Alem B Mechanism Book 2 PDF

Contents lll
5 .2.2 Dependent Coordinates 119

i) Relative Coordinates 119
ii) Reference-Point Coordinates 122
iii) Natural Coordinates 125
iv) Mixed Coordinates 127
5.3 Constraint Equations 127
5.4 Kinematic Analysis 128
5.4.1 The Initial Position Problem 128
5.4.2 Velocity Analysis 129
5.5 Methods for Solving the Position, .lbVelocity
•
and Acceleration Equations 130
5.5.1 Position Equation 130
5.5.2 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 135
~ .- \ ,
Chapter € ~~S- .... . .......... . .·. . ................... . .. . . . . . .... ... . 146
6.1 Classification of Followers 146
6.1.1 Classification of Followers Based on Surface ofContact 147
6. 1.2 Classification of Followers Based on Type of Follower Motion 147
6. 1.3 Classification of Followers Based on Follower Line of Motion 148
6.2 Classification of Cams 148
6.3 Graphical Design of Cam Curves 149
6.3 .1 Disc Cam with a Flat-Faced Radial Follower 149
6.3.2 Disc Cam with a Radial Roller Follower 150
6.3 .3 Disc Cam with Oscillating Follower 151
6.3 .4 Positive-Return Cams 152
6.4 Nomenclature 153
6.5 Displacement Diagram 154
6.6 Types ofFollow~r Motion 154
6.6.1 Unifonn Motion 154
6.6.2 Modified Uniform Motion 156
6.6.3 Parabolic Motion 156
6.6.4 Simple Harmonic Motion 159
6.6.5 Cycloidal Motion 161
6.6.6 Advanced Cam Curves 163
6.6.7 Nonstandard Cam Curves 165
6.7 Analytical Cam Design 176
6.7.1 Disc Cam with Radial Flat-Faced Follower 176
6.7.2 Disc Cam with Radial Roller Follower 179
6.7.3 Maximum Pressure Angle 185
6.8 Tangent Cam with Reciprocating Roller Follower 189
6.8.1 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis ofTangent Cams 190
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Contents vu
14.9 Balance ofV-Engines 417
14.10 Balance of Four-Bar Linkages 422
Chapter 15 GYROSCOPES ........ .... . .. ... . . . . . . ...... . -.............. 430
15.1 Precessional Motion 430

15.2 Gyroscopic Couple 431
15.3 Precessional Motion of a Thin Rod Rotating in the Vertical Plane about
a Horizontal Axis through Its Center 433
15.4 General Case: A Body Rotating mfd ACcelerating Simultaneously
about Each of the Principal Axes 435
'
15.5 Typical Examples ofthe Appl~cation ofPrecessional Motion 437
15.5.1 Effect ofGyrosco{t~ Motion on a Four-Wheel Drive Moving
along a Curved Path 437
14.5 .2 Effect of Gyroscopic Motion on a Ship during Steering and
Pitching 443
15.5.3 Effect of Gyroscopic Motion on an Aircraft during Change of
Course 448
REFERENCES ......... .. ...... .. ... . . . ..... . . . .... . ................ . .. 454
INDEX ........ ... .. . ........ . .... .... .. .................... . . ......... 456
...
IV l'Y!eclzanisms ofMachinery
Chapter 7 UNIVERSAL JOINTS

.. . ....... . .. .... .. ... . ................. 200
7.1 Velocity Ratio of Shafts

200
7.2 Polar Angular Velocity Diagram
203
7.3 Coefficient of Speed Fluctuation
6.4 Angular Acceleration of Driven Shaft
204
6.5 Double Hooke's Joint 205
206
Chapter ~ GOVERNORS ....
. . ........ . . .. .. . .... . . . .. .. . ... . ..... . 213
8 .I Classification of Governors
213
8.1.1 Centrifugal Governors (Loaded Governors)
213
8.1.2 Governor Characteristics
214
8.1.2.1 Controlling force
214
8.1.2.2 Stability
8.1.2.3 Sensitivity 21.5
217
8.1.2.4 Isochronous Governors
218
8.1.2.5 Power of a Governor
2 18
8.1 .2.6 Effort of a Governor
8. 1.3 The Porter Governor 2 19
2!9
8.1.3 .I Controlling Force of Porter Governor
222
8.1.3.2 Effort of Porter Governor
223
8.1.3.3 Power of the Porter Governor
224
8.1.3 .4 Effect of Friction on the Porter Governor
8.1.4. Hartnel Governor 225
229
8.1.4.1 Controlling Force and Stability of the Hartne!
Governor
23 1
8.2 Shaft Governors
239
8.2.1 The Centrifugal Shaft Governor (Flywheel Type)
240
8.2.1. 1 Condition ofisochronism .I
241
8.2.1.2 Effectof Angular Acceleration
8.2.2 Inertia Governors 241
246
apter 9 GEAR TRAINS ............ . . ....... . . . . . . ....... . . . . ... . .. . . 256
9.1 Angular Velocity Ratio 256

9.2 Types of Gear Trains 259
9.3 Reverted Gear Train 259
9.4 Planetary Gear Trains 261
9.5 Methods of Analy~is of Planetary Gear Trains 262
9.5.1 Solution of Planetary Gear Trains by Formula Method 262
9.5.2 Solution of Planetary Gear Trains by Tabulation Method 266
I'
PREFACE
The textbook is an amplification and an upgrading of an existing Teaching Material o~

the same subject by the same author which has been in use for over a decade in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Addis Ababa
University. The textbook is based on the course Mechanics III - A1echanisms of
A1achinery offered to Mechanical Engineering students at the junior/senior level.
The coverage includes both analysis and synthesis of mechanisms. The primary
objective of writing the book is to equip mechanical engineering students with the
necessary th~oretical background to understand design theory and analysis ofmachines.
Secondly, it aims to furnish practical applications of mechanisms thereby introducing
the student to various mechanisms. With these two objectives in mind, it is envisaged
that the book vvill be of some help in assisting students and practicing engineers alike
in the design of mechanisms and machines, beside being used as a standard text for the
course in mechanisms of machinery at the junior level.
The subject matter discussed in the textbook includes Introduction to Computer

Methods for Kinematic and Dynamic Analysis of Multi-Body Systems, Gyroscopes,
Balancing of Rotating and Reciprocating Machines. The introduction of computer
methods for analysis of mechanisms will help the student to analyze mechanisms for the
whole cycle avoiding the phase-by-phase analysis. The treatment of gyroscopic motion
will be useful to students in that they will be able to include gyroscopic effects in the
design of mechanisms which often arise in practice. The inclusion of balancing of
rotating and reciprocating machines will assist students in the analysis and design of
engine parts. For a one-semester undergraduate course, chapters 5, 11 and 15 can be
omitted and no discontinuity in the treatment of the subject matter will be felt.
x Mechanisms ofMachinery
The author has benefitted from discussions with colleagues and students who have used
the Teaching Material on the same subject previously and made valuable comments
regarding the presentation and formatting of the text and expresses his appreciation to
. -
all who have contributed in one way or the other. Special thanks are due to Dr.-Ing.
Leul Fisseh~ Associate Prof. ofMechanical Engineering, Faculty ofTechnology, Addis
Ababa University anct to Prof. Don Streit~ Professor of Mechanical Engineering,
Pennsylvania State University, for reading the manuscript and making valuable
comments and suggestions. Their input has been very helpful in the preparation of the
book. Special thanks are also in order to W/o Mestawet Worku who has typed the
manuscript. The author also thanks Ato Haftay Hailu who came up with the formatting
of the sketches included in the text in AutoCAD. Needless to say, the author is
indebted to the very many authors in the same subject whom he has freely referenced.
The author is grateful to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of

Technology, for making it possible to write the book. Thanks are also due to the
Research and Publications Office, Addis Ababa University, for granting financial
assistance for word processing of the manuscript.
Alem Bazezew
July 2001
.!
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The subject Mechanisms of Machinery deals with the study of motion and forces in
machinery devices that provide a wide vmecy of functions. The subject matter treated
inhere includes synthesis and analysis of machinery.
1.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Mechanisms: Mechanisms is commonly defined as the division of machine design '

which is concerned with the kinematic design of links, cams, gears, gear trains etc.
Kinematic design is the design on the basis of motion requirements.
Kinematic chain: Kinematic chain the arrangement of links in a chain fashion which
permits relative motion between the links. Kinematic chains are classified into two: i)
open-loop kinematic chains in which the links are composed without closed branches,
and ii) closed-loop kinematic chains in which the links form closed loops.
A mechanism (Multibody system): A mechanism is a combination of rigid bodies, or

links, so formed and connected that they may move upon each other with a definite
relative motion. The resistant bodies are connected by movable joints or pairing
elements. A mechanism is obtained by fixing one of the links of a kinematic chain to
the ground or frame. For example, in the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 1.1,
link I is the ground or frame which is stationary, link 2 is the crank, link 3 the
connecting rod and link 4 the slider. The slider crank mechanism is commonly used in
internal combustion engines.
y
Fig. 1.1 Slider-crank mechanism
A machine: A machine is a mechanism or a collection of mechanisms which transmits

force from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. An example of a
2 Mechanisms ofMachinery
machine is an internal combustion engine which comprises a number of mechanisms

like the slider-crank mechanism, the cam-shaft mechanism, and the flywheeL t'o
mention a few among others.
A link: A link is a rigid body having two or more pairing elements by means of which
it may be connected to other bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion. A
simple link has two pairing elements whereas a compound link has more than two
pairing elements. Figs. 1.2 (a) and (b) show a simple and a compound link, respectively.
(b)
Fig. 1.2 {a) Simple link, (b) Compound link
Kinematic Pair: A kinematic pair is a pair ofelements or rigid bodies, permanently kept
in contact, so that there exists a relative movement between these elements. Kinematic
pairs are joined by pairing elements which allow the relative motion. In the slider-crank
mechanism shown in Fig. 1.1, links 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, are kinematic pairs
joined by pin joints; links 4 and 1 also form a kinematic pair joined by the sliding
element. A kinematic pair can have a maximum of five degrees of freedom and a
minimum of one degree of freedom. When the members are connected by surface of
contact the connection is known as a lower pair. If the connection is a point or a line
contact, it is known as a higher pair.
A kinematic pair or simply a joint, permits certain degrees of freedom of relative motion
and prevents others. Class I joints allow one degree of freedom, Class II allows two
degrees of freedom, Class III allows three degrees of ~eedom and so on.
A turning pair, revolute joint, or pin joint permits one link or member to rotate about
an axis in a single plane relative to the other, tqus 1Jle revolute joint has one degree of
freedom rotation about an axis. A prismatic joint allows translatory motion along one
axis, thus has one degree of freedom. A cylindrical pair has two degrees of freedom
and allows rotational and translational motions about an axis. A spherical joint has
three degrees of freedom and allows rotation in space about three axes.
Inversion: If, in a mechanism, the link which was originally fixed is allowed to move
and another link becomes fixed, the mechanism is said to be inverted. The inversion
of a mechanism does not change the motion of its links relative to each other, but does
Introduction
change their absolute motion. The number of possible kinematic inversions is equal to
the number of links in a mechanism.
1.2 MOTION
Motion can be thought of as a time series of displacements between successive positions

