emerge
from seabed but submerged under still water
level. Varieties of innovative fixed types of
breakwaters were tested by Indian researchers,
through experiments and or numerical techniques,
which are discussed in the following sections, in
their chronological order.
Innovation in armour blocks
Though the design concepts of a conventional
rubble mound breakwaters, need to improve
armour layer stability and interlocking capability
between individual armour units necessitated
research to develop different types of aromour
units. To mention a few, Roopsekhar et al.1 tested
an innovative armour unit resembles a frustum of
a cone as armour units of a conventional rubble
mound breakwater. Extensive tests were carried
out in a laboratory wave flume to assess the
stability of these frustum cone blocks. It is
reported that interlocking capabilities of frustum
blocks are relatively less compared with tetrapods
as armour units. In another innovative research in
armor blocks Sundar et al.2 modified Dolos,
named as “Kolos” (shown in Fig. 2)were used as
armour units for conventional rubble mound
breakwaters and tested for its stability through a
detailed experimental investigation program. The
Kolos are claimed to have overcome the structural
weakness of Dolos blocks and stability
coefficients were derived through experiments.
Further experiments were also carried out on
breakwaters with Kolos as armour units to assess
various other engineering parameters such as
overtopping, run-up and dynamic pressure on
crown walls3 & 4. Beyond the frustum blocks and
kolos, there was no research related to innovation
of armor block of rubble mound breakwater
carried out in India, to the best of knowledge of
the author. There is a large scope in this area of
research, as the use/application of other core
armour layer such as accropod, coreloc, x-block
etc. in the constant of breakwater, require
payment of significant royalty to the patent
companies/organization.
(a) Frustum cone blocks
(b) Kolos
Fig. 2—Typical views of armour blocks
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
Defensive structures
A seawall is a most common defensive
structure, generally constructed where the ocean
environments is dominating at the coast and make
discomfort to the human habitats. However,
building a seawall has some inevitable impacts
like reflection from these structures cause
standing wave which leads to erosion along the
face of the wall. Considering this, Mallayachari
and Sundar5 studied reflection characteristics of
vertical and sloping permeable seawalls using a
theoretical model based on boundary integral
method. The effects of porosity, friction factor
and wall width on reflection characteristics were
investigated. It is reported that model of vertical
permeable wall shows oscillatory behavior for
reflection to the lower value of friction factor for
the entire range of relative wall width (product of
wave number and wall width at still water level).
However, this oscillatory nature is found
completely absent for the case of wall with a
slope of 45 degree. Moreover, present model of
vertical permeable also exhibits the absence of
oscillatory nature for reflection to higher relative
wall width when compared with previous study.
Whereas, the applicability of present model is
limited for the case of linear and non-breaking
waves only.
In their further study Mallayachari and
Sundar6analyzed standing wave pressures on a
vertical wall type of breakwaters which is
required for safe design and stability of these
structures. The time histories of pressures
measured from experiments were compared with
that obtained from linear theory and third-order
solution, for regular and random wave conditions
with an emphasis on standing wave pressure due
to random waves. It is reported that, for the
intermediate water depth condition, linear theory
is applicable for the lower steepness, whereas,
with the higher wave steepness where non-
linearity dominates, the third-order solution yields
satisfactory results.
To assess the reflection characteristics of a
vertical impermeable wall Sundar and
Mallayachari7 carried out experimental studies in
which vertical impermeable wall is defended by a
permeable sloped seawall under regular and
random wave conditions, shown in Fig. 3. The
oscillations of water level inside permeable wall,
dynamic pressure and reflected wave
characteristics were measured and results were
compared with a Green’s identity based
theoretical model. It is reported that wave
reflections from impermeable wall are reduced by
433
permeable walls and relative wave heights (ratio
of incident wave heights to wave heights inside
porous barrier) was observed to be increasing
with increase in surf similarity parameter.
However, the effective reflection coefficient (ratio
of area under reflected and incident wave spectra)
for slopping permeable wall is about 40% to 60%
less than that for impermeable wall, being greater
for higher wall slope.
Fig. 3—Vertical wall defensed by a permeable wall.
Seawall construction along the coast of India
have increased throughout the decades as it was
found that the seawall is a reliable solution of
protecting human habitat. Despite this, during
storms, the impact of waves is dominate, which
significantly decreases the life of seawalls. Thus it
is necessary to provide support structures along
with seawalls which can help to improve the
performance as well as life of seawalls. In such
cases, a porous structure in-front of seawall could
provide necessary protection to seawalls. First of
all, the limited research was reported about
seawalls as a coastal defense structures in India.
With this, the only valuable research was reported
in India by Sundar and Mallayachari7 in which
vertical impermeable
wall is defensed by permeable sloping wall,
which could be considered as seawall defensed by
porous structure. Such arrangements can
definitely increase the life of seawalls by bring
the significant change in reflection, transmission
and dissipation of water waves before impacting
with seawalls. The wave breaking over the
inclined surface, run-up, run-down, wave energy
dissipation and reflection through such
arrangement is not completely understood from
Indian Ocean perspective. There are vast scopes
of experimental study in this area including
different wave and structural characteristics.
However, various numerical efforts have been
made by foreigner researchers toward such
434 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017
arrangements in which porous model were
coupled with single or multi-phase flow model,
but no evidence has been found regarding similar
research in India.
Submerged structures
In situations where the complete protection
from the wave is not required, submerged
breakwater offers economic solutions. It can
effectively use to dissipate wave energy by
breaking the waves and generally used as
standalone coastal defense structures. Dattatri et
al.8 have a major contribution towards submerged
breakwater, where the partial protection from the
incident wave is required. The hydrodynamic
performance of submerged breakwaters was
investigated for different shapes of breakwater:
horizontal fixed type, thin vertical wall type,
triangular type, rectangular type and trapezoidal
type are shown in Fig. 4.The effects of various
parameters on the transmission coefficient were
investigated. It was concluded that the shape of
breakwater does not have any significant
influence on the transmission.
Fig 4- Configurations of submerged breakwaters
A submerged breakwater with their sea-face
sloping and vertical face on its shore is effective
due to higher sediment trapping efficiency.
However, Baba9 investigated experimentally that
the optimum wave damping and maximum sand
trapping effect is occurred for submerged
breakwater with seaward side slope 1:1.67. Their
study is basically for a breakwater with right
trapezoid shape (name as "Odessa-type") which
involved assessing the effect of top width and
height of the breakwater on the wave transmission
characteristics. Along with the experimental
findings various computational methods used to
predict wave transmission on similar type of
breakwaters are validated by Baba9 with
laboratory data. Tests result shows the instability
of those developed computational methods to
over prediction of transmission coefficient. kept
with certain distance away from main breakwater
(Fig. 5). In an extensive experimental study,
Shirlal and Rao10 considered a submerged rubble
mound breakwater (reef) of single layer on
seaward of a conventional three-layer rubble
mound breakwater, as a tandem breakwater.
A submerged rubble mound, also called as reef
breakwater, is well thought of a defensive
structure on seaward of any aged breakwater
system. This type of arrangement is called as
tandem breakwaters, as submerged structures are
A parametric study on effect of distance between
two breakwaters and height of reef breakwater on
reflection, run-up and run-down characteristics
had been carried out. It is reported that for non-
dimensional breakwater spacing (spacing/water
depth) ranges from 3.33 to 4.29, a maximum
wave height attenuation of about 25% was
observed. The wave run-up and run-down for
tandem breakwater is reported to be about 10% to
15% smaller and damage level 20% to 60% less,
when compared with that of a single breakwater
for tested conditions.
Fig. 5—Schematic of a tandem breakwater
Reef breakwater also plays a significant role in
minimizing wave force on structure to its leeward
side. Reddy and Neelamani11 assessed effect of
low crested rubble mound breakwater on seaward
side of a vertical seawall, to minimize wave
forces. The study explored characteristics of
waves in energy dissipation zone with respect to
relative height of breakwater for a given water
depth. It is found that the forces were reportedly
less for steeper waves due to depth limited
breaking over submerged breakwater, ahead of
vertical wall.
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
A series of submerged porous breakwaters as
coastal defense system is modeled by Rambabu
and Mani12to assess transmission characteristics
through submerged breakwater using two-
dimensional Green’s formulation, based
boundary-value model. The effects of depths of
submergence, crest widths, material properties
and clear spacing on hydrodynamic
characteristics were studied for impermeable
trapezoidal, permeable trapezoidal and
rectangular breakwater. For achieving minimum
transmission coefficient the optimum width ratio
(top width of breakwater/depth of water) and
clear spacing between two breakwaters is
suggested as 0.75 and 2, respectively.
Interestingly, it is reported that clear spacing
between two submerged breakwaters does not
influence transmission of incidents waves.
Although the submerged breakwaters have
control over transmission it could also be used as
a good wave attenuator and can be significantly
controlled by changing top width of reef and
spacing between the breakwaters13. It is also
reported that wave attenuation characteristics,
run-up, run-down and stability of tandem
breakwater as a function of different geometry of
a reef breakwaters located at varying seaward
distances. Within tested range of wave conditions,
authors had optimized various parameters to
obtain reduction in run-up, run-down and optimal
damage of main breakwater.
The performance of submerged breakwater
was also tested for regular and random wave
condition by Reddy et al.14. In which the
combined effect of submerged breakwater and
vertical wall on hydrodynamic characteristics of
breakwater is discussed. A two-dimensional finite
element technique has applied to evaluate the
wave forces and wave run-up on the vertical wall.
However, the force exerted by the waves on the
vertical wall under the action of random incident
wave condition is evaluated using linear transfer
function approach. It is also reported that the
model is applicable for predicting wave forces of
low ursell number.
Along with brief discussion over the
submerged breakwater, few researches derived
the design equation for stable submerged
breakwater through experimental findings
considering various parameters which
significantly affect the transmission of wave
through it. Shirlal et al.15 derived a stability
equation, as given below, for breakwater sheltered
by a seaward submerged reef through
experimental investigation.
435
𝐻𝐻
= 0.87√𝑆𝑆𝑁𝑁 −0.25 𝑃𝑃−0.4 (1)
∆𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 50
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐻𝐻
Where, 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑋𝑋 𝑤𝑤 (2)
In the above equations, F is depth of reef
submergence, Hw is depth water wave height, d is
depth of water, X is length of energy dissipation
zone between two structures, Dn50 is nominal
diameter of armour units, S is damage level, Δ is
relative mass density and N is stability number.
As a stand-alone coastal protection structure,
Shirlal et al.16 also tested stability of submerged
reef and influence of its varying distance from
shore and crest width on wave transmission.
Further, Kiran et al.17, derived design equation for
a typical sheltered breakwater through physical
model studies, as given below.
For submerged breakwaters;
ℎ 𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 50 −3 ∗
� ℎ𝑐𝑐 � � 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 2 � 10 = 8.9303𝑒𝑒 −0.2841 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 (3)
For reef and sheltered breakwaters;
𝑆𝑆
𝑁𝑁
= 0.3073𝑥𝑥 2 − 0.1812𝑥𝑥 + 0.0244(4)
√
𝐹𝐹 𝐻𝐻 0.3
� �� 02 �
Where,𝑥𝑥 = 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 �
ℎ 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝐵𝐵 𝑋𝑋 � (5)
� �� �
𝐿𝐿 0 𝑑𝑑
ℎ 𝑐𝑐
In which is dimensionless damage, T is wave
ℎ
period, 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠∗ is
spectral stability number and H 0 is
deep water wave height, B is crest width and L 0 is
deep water wavelength.
It is also attempted to use a single layer rubble
mound reef breakwater as a defensive structure to
reduce wave loads on a vertical wall18, 19 & 20. It is
reported that relative height of reef breakwater
influences flow pattern with in the pool between
reef and vertical wall. The various characteristic
phases of flow were also classified as; freely
transmitting wave, overtopping, crest dissipation,
predominant wave breaking and transmission
over breakwater as crest level of reef breakwater
reduces form emergent to submerge. In another
experimental study, Kudumula1 and Muni
Reddy21 demonstrated use of perforated
semicircular breakwater as reef on seaward of a
vertical wall to reduce wave load. It is reported
that maximum reduction of wave forces on
vertical wall was observed for zero submergence
condition and longer pool length.
Very rich Indian literatures are available over
submerge breakwater used as a standalone or reef
structure. The most common design adopted for
submerged breakwaters is trapezoidal type due to
their high efficiency, less reflection and less wave
load. Almost all the aspects have been covered
436 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017
including: breakwater type, crest width, location,
depth of submergence, run-up, run-down, stability
and performance for all wave characteristics.
However, less attention has been paid towards
installation of submerged breakwater on a sloping
seabed. It is expected that the complicated
hydrodynamic will be associate near the
submerged breakwater with sloped seabed.
Moreover, the wave attenuation characteristic of
submerged breakwater can investigate for front
slope design, front slope values, material property
and porosity. Hereby, the influence of varying
parameters on such type of arrangements could be
the scope of future work. However, no evidence
was found towards numerical simulation of
submerged breakwater in Indian literatures, which
can control the time and efforts including in
experimental investigation.
Berm breakwaters
In places, where rocks of huge weight are not
available as per requirement of design conditions,
provision of a berm, a horizontal slope at an
appropriate level on seaward side slope of armour
layer, is considered for a conventional rubble