of a point or a particle. The position of a point is defined as the vector from the origin
of a specified reference coordinate system to the point.
1.2.1 Types of motion
a) Rectilinear motion: When a body_moves along a straight line· and does not rotate, it
is said to undergo rectilinear moti;Jn.
b) Plane motion: When the motion of a body is confined to one plane only, the motion ·
is said to be plane motion. Plane motion can be either rectilinear or curvilinear.
When a body moves along a curved path, it is said to have curvilinear motion. Plane
motion can also be translatory, rotary or a combination of both to give general plane
motion.
c) Helical motion: when a body moves so that each point of the body has motion of
rotation
about a fixed axis and at the same time has translation parallel to the axis, the body is
said to undergo helical motion.
d) Spherical motion: When a body moves so that each point on the body has motion
about a fixed' point and remains at a constant distance from the fixed point, the motion
is said to
be"spherical motion.
e) Spacial motion: When the motion of a body is not confined to a plane, the body is
said to have spacial motion. Helical and spherical motion are special cases of space
motion.
1.2.2 Transmission of Motion
Motion is transmitted from one member to another in three ways:

a) by direct contact between two members;
b) through an intermediate link or a connecting rod;
c) by a flexible connector such as belt or chain.
In the transmission of motion one element of the mechanism must be a driver an<
another element must be a driven element or a follower.
Cycle: When parts of a mechanism hf!.ve passed through ail possible positions accordin~
to prescribed laws and have assumed their original positions, they are said to have
completed a cycle of motion.
Period: A period is the time required to complete a cycle of motion.
Phase: A phase is the relative instantaneous position of a mechanism at a given instant

during a cycle.
1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Coordinates are mathematical ways or models that describe the position and motion of;
a dynamic system or a mechanism. These are sets of parameters selected so as to define
the position, velocity and acceleration of a dynamical system at all times. There are two·
types of coordinates in use:
1.3.1 Independent C oordinates
These are the minimum number of coordinates that describe the position of a system.
The number of independent coordinates is equal to the degree of freedom of the system.
B A
1 /
"
(a) (b) B
Fig. 1.3 Description of a mechanism using independent coordinates
Independent coordinates are in general, not acceptable, because they do not describe the
position of a mechanism unequivocally. As can be noted in Fig. 1.3, for the same
position of the driver given by the angle e, the positions of the follower and connecting
rod are different; i.e. the linkage is not defined uniquely.
In the transmission of motion one element of the mechanism must be a driver and
another element must be a driven element or a follower.
Cycle: When parts of a mechanism hfl.ve passed through ail possible positions according
to prescribed laws and have assumed their original positions, they are said to have
completed a cycle of motion.
Period: A period is the time required to complete a cycle of motion.
Phase: A phase is the relative instantaneous position of a mechanism at a given instant

during a cycle.
1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Coordinates are mathematical ways or models that describe the position and motion of
a dynamic system or a mechanism. These are sets of parameters selected so as to define
the position, velocity and acceleration of a dynamical system at all times. There are two
types of coordinates in use:
1.3.1 Independent Coordinates
These are the minimum number of coordinates that describe the position of a system.
The number of independent coordinates is equal to the degree of freedom of the system.
B A
(a) (b) B
Fig. 1.3 Description of a mechanism using independent coordinaies
Independent coordinates are in general, not acceptable, because they do not describe the
position of a mechanism unequivocally. As can be noted in Fig. 1.3, for the same
position of the driver given by the angle e' the positions of the follower and connecting
rod are different; i.e. the linkage is not defined uniquely.
Introduction 5
1.3.2 Dependent Coordinates
These are the number of coordinates (which are not independent) interrelated through
certain independent equations known as constraint equations. The number of
dependent coordir:ates is larger than the degree of freedom. For a system defined by
using n coordinates and paving m independent constraint equations, the number of
degrees of freedom f is given by
f =n - m ( 1.1)
1.4 DEGREE OF FREEDOM
The minimwn number of coordina~s required to fully describe the configuration of

mechanism is called the number of degrees offreedom. The degree of freedom of a
linkage in a plane is determined using the mobility criterion proposed by Gruebeler:
f = 3 (n - 1) - 2P 1 - P2 (1.2)
where f = number of degrees of freedom of the linkage;

n = number of links;
P 1 = number ofkinematic pairs having one degree of freedom;
P 2 = number of kinematic pairs having two degrees of freedom.
For example, in the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 1.1 ,
Therefore, the number of degree of freedom of the system is
.··
Chapter 2
LINKAGES
A linkage is a kinematic chain in which one of the links is fixed to the ground which
usually is the frame. A linkage permits relative motion between its links and may have
one or more degrees of freedom. A linkage with zero or negative degree of freedom is
a structure which does not allow any relative motion between the links.
There are very many linkages formed by different connections of members. The
members of linkages are c01mected so as to produce the motion required by the design.
In this chapter we will consider basic linkages that have frequent applications in various
machines.
2.1 FOUR-BAR LINKAGE
The kinematic linkage shown in Fig. 2.1 is known as the four-bar linkage. The
conventional numbering system is to label the ground or frame as link I, and then to
number links clockwise around the mechanism "loop" as shown in Fig. 2.1.
B
./
_ r_ l
1
Fig. 2.1 Four-bar linkage
Link 1 is the frame or ground; generally, it is stationary.

Link 2 is the driver which may rotate or oscillate.
Link 3 is the coupler, sometimes known as the connecting rod. This link
undergoes general plane motion.
Link 4 is the follower or driven element, which may rotate or oscillate
depending on the rotary or oscillatory motion of link 2, and on link
dimensions.
These four links are joined by four revolute joints.
Four-bar linkages are able to produce a variety of non-uniform motion and can transmit
Linkages 7
large forces. The links of a four-bar mechanism should be proportioned in such a way
that locking is avoided.
Fig. 2.2 f:ocking of jour-bar mechanism

r
For example, in Fig. 2.2, if link 2 is the driving link, position A 'B '0 4 shows the case of
locking. For such a position link 4 can move in any of the two directions as indicated
in the figure .
2.1.1 Transmission angle
The angle y between the coupler 3 and the output link 4 (follower) is called the
transmission angle. The transmission angle y is shown in Fig. 2.3.
...........
2 ........... z
...........
...........
t __ _ _ _...........
_ _ _ _ _ r_
Fig. 2.3 Transmission angle
The equation for the transmission angle can be derived as follows. F!om Fig. 2.3
z
2 _ 2 2
- r 1 + r2 -
_ 2 . 2
2r 1r2 cos82 - r3 -r-r4 - 2r3r4 cosy
from which we obtain the transmission angle
(2.1)
In general, for good force transmission to the output link, the transmission angle should .
' I)
'/ 8 Mechanisms of Machinery
be in the range 400 < y < 1400.
I
/
' -t--
' /
Fig. 2.4 Range of transmission angle
2.1.2 Motion of a four-bar mechanism
The type of motion that a four-bar linkage executes depends on the proportional size of
its links. There are three basic types of motion which a four-bar linkage can produce.
These basic types of motion are characterized by the terms crank-rocker to indicate that
link 2 rotates and link 4 oscillates; double crank to indicate that both the driver and
follower rotate; and double-rocker to indicate that both the driver and follower oscillate
through certain angles.
Grashoff's Law
The type of motion executed by a four-bar linkage can be determined by considering th~
arrangement of the links and their proportions. To determine whether a four-bar link
will operate as a crank-rocker, a double-crank Oli a double-rocker, Grashoff's law is
applied. Grashoffs law is stated as follows:
i) If the sum of the lengths of the longest and shortest links is less than or equal to the
sum of the lengths of the other two links, then
a) two different crank rockers will be formed when the shortest link is the crank
and either of the adjacent links is the fixed link;
b) a double crank will be formed when the shortest link is the fixed link;
c) a double rocker will be formed when the link opposite the shortest link is the
fixed link.
ii) If the sum of the lengths of the longest and shortest links is greater than the sum
Linkages 9
of the lengths of the other two, only a double-rocker mechanism will be
formed.
2.1.3 Variations of the four-bar linkage
The four bar linkage may have various forms . Fig. 2.5 shows some variations of the four
bar mechanism.
'-
,_r\..., --- //
I·
'
/
/ .
1 I
(b)
(a)
B
Fig. 2.5 Variations of the four-bar mechanism
:/I . 2 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM:
A slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism with three revolute joints,

or tum.in.g pairs and a prismatic joint or a sliding pair. Fig. 2.6 shows the basic slider
c;aflk mechanism.
In the slider-crank mechanism, commonly