mound breakwater. Berm offers reduction in
incident wave energy by breaking, thus possibility
of reducing weight of individual armour stones.
Sometimes, a composite slope of seaward side
shall be provided, generally one above and
another below berm level. Consideration of more
than one berm offer further reduction in wave
energy, which however lead to increase in cost
and overall base width of breakwater. The
schematic diagram of berm breakwater is given in
Fig. 6.In an experimental study, Raoet al.22
assessed the possibilities of reducing weights of
armour stones of a conventional rubble mound
breakwater, by introducing a berm on seaward
side of breakwater and to use equilibrium
reshaping of berm after any storm. It is reported
that if the berm width is 60 cm and wave period is
about 1.2 s, the 30% reduced armour weight
would be stable for design wave height.
However, it was understood that reduced armour
stone is stable for selected berm width and wave
characteristics that dominantly affect overall
stability.
Fig. 6—Schematic cross section of a berm breakwater
Moreover, the berm breakwater with 30%
reduced armour stone do not shows the stable
profile for all wave characteristics, thus in another
experiment, Rao et al.23, estimated runup,
rundown and stability of a berm breakwater for
reduced armor weight by 20% of armour weight.
In addition, it was observed that berm breakwater
near still water level is more effective in reducing
wave runup.
For a case of berm breakwater, the breaking
wave does not strike to the exposed seaside slope,
but plunged onto the horizontal part and
dissipates energy. So, the basic design criteria are
depending on the characterization of berm width.
In a basic test Rao et al.24 investigated statically
stable non-reshaped two layer rubble mound
breakwater with a wide width and the influence of
wave height, wave period, water depth, and sea-
ward slope on stability, wave runup, and wave
rundown of a 20% reduced armour weight berm
breakwater were tested. The authors had
estimated damage criteria by comparing
experimental results obtained for no berm
conditions. It is reported that variations in water
level above berm influence stability of berm.
Kiran et al.25 modified the existing berm
breakwater by replacing the armor stone with
concrete blocks as an armour unit and
investigated its stability experimentally. The
stability, runup and rundown of berm breakwater
were estimated for different wave climate and
stability numbers were reported to be varying
from 2.21 to 3.63 for the tested wave conditions.
Further, Prashanth et al.26 studied wave run-up
and run-down characteristics of a berm
breakwater with concrete cubes as armour units.
Experiments were conducted with reduced weight
of armour units than that of required as per
standard design formula. Various berm widths,
water depths and percentage reduction in weight
of armour unit were considered for experimental
tests. It is reported that berm width significantly
influences run-up characteristics, which decreases
with increase in berm width.
In another experiment, Manu et al.27, reported
physical model study on stability of concrete
armoured units on tandem and berm breakwater.
For the case of tandem breakwater run-up, run-
down, transmission and breakwater damage is
estimated for two different seaward distances of
reef. The comprehensive study shows that when
the reef is placed far for main breakwater the
overall performance of reef breakwater is good
for above mention parameters. Whereas, in case
of berm breakwater, its height and width were
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
considered as characteristics factor for reducing
breakwater damage. Study shows that stability of
berm breakwater is significantly influenced by
storm duration.
Many physical models were developed and
experiments were carried out to design a safe and
stable berm breakwater, which is very dedicated
to space require, time consuming and expensive.
To avoid these draw backs of experimental work,
Mandal et al.28 approached soft computing
models: artificial neural network, support vector
machine and adaptive neuro fuzzy inference
system to predict the damage levels and proved
the efficiency of the models, which basically used
data obtained from experimental stability tests on
berm-breakwater. These models enable the
consideration of wave period, wave steepness,
breakwater slope and wave height in predicting
damage levels.
The berm breakwater is advantageous
compared to conventional breakwater in both the
cases; technically and economically. For the long
term stability, berm breakwater reshape into a
statically stable profile. However, the main armor
layer in berm breakwater is designed for berm
reshaping to achieve such stable profile. As per
the author’s knowledge, there is no definite
(a) slotted (b) perforated (c) slitted
Fig. 7—Schematic view of typical screen breakwaters
In Indian context, hydrodynamic
characteristics of barrier type of breakwaters have
extensively been studied through various
mathematical models. Wave reflection and
transmission characteristics of a submerged fixed
vertical barrier for obliquely incident wave were
studied by Mandal and Goswami29, for different
value of incident wave angle and wave number.
However, Mandal and Kundu30 reported a number
of mathematical methods to solve water wave
scattering by vertical barrier. These methods
involve expansion, integral equation, reduction
and complex variable methods. The authors had
discussed the advantages and limitations of each
method. Further, Mandal and Kundu31 reported
hydrodynamic characteristics of a thin vertical
barrier with a gap by using approximate solution
437
design procedure for berm breakwaters. So, the
innovation in berm could be development of
stability equation for different type of berm
breakwater. However, the cost optimization study
can perform while maintaining the same or
improved level of stability. Moreover, the
numerical simulation for reshaping of berm
breakwater can be perform for observing flow
field in and on breakwater slope with different
structural aspects as permeability, stone
gradation, stability of toe and scour protection and
probabilistic analysis.
Barrier/screen type of breakwaters
Thin barriers, impermeable or permeable,
supported with piles can be used as breakwaters,
in places where soil conditions are week to take
loads of conventional rubble mound breakwaters.
In places, where circulation of flow is expected in
and out of the harbour basin, these barriers may
be constructed up to partial water depth. These
barrier also called as free-surface or open
breakwaters. Generally, barriers types of
breakwaters are adopted in places where wave
height and period are relatively less. The
schematic diagram of some barriers and their
most common arrangements are given in Fig. 7.
of simple linear theory based integral equations.
Effect of various wave angle of incidents were
considered in this study with an assumption of
gap is narrow. Later, Mandal and Banerjea32,
reported wave motion near vertical and partially
immerged wide plate, rotating about its horizontal
axis. A simplified perturbation approach was used
for correction of wave amplitude and Fourier
expansion function was used for shape correction.
Using Galerkin approximations, Mandal and
Dolai33 estimated reflection coefficients of a thin
barrier under oblique wave conditions. Four
different configurations of the barriers; partially
immersed, bottom connected, submerged and
submerged and with a gap, as shown in Fig. 8,
were considered in the study.
Fig. 8—Schematic diagram of model configurations.
Reddy and Neelamani34estimated reflection,
transmission and energy loss from partially
immerged vertical barrier, through theoretical and
experimental investigations for wide range of
wave steepness and different depth of
438 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017
submergences. Later, the water wave scattering
from vertical plate of full length was reported by
Bharathi et al.35 using perturbation technique.
Later, Shaoo and Chakrabarti36, presented a
mathematical model of partially immerge vertical
wave-maker problems for typical cases. The
solutions were achieved through converting
boundary value problem into a set of dual integral
equations by utilizing the well-known property of
mixed boundary condition. In addition, problem
of nearly vertical partially submerged wave maker
problem is also considered along with more other
cases.
Solutions for wave-structure interaction
problem is also derived for thin barrier where the
thickness of barrier is neglected compared to
water wave length37, 38, 39 & 40. Mandal and Basu41
used Green’s integral to investigate reflection
coefficients of thin barriers in two superposed
fluid regions. It is noted that closed form solution
of the diffraction problem exists for normal
incident wave train and deep water case. For the
case of oblique incident wave train, problem
cannot be solved in closed form, although the
reflection and transmission coefficient can be
obtained approximately. Based on Galerkin
approximate method, Mandal and Das42 obtained
the reflection and transmission coefficients for a
submerged thin vertical plate subjected to oblique
incident waves. Later, using the same technique,
Banerjea et al.43 estimated the reflection
coefficients of submerged single and twin thin
wall with a gap under oblique wave conditions.
Das et al.44 extended the concept to double thin
barriers with gap (Fig. 9) for three different cases:
partially immersed, partially submerged and fully
submerged to estimate the reflection and
transmission coefficients. According to study,
total reflection occurs only for the partially
immerged barrier, whereas, total transmission
occurs for all the three configurations.The study
concluded that consideration of two barriers in
submerged test case increases reflection
coefficient for certain wave frequencies.
However, Chakrabarthi et al.45 had demonstrated
application of unified analysis to solve the
multiple integral equations of fully submerged
and partially immerged barrier by converting
them into a single Cauchy-type singular integral
equation.
Kundu and Saha46 used perturbation technique
to analysis water wave scattering problem of a
thin plane barrier which is vertical and partially
immersed barrier, inclined at special angles called
a slender barrier. The first order correlation to the
reflection and transmission coefficient of a
submerged slender barrier, in deep water is the
main finding of present research.
Fig. 9—Schematic diagram of double thin barriers.
Furthermore, it was observed that the
correlation to the transmission vanishes for a
submerged nearly vertical plate which does not
vanish for submerged slender barrier. A very
next, Banerjea and Kar47 investigated first order
correlation to reflection and transmission
coefficient of a thin barrier with a gap through
Green’s integral theorem and simplified
pertubational analysis. The application of
developed numerical method is adopted for some
explicit shape of the barrier whose results then
compared with the corresponding problem of
vertical wall in next stage.
In general, the reflection of surface gravity
wave occurs due to irregular bottom which act as
obstacles to propagating waves. The mechanism
of wave getting reflected through irregular bottom
is wave-induced mass transport forms sand
ripples of some wavelength which produce strong
reflected waves. Mandal and Gayen48
mathematically solved wave scattering off bottom
undulations along with addition effect of a
partially immersed thin vertical barrier. A
simplified perturbation analysis is used to obtain
first-order reflection and transmission coefficients
for sinusoidal shape functions that define
undulations.
Mandal and Chakrabarthi49 presented a
detailed description of mathematical concept of
Galerkin’s method of approximate solutions for
water wave problems, specifically wave thin
barrier interaction problems. The comparison of
single-term Galerkin’s and multi-term Galerkin’s
approximation for single and double thin vertical
barrier of four different configurations is
discussed briefly. In addition, the basic functions
for standard test cases are highlighted along with
a short review of earlier literatures pertaining to
Galerkin’s method for water wave problems.
Past decades, the problem of water wave
scattering for thin vertical barriers of various
configurations and its modification have been
studied extensively. Less attention has been paid
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
towards the water wave scattering through thick
obstacle in the direction of flow. Mirdula et al.50
studied the wave scattering of thick vertical
barrier of rectangular cross section in water of
uniform finite depth. The study considered four
different geometrical configurations of the
barrier; surface-piercing, partially immersed,
bottom-standing and submerged, to estimate the
reflection characteristics of the obstacle, using
multi-term Galerkin’s approximations. Again,
Mridula51 studied wave scattering by a thick
submerged rectangular wall with a gap in finite
depth water, using multi-term Galerkin’s
approximations involving ultra-spherical
Gegenbauer polynomials. Mridula52 extended
their work to study the wave scattering from the
thick rectangular slotted barrier for an arbitrary
number of slots with unequal slot length as well
as unequal length of the wetted portions of above
mentioned barriers.
Sahoo et al.53 considered four different
configurations of permeable barriers; surface
piercing; submerged; barrier with gap; and bottom
touching, to estimate reflection coefficients,
different shapes of elements are also investigated
and the same are compared with that of circular
elements. In another experimental study,
hydrodynamic performance of a slotted screen of
four different porosities with circular elements in
regular and random wave fields, are investigated.
The numerical predictions and experimental
results are reported to be in agreement. Using a
Boussinesq equation based numerical model,
Balaji55 attempted to study reflection and
transmission coefficient of twin porous barriers.
The oscillation of waves between the two porous
barriers were measured and reported to be
containing partial sub-harmonic resonance, when
spacing between barriers to wave length ratio
(B/L) is of order of 0.2, leading to minimal
reflection of incident waves. The wave elevation
between barriers when projected in phase plane,
revealed more than one periodic attractor, as can
be seen in Fig. 10, indicating the presence of
multi-frequency oscillations. In addition,
magnitude of phase portrait appear larger for
B/L=≈0.2, when compared to other B/L ratio,
exhibiting presence of higher wave elevations
inside the chamber, due to partial resonance.
In Indian context, some studies have been
performed considering fluid of different layered.
These distinguish of layers could be because of
density difference of fresh river water and ocean
water, sediment dissolved and temperature
gradient. The hydrodynamic characteristic of
439
dynamic pressures and surface elevations through
a mathematical boundary-value problem, as
functions of angle of wave attack and different
barrier porosities. The importance of porous-
effect-parameter for controlling reflection
coefficient for above mentioned configurations of
barrier is discussed in detailed. According to
study, the dissipation of incident wave can be
control by adjusting the vertical position of
barrier along with porous-effect-parameter. For
bottom-standing barrier type, the authors have
observed three-dimensional variations of surface
elevations, which are attributed to superimposing
of incident and phase-shifted reflected waves.
Balaji and Sundar54 applied boundary integral
based Green’s identity method to study wave
transformation characteristics of slotted screens,
consisting of horizontal wave intercepting
elements. The effects of size and shape of
individual elements, porosity, and relative depth
of submergence of wave screen on its
transmission characteristics are investigated. In
addition, wave attenuation characteristics of