Linkages 9
of the lengths of the other two, only a double-rocker mechanism will be
formed.
2.1.3 Variations of the four-bar linkage
The four bar linkage may have various forms. Fig. 2.5 shows some variations of the four
bar mechanism.
A
......
"\ y
04- 1··
\ 't"- - I
'-, I ·, / / 1
- r:..--.. . _ ___ ..,
(b)
(a)
B
ij
l
I
l
Fig. 2.5 Variations of the jour-bar mechanism
/' ·. 2 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM:
A slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism with three revolute joints,

or tum.!Hg pairs and a prismatic joint or a sliding pair. Fig. 2.6 shows the basic slider
-- - cmn.k mechanism.
In the slider-crank mechanism, commonly

link I is the frame, considered t9 be fixed;
link 2 is the crank which is the driver;
link 3 is the connecting rod, the link between the driver and the follower;
link 4 is the slider which is the driven element.
The slider crank mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice-
versa. Commonly the slider-crank mechanism is applied in internal combustion engines,
where in the application the slider, link 4, is the driver and the crank, link 2, is driven.
During a cycle there are two dead points A ' and A " in which the crank and the
connecting rod are in line. At the dead positions the crank can move in either direction
unless constrained by an external force. In the case of an engine the external constraint
is provided by the remaining cylinders and a flywheel.
2.2.1 Inversion of the Slider-crank mechanism
It is known that a mechanism is formed by fixing one of the links of the kinematic
chain. If a different link is fixed in turn, an inversion of the mechanism in considerat*Pn
is formed. In any mechanism, as many inversions are obtained as the number of li~s
in the original mechanism. It should be noted that an inversion of a mechanism does
not change the relative motion of the links, however, the absolute motion is altered. I
I
I
In the slider crank mechanism, by fixing links other than link I, it is possible to obtain
three other inversions. Fig. 2.7 shows these various inversions of the slider crank
mechanism.
./
2~ , ·~
l / 1 /, /
(a) (b)
~- 1
(c)
/
'
Fig. 2. 7 Inversions of the slider-crank mechanism
Linkages 11
Fig. 2.7(a) shows an inversion of the slider-crank mechanism obtained by fixing link 2.
This mechanism is used in Whitworth quick-return mechanism. Figure 2. 7(b) shows a
rotary engine or an oscillating engine which is obtained by fixing link 3. Figure 2.7(c)
shows a mechanism known as a bull-engine obtained by fixing the cylinder, link 4.
Inversions of the slider-crank mechanism are used in many applications like in quick-
return mechanisms, rotary internal combustion engines, etc.
2.3 THE SCOTCH YOKE
"" .
The Scotch-yoke mechanism, shown in Fig. 2.8, is widely used as a sine and cosine
generator, i.e. it is used to produce h~onic motion. It is also used to produce desired
vibrations.
/ ----____,___ A'
/
I \
I \
lA
- \ - · .,...,....,...,~
4 !??%!
\ I 1
\:
........_
-- /
Fig. 2.8 The Scotch yoke
The displacement of the slider x in moving form A to A ' is given by
X = r - rcose = r(l - cosO) (2.2)

Substituting e = wt, the displacement is
x = r( 1 - coswt) (2.3)
The velocity of the follower is
v = dx = rwsinwt = rwsinB (2.4)

dt
and the acceleration is:
(2.5)
2.4 QUICK-RET~ MECHANISMS
Quick return mechanisms are combinations of simple linkages which give a quick
return-stroke of the follower for a constant angular velocity of the driver. In the design
of quick-return mechanisms, the ratio of the crank angle for the working stroke to that
of the return stroke is known as the time-ratio. The time-ratio for quick-return
mechanisms is always greater than unity to give a slower cutting stroke and a faster
return stroke.
2.4.1 Crank-shaper mechanism
Fig. 2.9 shows a schematic representation of the six-bar crank-shaper mechanism.

Links 1 - 4 of this mechanism form a variation of the slider-crank mechanism in which
the crank is held fixed as in Fig. 7.2(a).
0 B
B'
I
I
. \I
A"
Fig. 2.9 Crank-shaper mechanism
Linkages 13
To produce a quick return, the time ratio should be larger than 1. For the direction of
motion indicated in the figure, the cutting stroke occurs when the crank rotates from
Oyl ' to Oyl " through an angle a, the idle stroke being when the crank moves from
Oyl" to Oyl" through the angle fJ.
For constant angular speed of the crank, the time ratio Q is given by
Q = time of cutting stroke = tw

(2.6)
time of return stroke tr
"'
and for a constant angular velocity~ 2 of link 2,
.
a
Q-- (2.7)
r
fJ
Length of stroke of the tool holder Cis given by

Length of stroke = B 1B "
= 2B 1D
= 20 B sin(a - 90)
4 2
From the above equation, the length of the stroke is found to be
Length of stroke = 20 B - -
O:zA
(2.8)
4 0204
2.4.2 Drag link
The drag link mechanism is developed by connecting two four-bar linkage in series.
Schematically, it is shown in Figure 2.10. Links 1, 2, 3 and comprise a four-bar drag
link mechanism in which both links 2 and 4 rotate 360 degrees. Links 1, 4, 5 and 6
comprise a four-bar crank-slider mechanism. The two four-bar mechanisms are
connected via the triangle-shaped link 4, known as ternary link, and they have a
common ground link 1. Assembling the two four-bar mechanisms in this way results
in a single six-bar mechanism.
For a constant angular velocity of link 2, link 4 will rotate at a non-uniform velocity.
For a clockwise rotation oflink 2 the cutting stroke makes an angle a (C '02C") and the
return stroke makes an angle fJ. Hence the time ratio is given by
Q = time of working stroke (2.9)
time of return stroke
a
Q -- (2.10)
/3
14 Mechanisms of Machinery
B"
A
6
- - . -----+- . - -
D'
Fig. 2.10 Six-bar drag-link mechanism
2.4.3 Whitworth mechanism
The Whitworth mechanism is another variation of the slider crank mechanism in

which the crank is held fixed. Links 1, 2, 3 and 4 comprise an inverted slider-crank
mechanism. Links 1, 4, 5 and 6 comprise a crank-slider mechanism. These two four-
bar mechanisms are coupled through link 4. They also have a common ground resulting
in a six-bar mechanism. This mechanism is commonly used in shaping and slotting
machines.
-I
Fig. 2.11 Whitworth mechanism
When the driving link 0 2B moves from 0 2B" through an angle a. for the cutting stroke,
the cutting tool D moves from D ' to D " . When the link 0 2B moves from 0 2B" to 0 2B '
Linkages 15
through an angle .B for the return stroke, D moves from D" to D '.
The crank angle of the cutting stroke and the return strokes are as shown in Fig. 2.11.
The time ratio is give by:
a.
Q = (2.11)
p
2.5 TOGGLE MECHANISMS
A simple toggle consists of two links which tend to line-up in a straight line at one point
·. ~ .
in their motion. Fig. 2.12 shows a_.schematic representation of such links in toggle
mechanisms.
Fig. 2.12 A simple toggle
The mechanical advantage of the simple toggle shown in Fig. 2.12 is the velocity ratio
of the input point A to the output point B.
FB X VA
Mechanical advantage = = = tan(a) = (2.12)
FA y
As the angle a approaches 900, the links CA and AB come into toggle and the
mechanical advantage approaches infinity; which in practice is less than infinity due to
frictional effects. The simple toggle is used in punch presses, riveting machines, stone
crushers, etc.
2.5.1 Stone Crusher
The stone crusher shown in Fig. 2.13 uses two toggle linkages in series to obtain a high
mechanical advantage. When links 2 and 3 are in toggle, links 4 and 5 are also in toggle
to produce the high crushing forces needed. When link 2 reaches the lowest point of its
stroke, it comes into toggle with link 3 and at the same time links 4 and 5 come into
toggle with each other. This configuration results in a very large crushing force.
16 Mechanisms of Jl1aclzinery
p 6
:.....____,-G -~-
/)'//;/////,'l///;
I
F ig. 2.13 Stone crusher
p
= 2 tana. (2.13)
F
where P = resistance to be overcome
and F = required force to overcome the resistance
It can be observed that for a given force F, P increases as the angle a. diminishes.
2.5.2 Punch Press
The toggle mechanism for a punch press is shown schematically in Fig. 2.14. The large
punching force needed is obtained when the crank OjA. and connecting rod AB come
into toggle at the lower end of the punch stroke ex~ly at the time where it is most
needed.
2.5.3 Cold-heading rivet machine
The cold-heading riveting machine, shown in Fig. 2.15, is designed so as to give each
rivet two successive blows. The first blow is obtained at point 2. Following the first
blow, the hammer moves upwards a short distance to point 3; which then produces a
second blow by moving to point 4. After the second blow, the h8.IJ1..mer then moves a
long distance to point 1 during which a clearance is produced to move the work piece.
Both strokes are produced by one revolution of the crank and at tl1e lowest point of each
stroke links CB and BD are in toggle.
Linkages 17
~ punching force
Fig. 2.14 Punch press
c
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1I
-- -- -- -- ~--
-- - - --\
\
\\ j
I
\ /
long stroke - - - -
.r...___--'*===!=== -=-3 2 4
! D '
short ~troke
Fig. 2.15 Cold~heading rivet machine

2.6 STRAIGHT LINE MECHANISMS
These are mechanisms which can ge_nerate straight lines from rotary motion. They are
designed so that a point on one of the links moves in a straight line without the need for
guides, thus converting rotary motion to straight line motion. Some examples of
straight line mechanisms are discussed below.
2.6.1 Watt mechanisms
The Watt mechanism, schematically shov.rn in Fig. 2.16, generates an approximate

straight line motion. If links 2 and 4 are of equal length, the tracing point P traces an
approximate straight line with a symmetric figure 8 towards the ends of the stroke
length. The figure 8 is straighter if
AP
(2.14)
PB
1~
' ~-------1 A2
3
p
B~--4--~.,, 1
04
Fig. 2.16 Walt mechanism
2.6.2 Evans' Linkage .I
This lin..l.(age, shov.rn in Fig. 2.17, has an oscillating drive arm which has a maximum
operating angle a of about 400. For a relati-vely..short guided slide, a large reciprocating
output stroke DD' is obtained. The output motion of point D is on a true straight line.
If the guide way in slide Fig. 2.17 is replaced by a link rotating about a..'1 axis~ the
motion obtained approaches a straight line if the link length is equal to the stroke with
a slight deviation.
Linkages 19
I
I
I
~
I \
I _,.---~
I
I .\ , .
I . \ 0
r-D.-,..- I 2 D
\ I / .
TI output stroke
'.
Fig. 2.17 Evan's linkage
2.6.3 Tchebichefrs mechanism
Tchebicheff's straight line mechanism is shown in Fig. 2. 18. Links 2 and 4 have equal
length, and the tracing point P is at the center oflink 3.
A'
-- - r
p·--'~--::---~__.
(
I
I
Fig. 2.18 Tchebichef's mechanism
The tracing point P occupies P ' when link 2 is in the vertical position if
2.6.4 Peaucillier inversor
This is another mechanism that produces a straight line. The tracing point P moves in
a straight line. The geometry of the mechanism is given by:
AB = BC = CP = PA and
0,!1 = 0 2C and 0/)4 = 0 4B.
By symmetry, points 0 2, Band P always lie on a straight line. Under these conditions
(02B) · (02P) is a constant. See Figure 2.19.
A
p
c ·
Fig. 2.19 Peaucillier inversor
Curves described by Band Pare inverse of each other. For circular motion of B that
passes through 0 2, P traces a straight line which is a circle of infinite radius,
perpendicular to 0 2 0 4 • If 0 2 is located outside the circular path of point B, then the
mechanism can be used to generate circular arcs of large radii.
2.6.5 The TchebicheffCombination of the Watt and Evans mechanisms
The Tchebicheffcombination of the Watt and Evans-linkages is shown in Fig. 2.20. As

indicated in the figure the tracing point D moves ip·it straight line.
E 6 06 '
~ 1 /·--~
04
/
4 II 1
\i
02
I
!o
· - - ·- - ·
-· /
Fig. 2.20 Combination of Watt and Evan's mechanisms
Linkages 21
2.6.6 D - drive mechanism
This mechanism, arranged as shown in Fig. 2.21 , is basically q. four bar linkage in which
the coupler is extended to include the tracing point D. The output-link point describes
a path closely resembling the letter D which contains an approximate straight portion
as part of its cycle.
A
Fig. 2.21 D-drive
This motion is ideal for quick engagement and disengagement before and after a straight
driving stroke. It is used as a film advancing mechanism in movie-film projectors.
2. 7 PARALLEL MECHANISMS
These mechanisn:s are employed for producing parallel motions and reproducing
motions at different scales. Common examples of parallel mechanisms are the
pantograph and the drafting machine.
2.7.1 The Pantograph
The pantograph is used to enlarge or reduce trajectories to different scales. They are
commonly used in cutting tools to duplicate complicated shapes to desired scales. A
schematic representation of the pantograph is shown in Fig. 2.22. Links 2, 3, 4 and 5
form a parallelogram. Link 3 is extended to contain point C and point E lies on the
intersection of lines 0 2C and DB.
A pen attached at E reproduces the movement of C to a redu~.ed scale and vice versa;
i.e. the motion of E is parallel to that of C.
To produce this parallel motion, the necessary condition to be satisfied is