structures depends on the free surface interaction
and fluid interface. As a result the reflection and
transmission coefficients, wave elevations, wave
load on the structures will be vary in compared to
single layer fluid and need to be analyzed.
Manam and Sahoo56 numerically approximated
the reflection and transmission coefficient of a
porous structure for a two-layered fluid medium
through simplifying the analytical equation and
expressing them in term of Bessel function. The
study also involved in estimation of surface
elevations at the surface and the interface, along
with the amplitude of the force acting on the
structure. Later on, Suresh and Sahoo57 estimated
the reflection and transmission coefficients,
dynamic force and response of a flexible porous
breakwater in a two-layer fluid system. The
authors have obtained wave reflection and
transmission for both fluid layers and reported
that location of fluid interface, density ratio (ratio
of density of two-layered), porosity and structural
rigidity influence performance.
Balaji et al.58 estimated reflection
characteristics and dynamic pressures exerted on
an impermeable wall on leeward side of
permeable wave screens due to action of regular
waves through theoretical and experimental
investigations. The breakwater model consists of
two wave attenuating chambers, formed by
placing horizontal slotted wave screens consisting
of equally spaced circular wave-intercepting
440 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017
elements. A theoretical model, based on the
eigen-function expansion theory for linear waves,
is also developed for prediction of reflection
characteristics. It is reported that wave reflections
are relatively less for dimensionless spacing
(width of chamber to wave length, B/L) in the
Fig. 10—Phase portraits of wave elevation measured inside the chamber.
The porosities of the screens are gradually
decreased towards vertical impermeable wall, as
can be seen in Fig.11and reflection coefficients
are reported to be less than 0.3 for wide range of
wave conditions. Theoretical predictions obtained
for multi-chamber system is reported to be in
good agreement with experimental results.
Fig. 11—Cross sectional view of wave absorber
In an extensively study, Krishnakumar et al.59,
experimentally tested variety of wave screens,
made of wave intercepting elements, by varying
the configurations (Fig. 12). The effect of depth
of submergence of the seaward side screens on
the reflection and transmission characteristics
were reported. In addition, set of design formulae
were suggested through experimental results for
single and double screens to estimate reflection
and transmission coefficients. In another study, by
the authors, Krishnakumar et al.60,it is reported
that dynamic pressures and forces, due to multi-
directional wave conditions, on single and double
wave screen reduces as against uni-directional
range of 0.1-0.4.In another set of experiments, the
authors have tested reflection characteristics of a
multi-chamber absorber system, which was
proposed to be used as an end-flume wave
absorber for one of the test facilities.
waves and reduction is observed to be dominant
for lower values of directional spreading index.
Fig. 12—Model setup for double slotted barriers.
In Indian literatures, good contribution has
been reported for the vertical wall type
breakwaters which includes; thin barrier, thick
barrier, immerge, submerge and bottom sitting.
From Indian contrast, most of the studies have
been performed considering seabed is flat, except
that Mandal and Gayen61 who considered the
irregular bottom. The study can extend to
investigate the influence of several parameters on
the hydrodynamic of vertical type barrier placed
at irregular bottom of seabed. However, limited
research has been reported for water wave
scattering in two layer fluids. Hereby, no
evidence has been found regarding oblique water
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
wave scattering in two layer fluid. Moreover, the
effect of current in two layer fluid is yet to be
remained a scope of future research. In addition
for Indian context, no evidence of any numerical
model has been found to analyze wave-structure
interaction in two layer fluid.
Other type of breakwaters
Apart from the standard types of fixed vertical
barriers, the horizontal fixed plat is a good wave
attenuator long with the control over reflection
and transmission of incident wave. In general,
most of the kinetic wave energy concentrates near
the surface which can effectively control by
floating breakwater to give temporary protection
to beach from erosion or some meaning full
advantages. Several innovative types of
breakwaters have been tested by various Indian
researchers, which are discussed in this section.
Sundar and Dakshinamoorthy62 experimentally
investigated the hydrodynamic characteristics of
fixed plate breakwater model. Experiments were
carried out with various depth of submergence of
the models to estimate the reflection and
transmission of waves. It is reported that the
horizontal fixed breakwater effectively attenuated
the incident waves than a vertical breakwater for a
similar relative depth of submergence. When
compared to floating type of breakwaters, fixed
type reported to perform effectively. Neelamani
and Reddy63 experimentally investigated the
reflection and transmission characteristics of a
fixed horizontal plate, in deep water conditions
for wide range of various parameters. It is
reported that minimum wave transmission
obtained when the plate is kept at the still water
level, however the loss of wave energy due to
breaking was reported to be maximum when the
plate was slightly below the still water level.
Mani and Jayakumar64 reported experimental
investigation on the transmission characteristics
of suspended pipe breakwater. It is concluded that
the present model is capable to reduce incident
wave height up to 50% when the gap to diameter
ratio is 0.22 and draft to water depth ratio is 0.46.
The study also estimated the cost effectiveness of
the suspended pipe breakwaters against
conventional pile supported ones.
Mallayachari and Sundar65 developed a two-
dimensional boundary integral model to predict
wave reflection and transmission characteristics
of submerged obstacles of rectangular, trapezoidal
and half-cylinder shapes, as shown in Fig. 13. It is
reported that reflection coefficients show
oscillating characteristics with respect to relative
441
water depth, for all tested shapes and more
pronounced by rectangular body.
Fig. 13—Definition sketch of submerged obstacles.
Ever since semicircular breakwater is
successfully built in Miyazaki Port, Japan, the
breakwater system has been tested under various
conditions to improve its hydrodynamic
performance. Sundar and Ragu66 reported
dynamic pressures exerted and run-up
characteristics on semicircular breakwater (Fig.
14) at five different elevations under random
wave experimental condition. It was reported that
the shape of dynamic pressure spectra is slightly
broader than corresponding incident wave
spectrum.
Fig. 14—Schematic diagram of semi-circular breakwater
Rao and Rao67 and Rao et al.68 investigated the
performance of single row of suspended cylinder
(non-perforated and perforated, Fig. 15) by
measuring the wave reflection of incident waves.
It was found that reflection coefficient is
significantly influenced by submergence, relative
water depth and wave steepness. The size of
pipes, percentage of perforation, size of
perforation and staggering of piles were reported
to less influencing the hydrodynamic
characteristics. Interestingly, transmission
through two rows of pile breakwater is observed
minimum when the non-dimensional clear
spacing between them is 1, for both the cases of
perforated and non-perforated. Later on, Rao et
al.69 extended their study to measure reflection
and transmission characteristics for two rows of
perforated hollow piles and reported that the clear
spacing between piles significantly affect the
reflection performances.
442 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017

Fig. 15—Details of different perforated piles models.

Neelamani and Rajendran70experimentally Rajendran70. However, reflection decreases and

investigated the hydrodynamic characteristics of
‘T’ type breakwater (Fig. 16)under regular and
random wave conditions. It is reported that a
minimum transmission coefficient obtained for a
condition of horizontal barrier of the T type
breakwater, immersed to about 7% below the still
water level. The breakwater is reported to very
efficient in dissipating incident wave energy to a
maximum extent of about 65%.
energy loss increases with increased wave
steepness, especially when top tip of vertical
barrier of breakwater is kept at still water level. It
is also reported that ‘T’ type breakwater are more
effective than ‘┴’ type, by 20 to 30% in terms of
hydrodynamic performance.

Fig. 17—Schematic view of the ‘┴’ type breakwater.

Neelamani and Vedagiri72 investigated the

performance of partially immersed twin vertical
barriers (Fig. 18) for nine different immersions.
Fig. 16—Schematic views of the ‘T’-type breakwater.
The wave fluctuation between the barriers is
emphasis in regular and random wave
Neelamani and Rajendran71tested
experiments. An experimental result showed that,
hydrodynamic performance ┴’of type ‘
transmission coefficient reduces significantly with
breakwater under same structural and wave
increase of relative water depth. However, it is
conditions as that of Neelamani and Rajendran70.
found that twin barrier is better in reducing
The schematic view of the breakwater is shown in
transmission coefficient and increasing in energy
Fig. 17. Interestingly the transmission
dissipation in random wave experiments than the
characteristics of incident wave energy were
regular wave experiments.
reported to be as same as Neelamani and
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
Fig 18—Schematic view of twin wall breakwater.
Sundar and Rao73 investigated the
hydrodynamic performance of a pile supported
quadrant face breakwater. The effect of spacing
between piles on dynamic pressures exerted along
quadrant face (Fig. 19) and reflection
characteristics under regular waves were studied.
In another set of experimental study, the authors
have presented hydrodynamic performance
characteristics of the breakwater under random
wave condition74. It is reported that reflection
coefficient for random waves is 10 to 15% higher
than that obtained to test regular waves for all
submergence depth of the quadrant front face.
Fig. 19—Schematic sectional view of breakwater.
Dhinakaran et al.75 reported dynamic pressures
and forces on seaside perforated semicircular
breakwater with two different porosities and also
compared with that obtained for an impermeable
semicircular breakwater. Later, the effects of
porosity on seaward and rear side, rubble mound
heights on which the semicircular breakwater was
kept, depth of submergence on the hydrodynamic
characteristics, pressures and forces were studied,
in detail, by various authors76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81 & 82.
Usha and Gayatri83 developed an analytical
model, based on linear wave theory, to investigate
the reflection and transmission of a twin plate
443
breakwater system. The twin plate breakwater
consisted of a horizontal plate at the still water
surface and an identical submerged plate below
that. The performance of twin plate breakwater
was compared with surface plate, submerged
plate and group of submerged plate in later stage
and found that twin plate breakwater is more
effective. However, study is limited for two-
dimensional case only and could be extended for
three-dimensional problem along with the effect
of wave height. Neelamani and Gayathri84
extensively studied the performance of single and
twin plate barriers under the action of regular and
random waves in physical model tests. It is
reported that the performance of twin plate
system is similar to a single plate for certain
spacing between plates.
Laju et al.85 presented the new concept of skirt
type breakwater (Fig. 20) and its hydrodynamic
performance through numerical and experimental
investigations.
Fig. 20—Schematic diagram of skirt breakwater
It was reported that the transmission of waves
depends on the maximum submergence of either
the front or rear skirt, whereas, the reflection
depends on the submergence of the front skirt. In
another study, Laju et al.86 investigated effect of
single and double row of skirt breakwater on
reflection and transmission coefficient as well as
oscillation of water surface in between two rows
of skirt breakwater through eigen function based
theoretical model.
Sankarbabu et al.87, presented the theoretically
determined hydrodynamic characteristics of dual
cylindrical caisson breakwater formed by a row of
caissons each of which consisting of a porous
outer cylinder circumscribing an impermeable
inner cylinder. It was reported that, increase in
porosity of the outer caisson resulted in decrease
in wave reflection and increase in wave
444 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017

transmission. The size of inner cylinder Through a laboratory study, Shirlal90investigated

reported to play a significant role, an increase in
its size result in an increase in wave reflection and
transmission.
Rao et al.88 carried out physical model studies
to evaluate the wave transmission characteristics
of a submerged plate breakwater of different
orientation (Fig. 21), by varying inclinations and
submergence. The effect of wave steepness,
relative depth, relative submergence and angle of
inclination on the hydrodynamic performance was
studied. It is reported that submerged plate with
angle of inclination 60 degree is more effective to
reduce wave height about 40% than other angles.
wave transmission characteristics of a submerged
serrated inclined plate breakwater (Fig. 23). The
serrations are made of squares fixed on an
inclined plate in two different configurations;
zigzag and parallel. It is reported that serrations
reduce reflection characteristics when compared
to a smooth plate. However, lowest transmission
is observed for 60 degree inclined plate with
square zigzag serrated.
Special types breakwaters are usually made to
serve special purpose and it do not follow any
standard design procedures.

Fig 21- Various plate orientations tested.