0 2C (2.15)
= constant
0 2E
for all positions of C. Then, for any position of C, triangle 0 2DE is similar to triaJ:l~l~--~;'~ ~ .
"-
CBE, thus
22 M echanisms of Machinery
Fig. 2.22 The pantograph
= constant (2.16)
And the ratio of the sizes of the figures at C and E is
Size of figure at C = 0 2C
(2.17)
Size of figure at E 0 2£
2.7.2 The Drafting Machine
Another application of parallel mechanisms is found in drafting machines. In the

drafting machine shown in Fig. 2.23, parallelograms 0 2 AB04 and CDFE are coupled
by the ring ACBE. The straightedges attached to ring DE can be rotated and clamped
at any angle relative to the ring DE. Moreover, the straightedges can move to any
parallel position on the drawing board as shown in·the figure .
./
n·
1.1
/
II
/ "I I
/ / II
/ / II
/ /
/ / ..d.l..
/
/
/
/
'
-- --- - - - -(
_ _ _ "'"'C./
):: - - - - - - - -:::~
--------
/ .
/-;_......._,--- /
--
(/ /l--- -
' - /
Fig. 2.23 Drafting machine
Linkages 23
2.8 INTERMITTENT MOTION MECHANISMS
These mechanisms convert continuous motion into intermittent motion. Common

examples of intermittent motion mechanisms are the Geneva wheel and ratchet
mechanism.
2.8.1 Geneva Mechanism
This mechanism, shown in Fig. 2.24,,.Provides intermittent rotary motion. During one
'
revolution of the crank the Geneva wheel rotates through a fractional part of a
revolution, the amount of which pepertds upon the number ·of slots. The circular
segment attached to the crank locks the wheel against rotation when the roller is not
engaged. Angle f3 is half the angle subtended by adjacent slots:
(2.18)
where n = number ofslots
Letting r2 = the crank radius, the center-distance C between the center of the locking
device and the Geneva wheel is given by
c = (2.19)
90dat.engagement
an disengagement
\
~~/
locking device
Fig. 2.24 Geneva mechanism
2.8.2 Locking-slide Geneva
In the locking-slide Geneva mechanism, see Fig. 2.25, pin P 1 locks and unlocks the
Geneva wheel where as pin P2 rotates the Geneva wheel during the unlocked port_io~.'
...
- -'
In the position shown in Fig. 2.25, the drive pin P2 is about to enter the slot to index the
Geneva, whereas the locking pin P1 is just clearing out the slot of the Geneva.
drive pin
p2
input crank
Fig. 2.25 Locking-slide mechanism
2.8.3 Ratchet Mechanism
This mechanism is used to produce intermittent circular motion from an oscillating or

reciprocating member and /or to allow rotational motion in one direction alone. Fig.
2.24 shows a ratchet mechanism. The pawl which engages the ratchet teeth is pivoted
at one end and the other end is shaped to fit the ratchet tooth flank. The pawl is kept in
contact with the wheel by means of a spring. At engagement, the pawl is in
compression. The driving pawl 3 induces intermittent circular motion of wheel 4.
Another pawl 5 prevents the wheel from turning backward in the undesired direction.
The line of action PN of the driving pawl and tooth must pass between OA to guarantee
contact with the tooth. The line of action of the locking pawl must pass between 0 and
B. This mechanism has a common application in counting devices .
./
Linkages 25
2.9 STEERING GEAR MECHANISM
The steering gear mechanism is used to change the direction of the wheel axle with
respect to the chassis which enables motion of an automobile in any desired direction.
Commonly, steering in automobiles is done by means of the front wheels, the back
wheels having fixed direction with respect to the chassis.
The front wheels are mounted on the front axle and pivoted at points A and Bas shown
in Fig. 2.25. Points A and Bare fixed on the chassis. When the vehicle turns, left or
right, the front wheels and the respecti:Ve atdes tum about the respective pivot points.
The back a.,-xle remains fixed to the chassis and the wheels do not turn.
r
X a
. : outer front wheel I
Inner front wheel - - - - 1 left tum ~\
front axle
0~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -I - - - --.1"\.t----,,......---,.----,----__.,&;;___,..
I ....-
J
1
e'~ //........ ~)' ~---------
......
/ /
/ / / --------
/ /
/ /
/ ............ b
/ ......
/
/
...... ......
/
/
_.,.- ...... ----
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ ........... I
/ /
// i
_.-::/
p;....-- back axle I
_____l_
7'
c~ - --- -- - -- - ---- - - -- -
c
rear wheels
Fig. 2.27 Steering gear mechanism
To avoid skidding or slipping of the wheels sideways, the front two wheels must turn
about the same instantaneous center C which lies on the axis of the back wheels.
Otherwise, skidding will result on the front wheels which causes undue wear in the tires.
The condition for correct steering is that all four wheels must turn about the same
instantaneous center. This condition is satisfied if the inner wheel axis makes a larger
turning angle ecompared to the outer wheel axis turning angle f3.
26 Mechanisms of.Maclzinery
For the left turn indicated in Fig. 2.27, 8 > f3. The condition to be satisfied is obtained
as follows.
EO X
cote = - -- (2.20)
oc b
AO X +a
cotfJ - - = (2.21 )
oc b
and the condition for cotTect steering is obtained to be
a
cot{J - core = - (2 .22)
b
Equation (2.22) is the fundamental equation for correct steering which~ if satisfied,
eliminates skidding of the from wheels.
2.9.1 Ackerman Steering Gear
The Ackerman steering mechanism consists of a four-bar mecha..Tlismjoined by revolme

joints as shown in Fig. 2.28. The shorter links QR ar1d PS are of equal length and are
connected to the front wheel axles by hinge joints. Links PQ and RS are of unequal
length.
left tum
0~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - \ - - - -.1"\lf---:.,;,--
'\...,.-----..:,.P.:::-tl.
8\ /
\ /
'v/
--
/ /
/
/
/
__.,""
/
/
/
/
/
...,..""
/ /
/ /
/
__.,.-
.-""
/ /
/ /
/ / .I
/
/
/
__.,""
//
I -::;.-_... .
, P
c~--- - ----- -- ----- -- -
Fig. 2.28 Ackerman steering mechanism
\Vhen the vehicle moves along a straight path, links PQ and RS are parallel to each other
and links QR and PS are equally inclined to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. Figure
2.26 shows the position of the vehicle when steering to the left. In this position, the
.lines of the front axles intersect at Con the axis of the back wheels and links PO- and
RS are no longer parallel to each other.
Linkages 27
To satisfy the fundamental equation of steering, links PS and RS should be
proportioned suitably.
..
Chapter 3
VELOCITY ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES
Velocities and accelerations in mechanisms .are determined by different methods. The

basic methods of analysis discussed in this text are the following:
1- Velocity and acceleration analysis using vector mathematics in which velocity and
acceleration of a point are expressed relative to fixed or moving coordinates.
11 - Velocity and acceleration analysis using equations of relative motion which are
solved graphically by velocity and acceleration polygons or by using trigonometric
relations.
iii - Velocity and acceleration analysis by using complex numbers.
iv - Vectors velocity analysis using the instant-center method.

~ - · ...
/ '3.1.
~ .. " VELOCITY ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATlCS
Consider the motion of point P moving with re~:tect to the x - y - z coordinate system,
which, in tum, moves relative to the X- Y - Z coo-:dinate system as shown in Fig. 3.1 .
./
R P is the position vector of P relative to the .X-Y-~~ystem,
R. is the position vector of P relative to the X'-y-.t"systtm,
Ra is the position vector of the origin of the moving CClordinate system x-y-z
relative to the fixed coordinate system X-Y-Z.
The position vector of P relativ~ to the X -Y-Z system R P is expresse:.d as:
Rp = R0 + R (3 .1)
Introducing unit vectors i, j, and k along the x, y and z axes respectively,
R =xi + yj + zk (3 .2)
Velocity A nalysis of Link~ges 29
-..
y
p
Fig. 3.1 Position coordinates ofa moving point
Velocity of P relative to the X-Y-Z coordinate system is
(3.3)
J_l 0 == V Js the velocity of the origin of x-y-z system relative to the fixed system.
R. is given by:
R = !!_(xi + yj + zk )
dt (3.4)
t - •
= (xi + Ji! + i k) + (x~ + yj + zk)
Let
ii + yj + ik = v (3.5)
and noting that
i = (!) X i
j = (!) x j (3.6)
k = (!) X k
where w is the angular velocity vector of x - y - z system relative to X - Y- Z, the
second.term in the. expression for Ris

x i + yj -! zk =x(w xi) + y(m xj) + z(w xk)
30 M echanisms qf Machinery
Upon simplification,
x( + y/ + zk = w x (xi + yj + zk)
= w xR (3.7)
Thus, the velocity of P relative to the moving coordinate system is
R = V + ro xR (3.8)
Therefore, the velocity Vp of point P relative to the fixed system is:

VP = V0 + V + ro xR (3.9)
where V0 is velocity of the origin of the x-y-z system relative to the X-Y-Z system;
V is velocity of point P relative to x-y-z system;
w is angular velocity of the x-y -z system relative to X- Y-Z system;
and R is position vector of P with respect to the origin of the x-y -z system.
Example3.1
The mechanism shown in Fig. 3.2 has the following dimensions:

0:). = 200mm , AB = 1500mm , B04 = 400mm , 0 2 0 4 = 1350mm
~
Link 2 rotates at a constant angular velocity of 4 rad/s in the clockwise direction. For
the phase shown, determine the velocity of point B and the angular velocity of link 3 .
.I
./
/
/
I
I
Fig. 3.2
Solution :
The coordinate systems X-Y and x -y are selected as shown in the Fig·. 3.2, where the
x-y system is moving relative to the fixed X- Y system.
········----. -·
Velocity Analysis of Linkages 31
From the geometry of the mechanism
e = 134. 4° and fJ = 4-1. -!0
Velocity of point B can be determined from the equation

V 8 = VA + V .+ roxR
where v A = velocity of the origin of x-~ system

olb
w - angular velocity of x-y syst~m
R = the position of B rel?-tive to the origin of the x - y system, hence R = AB

J
VB = velocity of point 11; direction perpendicular to 0 ,(3, magnitude unknovvn.

I v A I = 00 ~U? = 200 ·4n: = 800.1r mm/s . .,
v =0 because B is a fixed point in tlie x-y system
w xR magnitude unknown, and direction perpendicular to AB,

(1) = (1) '
.)
Introducing unit vectors i and j along the X and Y axes respectively,
v B. = v 8 cos j 7 i + v 8 sin '57 j
vA = v A cos -1-1.4 i.::. v A sin 4-1.4 j = 1795. l i -J7j8.-l j mmls
w xR = (w xR) j
Substituting the above relations into the relative velocity equation,
v 8 cos 57 i :.. v 8 sin 57 j = 1795. 7i - 1758.4 j + (w x R) j
I ) '
Summing the i components:
v 8 cos 57 = 1795. 7
• l ! J ' _; !r 1 Y .:
V8 = 3297.0 mm/s
' :
./
\
Summing thej components:
v 8 sin 57 =. -1758.4 + (w R)
32 !Wee/zan isms of Machinery
(w R) = 4523.5 mm/s
w3 = 3. OJ rad/s
3.2 Y elocity analysis by using equations of relative motion
3.2.1 Velocity of points on a common link
A and Bare two point on a common rigid linkAB as shown in Fig. 3.3 (a) . The points
are moving with velocities V,~ and V8 respectively. Using the equation of rel~tive
motion, velocity of one point can be determined relative to the other.
A b
B (a) V.... a
(b)
Fig. 3.3 (a) Velociry ofpoints on a common link, (b)velociry polygon
The velocity of A is given by
VA =VB + V AIB 3.1 0)
where VAlB is the relative velocity of A relative ,t6 B. The relative velocity vector is
V AIB shown in Fig. J.3(b). In the relative velocity polygon of Fig. 3.3(b), all absolute
velocity vectors originate from the same point o2'
Note that the velocity of A relative to B and the velocity of B relative to A are equal in
magnitude, collinear and opposite in direction, i.e.
(3 .1 1)
Example 3.2
Link 2 of the four bar linkage shown in Fi!Z. 3.4 is the drivincr link having a constant
- ::>
angular velocity w 2 = 10 radls in the clockwise direction. For the phase shown,
determine the velocity of point B and angular velocity of links 3 and 4.
0 2 A = 100 mm, AB == 200 mm, O.B = 75 mm
2 ;
230
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.4 .
Solution:
From geometry of the mechanism, 8 = 8.2° and 8 =22°
A and Bare points ori the common link AB. The velocity of point B can be expressed
in terms of the velocity of A and the velocity of B relative to A as follows.
VA = VB + VA/8
I v A I = . (00) · w 2 and is perpendicular to 00

v 8 is perpendicular to 0 .;B with unknown magnitude
v BIA is perpendicular to AB and magnitude unknown.
The velocity polygon is shown in Fig. 3.4(b). The vectors are added tail to head as
shown in the figure.
Vector o~ represents v A = (00) .w2 ·= 1000 mmls, and is perpendicular to 00.
v 8 is represented along the line through the point o2 perpendicular to
...,4.
.), Mechanisms of },fac/zinery
VB/A is along the line through a and perpendicular to AB. The intersection of these
lines is point b.
Vector o:;b gives V 8 and vector ab gi\·es v BIA .
L. ao 2b = 59 , !..o 2ab = 44.8 , f. o.,ba = 76.2
From the sine formula

v
A
v3
---
sin76.2 sin44.8
sin4.:/.8
VB = VA
sin76.2
VB = 725.6 mmls
VB/A
=
sin76.2 sin59
sin.JY
VB/A = xJOOO
sin76.2
VRU = 886.2
VB 725. 6
(!)~ = -- =
0 4B 75
(1)4 = 9.67 rad/s
VB!A 882.6
(l),_, = CO AB = - - =
AB 200
(l), = 4.441 radls
'
.J
Example 3.3
Fe-: an inteiV'al of its motion the piston rod ofthe hy~raulic cyl':<nder has a velccity of
1.5 n/ s as shown in Fig. 3.5. At a certain instant, e =fJ = 60°. For this in~t_ant
detem~ne the angular velocity. of linko .A and link AB.
~ ~
Solution
Coordinate sys~":m x - y and the corresponC.ing unit vectors i a..'ld j , respectively, are
introduced as shovn in Fig. 3.5.
Velocity Analysis ofLinkages 35
D
////// // / // /
Fig. 3.5
For the instant when 8 =j3 = 60° the angle y = 30°.
For the instant given,

VB = -1.5 i mls
VA = VA (cos30i + sin30j )
VAIB = V AlB (cos30i - sin30j)
The velocity of A relative to B is given by
VA =V B + V AIB
Or,
VA cos30 i + VA sin30 j = -1.5i + VAIB cos30 i - V AlB sin30 j
Collecting like terms
VA sin30 = -VAlB sin30
VA cos30 = -1.5 + VAIB cos30
Solving the above equations simultaneously

VA = -0.866 mls
VAIB = -VA = 0.866 mls
36 JYfechanisms of Machinery
The angular velocity of link 0 ;i is
v_-1
w =- - = 3. 464 radls in the counterclockwise direction
0:!.-1 0.250
and the angular velocity of link AB is
= V..t!B = I. 732 radls in the clockwise direction

W AB 0.500
3.2.2 Velocity of a block sliding on a rotating link
Fig. 3.6(a) shows a block sliding on a rotating link. Block A slides on the rotating lipk
0 J3. The angular velocity w of the link and the velocity of the block are assumed to
be known.
y
~
y
~NA
X ~·
'///h
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.6 (a) Velocity ofa block sliding on a rotating link, (b) velocity polygon
To determine the velocity of the block, let A ' be a point on the link coincident with
the block A for the instant represented. Tqe-..rvelocity of A' relative to 0 is "
perpendicular to DB at A 1 • The velocity of A relative to A I is along the link parallel
.
to OA '. Velocity of A is determined from the relative velocity equation.
"
(3.12)
The velocity polygon is sketched in Fig. 3.6(b).
Relative velocity of coincident particles on separate links is effected by physical

constraints such as guides.
Example 3.4
A cran.k-shaper mechanism is shown in Fig. 3. 7. The dimensions of the various links
, are:
02 0~ = 350 mm, 0r4 = 100 mm, O~B = 550 mm and BC = 125 mm.
For the phase shown, the crank 0r4 makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal and
rotates at a constant angular velocity of 60 rpm in the counter clockwise direction.
Deterrnin~ the angular velocity of link 0 .B ap.d velocity of C.
/
/ 3'
I · A a
I \
- ~· -·; -
\ /
\ . I
"
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.7
Solution:
w 2 = 60 rpm = 271: rad/s
From geometry of the mechanism, for the phase shown
e = 12.2°, J3 = 26° and Ofi = 410 mm
Block A slides in the slot on link O,B. Considering a point A' on link O~B coincident .
with A for the instant represented, the relative velocity equation can be written as:
v A = (00) . w2 direction perpendicular to o r4.
= 100 x 2r.: = 200rr mmls
= 628 mmls
VA 1 = magnitude unknown, direction perpendicular to o ,;A 1 .
V,41A = magnitude unknown, direction along the slot on o .;B.

1
The velocity polygon, drawn to a suitable scale, is sho·wn in Fig. 3.7(b).
The fixed points 0 2 and o 2 are represented by the point o

2
, o-+.
Vector o p is drawn perpendicular to 0_r4 and represents VA . ·
1
F!om o2 , o"' v A 1 is laid along the perpendicular to 0 ,r4 . ·
Through point a, oAlA 1 is laid along the slot parallel to o 4 B.

The intersection of the last two lines is point a'.
o 2a I gives
.
DA 1 and o I a g1ves
. VrJ/.rJ 1 .
From the scale drawing:
o A I = 423 mm/s
From o AI, the angular velocity of link o 4B, OJ.; , can be determined .
.I
OJ .J = - -423 = 1.03 radls
410
To determine the velocity of C, consider B and C , points on a common link. The

relative velocity equation is
vc = V B + VClB
-
Since B lies on o .r4- 1 produced, the velocity of B is along o2 a 1 on the velocity polygon
proportional to its radial distance from D 4 •
v8 is represented by o
2
b.
Vc = magnitude unknown, direction along the horizontal slot.
Vc
18
= magnitude unknown, direction perpendicular to BC .
vc lies along a horizontal line through o2 and v c 1 8 lies along a line
perpendicular to BC through point b. The intersection of these two lines
is point c where. vector o 2c represent Vc , and-vector cb represent v c / 8 .
From the scale drawing,
vc = 608 mml s
Example 3.5 •. ,'
.
In the mechanism shown in Fig. f.g crank 0~ revolves at a constant angular velocity
of 5 radls in the clockwise direction. Determine the angular velocity o'f rod AB which
slides through the pivoted collar C for the instant when e = 90°. O_;A = 250 mm.
A
/
e/
_(_
·
600mm
Fig. 3.8
Solution
For e = 900 the position of the mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.8(a). The rotating
coordinate system x- y is introduced with unit vectors i andj along the x- and y-~es,
respectively, as shown in the figure.
For the position when e = 90°, consider a point C 1

fixed on link AB and coincident
with point C .
AC 1 = 650 mm
AC 1 = 650 i mm
40 ."'-fecltanisms ofMacltinery
·,
\I
'-- · --mo~
_ill_
'//Y/,
I
B I
600mm
I
I
Fig. 3.8 (a)
.w 2 = -5 k radls
-
fJ -tan -1 ( 250)
--
600
The relative velocity equation of point C 1 relative to A is "Written as
where
= -5k x(96.1i + 230.8})