Mani89 modified a pile supported breakwater of

Mani and Jayakumar64 into a zigzag pile
supported breakwater to improve hydrodynamic
efficiency (Fig. 22). Experiments are conducted to
estimate reflection, transmission and forces on the
porous screen. In addition, the author has
attempted to measure the wave elevation in
between zigzag. This study revealed that wave
attenuation does not changed compared to
conventional pile breakwater but a significant
reduction in reflection coefficient was observed
due to the presence of porous screen and zigzag
position of piles. The reflection and transmission
coefficients, obtained from the experiments were
compared with that of obtained from a theoretical
Fig. 23—Schematic view of serrated plate breakwater
model.
Specially, these breakwater play an important
role in supportive structure which provide
assesses to main breakwater. After continuous
existence, these breakwaters convert into a
standard breakwater. From Indian contrast good
contribution was reported towards these type of
breakwaters and expected to be continued for
special cases.
Fig. 22—Zigzag pile supported breakwater
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
PART 2: Floating type
General
Conventional breakwaters like rubble mound
breakwaters are widely used, but incurring more
cost and more time of construction. Floating
breakwaters have proved to be economic
compared to conventional bottom connected
breakwaters, in mild wave conditions. Floating
breakwaters are advantageous, when the
foundation at a specific site is poor for fixed
breakwater, in deeper water depths, where the
construction of the fixed type of breakwaters
becomes uneconomical, minimum interference
for fish migrations and flow circulations is
desired and also where the mobility of breakwater
is important. The primary requirement of any
breakwater system is to allow minimum wave
energy to be transmitted on to its harbor side. The
floating breakwaters are broadly classified as;
pontoon or box, plate, mat and tethered types.
Under these broad classifications, various other
forms have been developed with modifications
and alterations in their configurations and
geometry. With continuous efforts taken to
improvise the efficiency of floating breakwater
system, various Indian researchers have carried
out experimental, theoretical and numerical
studies to assess the hydrodynamic performances
of the same. This part explores the various studies
on floating breakwaters from Indian innovative
research perspective. Though the main focus of
these studies is to find reflection and transmission
characteristics, forces and motion responses of the
floating breakwater were also investigated in
some of these studies.
Pontoon types
Pontoon or box shapes are one of the oldest
Fig. 25—Schematic views of floating cage breakwater.
445
forms of floating breakwaters to be studied.
Pontoons can offer a platform for the berthing
activities and hence have proved to be a better
choice for marinas and small craft harbours.
Indian researchers have taken efforts to modify
the basic form of pontoon into various innovative
shapes to improve the wave attenuation
characteristics. The different forms of box or
pontoon type breakwaters are described in the
following sections.
In early Nineties, Mani91 designed a Y-frame
floating breakwater (Fig. 24) and measured the
efficiency of this breakwater in terms of reflection
and transmission of waves. It is reported that
fixing a row of pipes with certain length and
interval at the bottom of a trapezoidal float helps
in reducing the wave transmission.
Fig. 24—Cross sectional view of Y-Frame breakwater.
Murali and Mani92 investigated the
performance of cage floating breakwater (Fig. 25)
by experimentally measuring the reflection and
transmission characteristics and water surface
elevation within the cage under wave and wave-
current conditions. Results of this study showed
that, transmission of wave can be reduced below
50% of incident wave height with gap ratio of
0.22, relative depth of 0.46 and ratio of pontoon
width to clear spacing is 1 and a maximum initial
tension corresponds to 22.5% of the total
displacement of pontoon. Though the stiffness of
the mooring lines does not modify the
446 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017

performance of the breakwater, use of mooring

lines was suggested to have sufficient stiffness.

Sannasiraj et al.93 numerically studied the

hydrodynamics of long floating structures in
directional sea. A rectangular long pontoon (Fig.
26) was considered in this study, which can be
used as a floating breakwater, and the diffraction,
radiation and motion responses were estimated
using a finite element method. It is reported that
for mean directions of the waves, other than the
normal wave directions, the motion responses
reduces.
Fig. 27—Definition sketch of mooring configurations.

The effect of mean wave direction, directional

homogeneity on hydrodynamics and the motion
response in sway, heave and roll model were
reported. The force ratio and the response ratio
are evaluated numerically for frequency-
independent and frequency-dependent cosine
power type spreading functions.