·-
= 1154i -480.5j mmls
Since the length rAe; remains constant,
V = r~c~ = 0
= {WAC I k) X ( -65Qi)
Substituting in the relative velocity equation
Ve1 =Jl54 i - 480. 5 j - 650 (J)Ael j

A> '
Collecting like terms and solving for.the unknowns
v el = 1154 i mmls r
w Ael = -0.74 k radls
3.2.3 Relative velocity of coincident particles at the point of contact of rolling

elements
Rolling contact exists when there is no sliding at the contact point between two links.
To satisfy this condition, the velocity component along the tangential direction must be
zero. For pure rolling contact oflinks 2 and 3 shown in Fig. 3.9, the points P 2 on link
2 and p3 on link 3 have the same velocities i.e. vp = vp . ,. ../.
2 3 ,,<'
t
Fig. 3.9 Rolling contact
Demonstration
Let a point P be common to the two links, 2 and 3, which have relative motion to each
other. The relative velocity equation may be written as:
(3.13)
The condition for pure rolling is that the relative velocity
Vp3IP2 =0 (3. 14)
This condition is met when the point of contact lies on the line of the centers o 20j~ ·
r •
If v PIP were not zero, its direction would by along the tangent t- t, in which case
3 2
link 3 would slide relative to link 2 along the t- t direction.
For pure rolling of direct-contact mechanisms, the angular velocity ratio of the driver
and follower is inversely proportional to the ratio of the lengths of line segments into
which the point of contact divides the line of centers.
Rolling of circles or cylinders is a special case of rolling motion . .As shown in Fig. 3.1 0,
links 2 and 3 roll with the point of contact P2 on link 2 and P3 on link 3.
For pure rolling ,
= (3 .15)
Fig. 3.10 Rolling contact ofcircles

.·
Example 3.6
In Fig. 3.'1 l gear D (teeth not shown) rotates in the clock-wise direction about 0 2 with
a constant angular velocity of 4 rad/s. The arm o ~ is mounted on an independent
shaft at 0 2 , and the srr:all gear at B meshes with gear D. If the arm has a counter-
clock-wise angular velocity of 3 rad/s at the instant represented, determine the

corresponding angular velocity of gear B.
25 mm
3 I~
Fig. 3.11
Solution
Consider the contact point C to be C2 as a point on link 2 and C.t on link 4. For pure
rolling contact
V C: = V C;
- <L oO
V c, = w 2 x R0 ~ = ~32frj mmls
Hence, the velocity of Cas a point on gear A is
Using the relative velocity equation,
vc• = V A + vC/A
I.e.
VA = w3 xR 0~ = 375 j m~ _
I
After substituting and simplifying we get

Vc J lA = - 775 j mmls
Force Analysis ofMachinery 331
11.10 GAS FORCES
For a four-stroke cycle the variation of the gas pressure in the combustion chamber or
cylinder for two revolutions of the crankshaft is shown in Fig. 11.14.
The magnitude ofthe gas pressure is determined from thermodynamic analysis. The gas
force on the piston is the product of the pressure and the piston head area.
Expansion Exhaust Intake Compression

,-..,
.§
z
'--'
~
;::l
Cl)
Cl)
~
~
Cl)
~
0
0
0 540° 720
Crank Angle (deg)
Fig. 11.14 Gas pressure in four-stroke cycle engine
To analyze the effect of the force P on the whole engine we start by assuming that all
the moving parts are massless which reduces the inertia forces and torques to zero. At
the same time, we assume that there is no friction as well.
t-----
p - --
/
X
Fig. 11.15 Gas force acting on an engine piston
The gas force P is a function of time varying with wt. The free-body-diagrams for a
particular phase of the mechanism, i.e. of the piston, connecting rod and crank are
shown in Fig. 11.16(a). Fig. 11.16(b) shows the forces acting on the frame.
As can be noted from the free-body-diagram of the crank, the crank is in equilibrium by
the couple T; formed by F ~ and the frame force F ~ . This torque is opposed to the
crank torque T2 .
44 Jlfecfzanisms ofMachinery
from which the angular velocity of gear B is obtained to be
VCJA
= 31 radls cc-w
Exampie3.7
The circular cam shown in Fig. 3.12 is driven at an angular velocity of w 2 =I0 rad/s
clockwise. There is pure rolling contact between the cam and the roller link 3. Find the
angular velocity of the roller and the oscillating link 4 for the phase shown.
87.5
----~==~-----ee±r~====~==~:~-~-o~ l
'////, I
75
(a)
Fig. 3.12
Solution
From geometry _o f the linkage, for the phase shown

. . .
Q 2C = 71.5 mm," 8 = 5~·~~·'!-Ild·l= 100.~

: ... ~ ........
Point Cis the point of rolling contact between the cam, link 2 and the roller, link 3.
Therefore,
vCz = vc J
To determine w3 and w4 , the velocity equations are written as follows:
VB = vA + V B/A
and
""
V Cz = vA + V CIA
VB is unknown· in ma&-nitude, direction perpendicular to o 4 B;

VA is known both in magnitude and direction,
IVA I = (0 0 ) .w 2, direction perpendicular to 0 2 A

= 30x 10 = 300 mmls
V BIA is unknown in magnitude with direction perpendicular to the line

joining A and B,·
Vc is unknown in magnitude with direction perpendicular to 0 2 C2
2
V C!A is unknown in magnitude, direction perpendicular to AC2 .
Using a convenient scale, the velocity polygon is drawn in Fig. 3.12(b).
V CIB = 670 mm/s

= VC3/B = 670
(1)3
BC3 12. 5
co 3 = 53. 6 rad/s
3.2.4 Relative velocity of crank and connecting rod
In the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 3.1 3(a), let w 2 be the angular velocity of
the crank o 2 A . The velocity of B can be determined using the velocity of po int A as
the reference which can easily be determined.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.13 (a) Motion of the slider-crank mechanism, (b) velocity polygon
where v A is known both in magnitude and direction;

v 8 is known in direction, magnitude is unknown;
v BIA is known in direction, magnitude is unknown.
Example3.8
In the slider-crank mechanism of Fig. 3 .14(a), the crank rotates at a constant angular
velocity of 1On rad/s clockwise. Determine the velocity of the slider B and the angular
e
velocity of the connecting rod (J) ] for the phase when = 600.
O;rA = 150 mm and AB = 600 mm.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.14
Solution:
From geometry of the ~lider crank mechanism, forB = 600, cp = 12.5°.
The relative velocity equation is written as:
VB =VA + VB/A
v is unknown in magnitude, direction along the x-axis.

8
is known both in magnitude and direction
=(00) . (J)7
= (1 50)10rr = 4712.4 mm/s
v BIA is unknown in magnitude, direction perpendicular to AB.
velocity polygon is shown in Fig. 3.14(b) from which the following relations are
UCI•~u••-d•
sin72.5 sin77.5
VB = 4721.4 xszn
. 72 -
.J I'
sin77.5
VB = 4603 . .J mm/s
VB/A VA
=---
sin30 sin77.5
VBIA = 4721.4 . "0

Xszn.J
sin77.5
VBIA = 2413.4 mmls
2413.4
= ---
600
ro..J = 4. 02rad/s
.5 Algebraic solution of the slider-crank mechanism
F' Referring to Fig. 3 .13 and taking the origin of the coordinate system at the crank
• center, the position of the slider is defined by x. From the geometry of the mechanism,
r sine =l 'simp (3.17)
and
~·
X = r cos8 + f COS(/) (3 .18)
where r is the crank radius,

I is length of connecting rod.
48 Jl-tecltanisms of jrfadzinery
From the position of the mechanism it can be noted that
cosq;
= jt 2 - (r sinB/
f
= 1 - (!.. sinB/
l (3.19)
and substituting for cos· q; in equation (3 .18), the position of the slider is obtained to
be:
r ~
X =r COS8 - f 1 - (- sinB)- (3.20)
f
Alternatively, equation (3.20) can be obtained from the law of cosines given by
l -) = r-, + :c-? - 2rx cose (19)

and by soiving quadratic equation for :~.
The velocity of the slide: is obtained by differentiating equations (~ .17) and (3 .18) with
.
respect to t1me ana' suostnutmQ
' . . c
10r cos rn .
.
szn e and -dco·
~ 'f' , dt
By differentiating equation (3 .17) with respect to time the following relations are
obtained.
t
cosq; dq; = r COS<p d8
dt I dr
which yields which dq; to be

dt
e-
dco = r cosq; dB
./ (3.2 1)
dt l cosq; dt
From equation (3 .18), differentiating with respect to time yields
... --
~
. e -de - 1 simp dq;
- r szn (3.22)
dt dt
· t hatx· 1s
Notmg · of the slider and substituting for dro the velocity of the
· t he ve1ocny dt :
slider is obtained to be
r sinB r cosB
V = -rw sin8 - I w
1 I rn<:rn
.
: on simplification,
e r sine case
r
V = -rm
I sm + I~; -( 7 sine
~r small values of ::.._, whic:1 usually is the case in slider crank mechanisms, !..sin8 "" 0
( .).., __/ '"')
.)
I f
and the velocity is given by
/ .....
r sin;e
V =- rw + (3.24)
2!
-tRework Example 3. 8 usmg the algebraic method of solution to determine the velocitv
of the slider B.
The velocity of the slider B is given by the equation
. e -r s~ne case
V8 = - rw s zn + ---;:====--===========
IFl~ sine)'
r = 150 mm, l = 600 mm, w2 = 1On radls
For the phase when 8 = 60, the velocity of tr.e slider is
150 ·sin60 cas10

V8 = 150 ·1 On sin 6 0 + --;::::::========:::::====
2
600 · 1 - ( -150 sin{/))
600
from which the velocity of the slider is obtained to be
V8 = 4616.4 mm/s
1V!eclzanisms oflvfacltinery
by using the approximate relation for whicn case the ratio ~ is small values of,
l
ulting in !...sinB <>< 0, the velocity of the slider B is given by

l
150
V8 = 150·J07r (sin60 + sinr2·60))
2(600) .
m which the velocity of the slider is obtained to be
V8 = 4591.2 mmls
e variation between the exact solution and c.pproximate solution is smaller than one
·cent.
; Veiocity analysis by complex numbers
)St of the
systems of a..Tialysis using complex polar notation are based on the following
1damemallaw:
Jfche elements ofa mechanism are replaced by position vecwrs such that their sum
is zero, rhen their time derivarives are also equal lO zero.
is law means that if one takes any linkage or mechanism and replaces the members
the mechanism by vectors such that their sum is zero, then the sum of the velocity
ctors is zero, so also the sum of the acceleration vectors.
msider the slider-crank inversion shown in Fig. 3 .15(a).
nk 2 is the driver (crank) and has a constant angular velo~ity w 2 and for the instant
der consideration an angular position of e?.
Dimensions ¢'linkages are asswned to
- '
known, so the angular position of the follower, link 4, can be obtained.
• ' qf
:placmg eacn link by a vector such that the position polygon closes as shown in Fig.
i5(b), a mathematicai expression for the summation law can be written as:
R I + R 2 -R ~ =0 (3 .25)
1ere R I = vector for the ~£rounded