Syed and Mani96 & 97 presented a theoretical

model for three pontoon floating breakwater
acting as a single unit (Fig. 28) and it’s
performance was estimated in terms of reflection
and transmission. Results of the study revealed
that, width between pontoons significantly
influence the reflection and transmission
characteristics. It was found that a gap ratio of 0.5
gives an optimum band width of frequencies for
floating breakwater operation. Further, the
Fig. 26—Definition sketch of problem. breakwater system was analysed with a numerical
approach. The diffraction and scattering potentials
Sannasiraj et al.94 investigated the behavior of
were obtained by solving boundary element
pontoon floating breakwater and the effect of
problem using Green’s integral method. The
mooring configurations on transmission
solution from numerical model includes forces act
coefficient through numerical and experimental
on pontoon system, oscillations in the interspaces
investigations. Motion responses and mooring
and reflection coefficient.
forces of three different mooring configurations
(Fig. 27) were analyzed. According to the study,
the transmission coefficient is not significantly
affected by mooring configurations but higher
transmission coefficient is observed for floating
breakwater with cross mooring, as the cross
mooring leads to a resonant response near the roll
natural frequency. The cross mooring was
suggested to be inefficient compared to other two
configurations.
Sannasiraj et al.95 extended the use of finite
element based numerical model to study the
Fig. 28—Definition sketch of three-pontoon breakwater.
hydrodynamics of twin long floating structures,
under oblique wave conditions.
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
Combined use of floating breakwater as a
wave energy converting device, Rapaka et al.98
tested a floating multi-resonant oscillating column
wave energy device, as shown in Fig. 29, for its
hydrodynamic characteristics in a laboratory
investigation. The motion responses and mooring
forces were presented for different mooring line
configurations and variety of wave conditions.
The effects of mooring line configurations and
water depth conditions on the performance were
evaluated.
Fig. 29—Sectional view of floating wave energy caisson.
Murali et al.99 modified the existing cage
floating breakwater of Murali and Mani100 by
introducing rigidly connected pontoons having a
row of cylinders attached beneath. The
experiments were conducted under regular and
random wave conditions to understand the
hydrodynamics by measuring reflection,
transmission, energy-loss and motion response
characteristics.
Plate types
These types of floating breakwaters consist of
a plate structure floating at the surface level to
attenuate the wave energy. Sundar and
Dakshinamoorthy62 experimentally investigated
the hydrodynamic characteristics of floating plate
breakwater models and the results are compared
with that obtained for fixed breakwater model.
Experiments were carried out with various depth
of submergence of the floating and fixed models
to estimate the reflection and transmission of
waves. It was reported that the horizontal fixed
breakwater effectively attenuated the incident
waves than a vertical breakwater for a similar
relative depth of submergence. When compared
to floating type of breakwaters, fixed type
reported to perform effectively.
Arunachalam and Raman101 attempted to
experimentally investigate the performance of
perforated horizontal floating plate breakwater
(Fig. 30) for different wave steepness, relative
lengths of breakwater and relative depths of draft.
447
Their study concluded that the transmission
coefficient depends on wave steepness and
relative length of breakwater, whereas it is less
influenced by relative draft. It was found that
mooring forces increase with increase in wave
steepness and increase in relative draft.
Fig. 30—Definition sketch of floating plate breakwater.
Sundar et al.102 investigated the performance
characteristics of moored plain and perforated
plate type of breakwaters with various porosity of
horizontal plate, draft, initial mooring tension and
wave conditions. The reflection, transmission of
waves, motion responses and mooring forces
were measured and reported as function of
relative width of the floating breakwater. Further,
Sundar et al.103 introduced a bottom skirt (short
vertical thin barrier) at the mid-section of the
moored floating plate breakwater, to assess the
effect of various skirt depth on the reflection,
transmission characteristics, motion response of
the floating breakwater, mooring forces and
dynamic pressure distribution along the depth of
skirt. The skirt breakwater was then rigidly fixed
and the experiments were repeated and the results
were compared. The reflection of waves was
more for fixed plate breakwater, whereas
transmission of waves was less, when compared
to floating type. The dynamic pressures exerted
on the skirt were higher for the fixed plate
breakwaters.
Maiti and Mandal104 presented a mathematical
model for water wave scattering by a thin elastic
floating plate in which, the ocean bed is
considered as porous material, as shown in Fig.
31. The method of Eigen function expansion was
used in the mathematical analysis to estimate the
reflection and transmission from elastic plate for
different values of porous bed conditions and
edge conditions of plate. The edge condition of
the plate involved a free edge, a simply supported
edge and a built in edge condition and observed
that a free edge condition have a prominent effect
on the reflection and transmission coefficients.
448 INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 03, MARCH 2017
Fig. 31—Definition Sketch of floating elastic plate.
Pipe types
These type breakwaters consist of connected
pipes in different orientation, mostly floats at the
surface level. Sundar et al.105 investigated the
hydrodynamic performance characteristics of a
moored floating breakwater (Fig. 32), made of
row of horizontally placed pipes, and separated by
a distance equivalent to the pipe diameter,
through experimental study. The effect of
different diameter and their positions on the
reflection and transmission of waves, motion
responses and mooring forces are examined and
reported. The depth of submergence to depth of
water ratio of 0.15 is found out to be most
efficient to reduce the coefficient of reflection by
about 30% and also reduction in the mooring
forces on leeward and seaward sides by 60%.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 32—Floating pipe breakwater; (a) schematic view, (b)
different diameter and relative draft
Hegde et al.106 studied the performance
characteristics of horizontally interlaced multi-
layer moored floating pipe breakwater (Fig. 33).
Transmission coefficient reported to reduce with
the increase in the relative breakwater width for
all relative wave heights. Maximum wave
attenuation of about 40.5% achieved for relative
breakwater width of 1.0 and relative wave height
of 0.3. The performance of the floating
breakwater was found to be better for
configurations with relative width more than 0.7.
Fig. 33—Floating pipe breakwater model setup.
Hegde et al.107 experimentally measured the
mooring forces on a horizontal interlaced moored
floating pipe breakwater extending the previous
study on the same structure. The forces on the
seaward side mooring were observed to increase
with the increase in the wave steepness for water
depth to width of breakwater ratio values ranging
between 0.081 to 0.276 and decreases when wave
steepness increases up to 1.3. The wave
attenuation and forces in the mooring were found
to be lower for relative spacing of 4 than that of 2.
Mandal et al.108 used Artificial Neural Network
(ANN) model for the prediction of wave
transmission from multi-layer floating
breakwater. The model was applied for the
floating breakwater with 5 different layers of
pipes with spacing to diameter ratio of 2, 3, 4 and
5. Two different ANN models were studied one
for spacing to diameter ratio and other to study
over range of spacing of pipes and its effects. The
study showed that the correlation coefficient of
ANN depends on the pipe spacing ratio. The
increase in the pipe spacing ratio leads to increase
in the correlation coefficient.
Vishwanath et al.109 reported a physical model
study to measure the mooring forces of horizontal
interlaced multi-layered floating pipe breakwater
and the effect of relative breakwater width,
relative wave height and wave steepness on the
forces in mooring. The study also showed the
peak mooring forces and found maximum for
relative spacing 2, wave steepness of 0.420,
relative wave height of 0.4 and relative width of
1.2.
Patil et al.110 studied the Neuro-fuzzy based
approach for prediction of transmission
characteristics of a horizontally interlaced
multilayer moored pipe floating breakwater. The
adaptive neuro-fuzzy interface system has been
trained using the physical model based data,
obtained from the previous study106. The input
parameters that influence the coefficient of
transmission were found to be spacing to diameter
 RAJENDRA et al.: REVIEW OF INDIAN RESEARCH ON INNOVATIVE BREAKWATERS
ratio, wave steepness, relative width of the
floating breakwater and incident wave relative to
water depth. This model claimed to outperform
ANN models in predicting transmission
coefficients.
A genetic algorithm based support vector
machine (SVM) was proposed by Patil et al.111 to
predict wave transmission characteristics of
horizontally interlaced multi-layer moored
floating pipe breakwater. The model was trained
and tested using the experimental data obtained
from an experimental study (Fig. 34). The
forecasting performance of model reported to be
influenced by the choice of its kernel function,
and setting of kernel and SVM parameters. The
performance of this model in predicting the
reflection characteristics was claimed to be
superior than ANN and adaptive neuro-fuzzy
interface system.
Fig. 34—Horizontal interlaced floating pipe breakwater.
Further, Hoolihalli and Hegde112 reported the
wave transmission characteristics of a horizontal
interlaced multi-layer moored floating pipe
breakwater. Effects of wave steepness and
relative breakwater width on the wave reflection
and transmission were reported. Patil et al.113
reported the performance of moored floating pipe
breakwater based on intelligent computing, using
the results of earlier physical model studies.
Summary
This study involves in comprehensive
collection of various historical research studies
carried out by Indian scientists and academicians
on the understanding of innovative fixed and
floating type breakwaters. Overall, the review of
the past literatures revealed that the research
interest lies in improving the hydrodynamic
performances of variety of breakwater types.
Interestingly, majority of the studies involved in
the experimental investigations. A notable
mathematical solution was used to understand the
performance characteristics of the innovative
breakwaters. However, response characteristics of
the floating breakwaters are rather scanty in
mathematical modeling. This paper aimed to
449
disseminate the readers the various types of fixed
and floating breakwaters tested by the Indian
researchers.
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