•
link'
R ., = vector for the crank
R .: = vector to determine the position ofiink 3. Note that the magnitude of R~
is variable.
Velocity A naly sis ofL inkages 51
'\
\
\
\
(a' (b)
F ig. 3.15 (a) Inverson of the slider-crank mechanism, (b) position polygon
, To solve the position equatim given by equa~ion (3 .25), the vectors are represented in
the complex notation.
·;'The position of a particle on a link represented by a vector ~P as shown in Fig. 3. 16

, may be expressed in any of the bllowing equival~nt forms:
Rp :::: a + ib
Rp = rp (cosB2 + i sin82) (3.26)
;e,
RP :::: r p· e -
' where r P is the magnitude of vector R P .
Imag.
Real
Fig. 3.16 Position vector ofa particle --
Using this complex representation, equation (3 .25) is traL-,formed into
(3.27)
. Differentiating the above equation we obtain

(3.2~)
Note that r 1 and 81 are constants with time derivatives equal to zero and r4
is variable with a non-zero time derivative.
Let 8; = w;
=0 (3.29)
Separating equation (3 .29) into real and imaginary terms, we get:
(3.3.0)
The unknown quantities in the above pair of equations are w 4 and f 4 . Solving for
w4 and f 4 we obtain
r 4 = r 2 w 2 sin(B4 f B)
(3 .31)
Equation (3 .31) represents the complete solution of the velocity of the linkage for any
angular position e2 of the driver in which the angular position of link r, e4 is
obtained as a function of B2 . .I
Notice that equation (3 .31) can also be determi~d more directly by simply summing
horizontal and vertical vector components, and then taking the time derivative of the
resulting equations.
Example 3.10
Solve the problem of Example 3.8 by using complex numbers.
Solution
Replacing the members of the mechanism by vectors as shown in Fig. 3.17 the
I mag.
Real
Fig. 3.17
r
The crank 00 is replaced by vector R 2 , the connecting rod by R 3 and the position of
the slider B is represented by R 1 . The angular positions of the vectors R 1 , R 2 and R 3
are given by el, 82 and e3·, respectively.
For the vector diagram shown in Fig. 3.15, the summation law is:
R2 + RJ = R1 (a)
iS I
RI = r 1e
iS2
R2 = r 2e
R3 =. r 3e iS.)
Transforming equation (a) into the complex form:
(b)
Differentiating equation (b) with respect to time, we obtain:
(c)
Noting that
r; = 0, r~ = 0, e~ = 0
equation (c) reduces to the following equation
f' i81\ r · iBJ l _ . f i81l
r 2cv 21 ze 1 + r 3cv 31 ze 1 - r 11e 1 (d)
Separating the real and imaginary terms of equation (d)

r 2w2 cose2 + r 3cv3 cose4 =0
(e)
Solving equation (e) simultaneously for w3 and r~ ,

:
r2 cosB2
(JJ 3 = -(JJ2
r3 cosB3
r1 ~ r w ~sin8
1 1 ( 1
From Example 3.5, B2 = 600 and 83 = 360-12.5 = 247.5° from which
= _1On;x 150 cos60

3
w 600 cos347. 5
(/)3 = 4.02
r1 = 150x107r(-sin60 +
cos60 sin347.5
cos347.5
r1 = -4603. 4 mm/s
Example 3.11
In the mechanism shown in Fig. 3.18, the driver link 2 has a constant
velocity w2 rad/s rad/s in the clockwise direction. Determine the angular vel
of link 5 and the rate at which the length AB is changing for the phase shown.
Fig. 3.18
Solution
The links of the mechanism are represented by vectors as shown in Fig. 3.19 in which
the vectors representing the links are given by
i8
Rl =rl e 1
i82
R2 =r2 e
R.>
Fig. 3.19 .
Fig. 3.19, the summation law of the position vectors ofthe mechanism gives
(a)
the complex notation, the position equation is written as
= 0 (b)
geometry of the mechanism
scalar components of equation (b) are
(c)
~;~Substituting for 8 1 and 83 , we get
-rl + r2 cose2 + r3 sin85 - r5 cos85 = 0

(d)
r2 sin e2 - r3 cos85 - r5 sin85 = 0
.In solving for the unknowns r3 and 85 , from the second of equations (d) we get
r _ r1 sin82 - r5 sin85
3 - (e)
cose5
Substituting for r3 in the first of equations (d) yields
-rl + r2 cose1 +
r 2 sin82 - r5 sin85 l.
szn85 - r5 cose5 = 0
[ cose5
This equation is simplified to give
Having the position equation solved, the angular velocity of link 5, w 5 can
determined by differentiating equation (b) which yields
From the equation of geometry 83 = 90° + 85 we get
8~ = 8~
Hence, equation (g) can be written as
=0
Separating the real and imaginary parts of equation (h), we get the scalar components
which can be solved simultaneously to yield the unknown velocity components; i.e.,
Substituting for 8 3 in terms of 85 and simplifying yields
.I
Solving equation (i) forw 5 andr~ we get .
=r w ( (cos82 + sin8sJ
r~ , 2
• cos85
3.4 Analysis of velocity vectors by instant-center method
Coincident points on two links in motion that have the same absolute velocity relative
to a fixed link will have zero velocity relative to each other. At this instarit either link
will have pure rotation relative to the other link about the coincident point. Consider
2 and 3 which move relative to each other. Point A on a body 2 has a velocity
relative to point A on body 3 and point Bon 3 has velocity v BJ Bz relative to point
body 2 as shown in Fig. 3.20. Perpendiculars to both velocities intersect at point
is the instantaneous center of rotation of body 2 relative to 3 or vice versa.
p may be considered as a point on body 3 about which boay 2 is instantaneously
or it may be considered as a point on body 2 about which body 3 is
.UU.JL ......· -ously rotating. The velocity of P
2 relative to P 3 or velocity of P 3 relative to
=0 (3.32)
y /
Fig. 3.20 Instantaneous center oftwo bodies with relative mOlion
An instantaneous center of rotation is defmed as a point common to two links which

the same velocity in each link; i.e., it is a point at which the two bodies have no
velocity. It is also a point on one link about which another link is
rotating. For different combinations of links 1 and 2, Fig. 3 .1-9' shows
2
locations of the instantaneous centers C. '1-
3.4.1 Types of instantaneous centers
The instantaneous centers of a mechanism are of three types:

· 1. Fixed instantaneous centers: these instantaneous centers (I C.) remain fixed for
all configurations of the mechanism.
Permanent instantaneous centers: these instantaneous centers move with the

mechanism but the joints are of permanent nature.
2 and 3 which move relative to each other. Point A on a body 2 has a velocity
relative to point A on body 3 and point Bon 3 has velocity v B/ Bz relative to point
J
body 2 as shown in Fig. 3.20. Perpendiculars to both velocities intersect at point
is the instantaneous center of rotation of body 2 relative to 3 or vice versa.
p may be considered as a point on body 3 about which boay 2 is instantaneously
may be considered as a point on body 2 about which body 3 is
rotating. The velocity of P2 relative to P 3 or velocity of P 3 relative to
=0 (3.3 2)
y r
..,
.)
Fig. 3.20 Instantaneous center oftwo bodies with relative motion
instantaneous center of rotation is defined as a point common to two links which

the same velocity in each link; i.e., it is a point at which the two bodies have no
·ve velocity. It is also a point on one link about which another link is
ly rotating. For different combinations of links 1 and 2, Fig. 3 .1-9' shows
locations of the instantaneous centers C. '- 1·
3.4.1 Types of instantaneous centers
The instantaneous centers of a mechanism are of three types:

. 1. Fixed instantaneous centers: these instantaneous centers (I C.) remain flxed for
all configurations of the mechanism.
Permanent instantaneous centers: these instantaneous centers move with the

mechanism but the joints are of permanent nature.
3. Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centers: these instantaneous
vary with the configuration of the mechanism.
, C at infinity
I
I
I
I
c Ai 2 V
[iJ • A
pin joint ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
roiling contact I s I'd'
1 mg contact
center of curvature
ofpath C
,,<'
'' sliding contact
over a over a
curved surface curved surface
Fig. 3.21 Location ofvarious instantaneous centers
In the four bar linkage shown in Fig. 3.22, points 0 2 , 0 4, A and B are the obvious
instantaneous centers for they satisfy both definitions for an instantaneous center. 0 2,
and 0 4 are fixed instantaneous centers; A and B are permanent ones.
'
Since for each pair of links there is one instantaneous center, for the four-bar linkage
shown, the number of instantaneous centers msix, in accordance with the pairs oflinks .
given below:
Fig. 3.22 Permanent andfixed instantaneous centers ofa four-bar mechanism
Velocity A nalysis of Linkages 59
the above pairing oflinks, it can be observed that there are six ways of combining
links for a four-bar mechanism and hence, there are six instantaneous centers.
In general for n links in a mechanism the number of instantaneous centers is:

n(n-1)
number of instantaneous centers = "")
( ..,.) . .J.)
2
3.4.2 The Arnhold - Kennedy T heorem of Three centers
Since an instantaneous center is a point ~omhlon to two links, it is usually denoted by

the number of links. For the four-bar li~age shown in Fig. 3.23, centers I2, 23, 34 and
14 are located by inspection.
r
\ I
\f I"
" .J
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
I
I
I
'////, '////,
I l
F ig. 3.23 Location of all instantaneous centers ofa four-bar mechanism
The intersection of the perpendiculars to the velocities of points A and B yield the
instantaneous center I3 which is the point about which link 3 appears to rotate relative
to link I or vice versa.
To locate the center 24, the Arnhold - Kennedy theorem is applied. The theorem states
that:
When three bodies move relative to one another they have three instantaneous
centers, all ofwhich lie on the same straight line.
Demonstration :
Consider the three bodies shown in Fig. 3.24. Link I is the stationary link and links 2
and 3 rotate about the centers 12 and 13.
1
/
/ ''
/
/
""
· ~
1 2_/_ .
/
" " 13
Q., -+--lt_B;-
'/ / / , '////,
Fig. 3.24 Demonstration of the line-of-centers
Let us assume that the instantaneous center 23 lies at point C. Then the velocity of C ·
as a point on link 2 is Vc and as a point on link 3 is 1· c both perpendicular to 0 2 C and
1 j
0 3C, respectively. The directions of the velocities obviously do not coincide, hence,
the velocity of Cas a point on link 2 is different from the velocity of point C as a point
on link 3. Thus point C cannot be the instantaneous center. The only point that satisfies
the definition of the instantaneous center lies on the straight line 0 20 3• ·Tnus, the three
instantaneous centers lie on a straight line.
Going back to the discussion ofthe four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 3.21, to locate the
instantaneous center 24, we proceed as follows.
For links 1, 2 and 4 the instantaneous centers 12, 24 and 14 should lie on a straight line.
Similarly, for links 2, 3 , and 4, centers 23, 34 and 24 should lie on another straight line,
where 24, common to both lines, is located at the intersection of these lines .
.I
~ .
In general, to determine the instantaneous centers for the four bar linkage we could
proceed as follows: ·
\ "
For each combination of Jlinks the known and unknown instantaneous centers
should lie on a straight line. Intersections of such lines that contain
instantaneous centers give the unknown instantaneous centers.
The results thus obtained are shown in a table.
Instantaneous centers
Known Unknown
Link
I, 2, 3 I2, 23 13
I , 2, 4 12, I4 24
..
], 3, 4 34, 14J> l 13
J
... .
2, 3, 4 23, 3'4 24
or the Whitworth mechanism shown in Fig. 3.25, locate all the instantaneous centers.
· umber of links in the mechanism n = 6, therefore, the number of instantaneous

lS
_number of instantaneous centers = n(n -I) =15
2
By presenting the known and unknown instantaneous centers in a tabular form for all
possible combinations o.f three links, one is able to determine all the instantaneous
-,.. ...
.
·• .centers.
•.
~,The fixed and permanent instantaneous centers are located by inspection. Thus, the
instantaneous centers 12, 14, 16, 23, 34, 45, 56, are located by inspection, which are the
known instantaneous-centers.
The known and unknown instantaneous centers are tabulated below for all possible
combination of three links.
34 at infinity
16 at infinity
34 at infinity
.I
Fig. 3.25 ' .,
Considering intersections of lines containing known and unknown instantaneous

centers, all instantaneous centers which are neither fixed nor permanent are located. ·For
example, the instantaneous center 13 can be determined from the intersection of the
lines containing 12, 23, and 13, and 14, and 3 4 and 13. For further location of other
instantaneous centers, 13 is known..
The above procedure is repeated to locate all the instantaneous centers shown in Fig.
3.25.
Instantaneous centers
Links Known unknown
1, 2, 3 12, 23 13
1. 2, 4 12. 14 24
1, 2, 5 12 25, 15
1, 2, 6 I2, 16 26
1, 3, 4 I4, 34 13
I, 3, 5 b - ~ I3, I5, 35
I. 3. 6 I6, 13, 36
1, 4, 5 I4, 45 ' '· ' 15
1, 4, 6 I4, I6 r
-
'
46
I, 5, 6 I6, 56 15
2, 3, 4 23, 34 24
2, 3, 5 23 25, 35
2, 3, 6 23 26, 36
2, 4, 5 45 24,25
2, 4, 6 24, 26, 46
2, 5, 6 56 25, 26
3, 4, 5 34, 45 35
3, 4, 6 34 36, 46
3, 5, 6 56 35, 46
4, 5, 6 45,56 46
Determination of velocity
~,,_,....,,... .,... . . ..,.

the four bar linkage shown in Fig. 3.26. Link 2 has a constant angular
It is required to determine the velocity of points like B, D and E for the
instant represented. The velocities are determined using the line-of-centers method as
Consider the straight line defined by the instantaneous eenters 14, 12 and 24. This is .
the line of instantaneous centers for links 1, 2 and 4 called the line-of-centers.
64 Mechanisms ofjl1aclzinery
Fig. 2.26 Line-of-centers of a four-bar mechanism
Point 24 is a point common to links 2 and 4 and has the same velocity whether it is
considered as a point of link 2 or link 4. Since the velocity of point A on link 2 is
known, considering 24 as a point on link 2 extended, we can determine its velocity.
Rotate point A to A' on the line of centers. Since A and A' are of equal distance from
0 2, their velocities are also equal in magnitude.
The velocity of 24 which is a point on the line of centers will have the same direction
as the velocity of A' and its magnitude is determined from its distance from 02> by
constructing similar triangles.
.I
Now considering point 24 as a point on link 4 extended whose velocity is determined,

we can use it to find the velocity of any other p~int .9n the same link.
With 0"' as center point B is rotated to B ' on the line of centers. The velocity of Band
B ' are equal in magnitude. The velocity ofB 'can be determined by constructing similar
triangles with apex at 0 -1· V E is determined in a similar manner.
To determine V 0 , we consider link 3 which contains point D, link 2 which contains a

point whose velocity is known and a reference link, link 1.
These three links define the instantaneous centers 12, and 31 which are on the line of
centers.
Velocity A nalysis ofLink ages 65
ocity of the common instantaneous center 23 is that of A and is known. Point D
rotated to the line of centers 23-12-13 to D ' about point 13 and its velocity is
!A Pt·enuu.LI.JU from similar triangles.
24 and 23 are called the transfer points, they are centers of the moving linl<.
taneous center 13 is called the pivot point.
.line-of-centers method is summarized as follows:
Step 1- Identify the link containing a point whose velocity is known, the
A> "
link containing the point whose velocity is to be determined and
:
a reference li~, usually the ground or the frame.

/'
Step 2- Locate the three instantaneous centers defined by the three links
and draw the line of centers.
Step 3- Consider the common instantaneous center as a point on the link

which contains the point whose velocity is known and by using
similar triangles find the velocity of the common instantaneous
center.
Step -1- Next consider the common instantaneous center as a point on the
link which contains the point whose velocity is unknown. From
similar triangles determine the velocity of the point.
Determine the angular velocity OJ of the tam head AE of the rock-crasher shown in Fig.
3.17 in the position for .which 8 = 600. The crank 00 has angular speed of 60
rev/min. When A is at the bottom of its cirde, B and D are on a horizontal line through
0 4 and lines AB and 0 6D are vertical. The dimensions of the various links are
00 = 100 mm, AB = 750 mm, 0 6D = BD = 0 J3 = 375mm

Construct the given configuration graphically and use the method of instantaneous
center of zero velocity. ~··
66 .Mechanisms of Machinery
Fig. 3.27
Solution
The schematic representation of the toggle mechanism is shown in Fig 3.27. The
instantaneous centers are located by the Arnhold-Kennedy theorem.
To determine the velocity of pointE proceed as follows:
First identify links I, 2 , and 6 where link I is the reference (fixed link); link 2 is a link
which contains a point w}:10se velocity is known, i.e. VB is known, and link 6 contains
./
the.point whose velocity we want to determine. ,·
Now the instantaneous centers I6, I2 and 2q ar1- located defining the line of three
centers as shown in Fig. 3.28. From the velocity of B, the velocity of B' on link 2 and
on the line of three centers is drawn, Through the tip and 0 2 a line is drawn.
Considering 26 as a point on link 2, a line is drawn parallel to V 8 to intersect the line
through the tip ofV8 at a point which determines V(26J.
Again, consider 26 as a point on link 6. The velocity of E is determined from similar

triangles by determining the velocity of E' where E' is the point E referred to the line
of centers.
VE = 439 mm/s
Fig. 3.28
angular velocity of link 6 is determined to be
- v£
-- -
439
= 1.17 radls
AE 375
. The 'Vertical oscillatory motion of the plunger F shown in Fig. 3.29 is actuated by the
' pressure change in .the hydraulic cylinder E . For the position when 8 = 600, the plunger
has a downward velocity of 2 mls. Determine the velocity of the roller A in its
.. horizontal guide and the angular velocity of link AD.
Fig. 3.29
Solution
~'
To apply the line-of-centers method to solve the problem, first identify a link which
contains a point whose velocity is kno~ For this problem, link 3 is identified which
contains point D whose vertical component of veloc.itY is known.
l = VF
(VD'y =2 m/s
~
- 17 In addition, link 2 is considered which contains point A whose velocity is to be

determined~'' The third link identified is link 1 which is the ground link. Links 1, 2, and
3 define the instantaneous centers 12, 23 and 13 which must lie in a straight line.
Again, consider links 1, 3 and 5 which define the instantaneous centers 13, 35, and 13
which must lie in a straighnine.
Considering these two lines-of-centers, 13 must lie at the intersection as shown in Fig,
3.30.
; 12
A, /
'//////.f / / / / / / / / VA
15 at
(Yo) y
Fig. 3.30
velocity of roller and the angular velocity of link AD are determine as follows .
. V = (VD )y = _l__
D cos/3 ci:Js/3
angle/3 is obtained from Fig. 3.30 to be 30°. Hence, the velocity of the roller Dis
2
·. • VD = - - =2.31 mls
cos/3
angular velocity of link 3 is obtained from
VD
(JJ AD = (JJ 3 =- -·
CD
rom Fig. 3.30, CD = 172.8 mm. Hence, the angular velocity of link 3 is
2.31
=:
= 13.36 rad/s
0.1728
To determine the velocity of point A, we know th~t
- v:4
AC
From the above relation we obtain
V
A
= V
D
AC =
'CD
2.i2 m/s
./
BLEMS
In the linkage shown in Fig. P3 .1, 0 2 C has a constant clockwise angular

velocity w2 = 2 rad/s during an interval of motion while the hydraulic cylinder
gives pin A a constant velocity of I. 2 mls to the right. For the position shown
where 0 2 C is vertical and BC is horizontal, calculate the angular velocity of
BC.
"" B ~ 400 mm C
-:;..,......------------=-.
I ·.·.
300 mm
Fig. P3. 1
By using complex numbers, determine the general equation of the angular

velocity w 8 c of link BC of problem 3-1.
In the crossed linkage shown in Fig. P3.2 , crank 2 is the driver and rotates at a
c;
constant velocity w 2 = I Ok rad/s . Determine the velocity of 3 and C also
the angular velocity oflink 4 for the phase where e = 53° . Use vector algebra ..
Given data:
0~ = I50mm , AG3 = 300mm , AB = 450mm ,
AC = 600mm , 0 4B = I50mm , 0 2 0 4 = 450mm
-- x
c
Fig. P3.2
. 3.4 Solve problem 3.3 graphically.
3.5 Fig. P3.3 shows linkage Or4B04C which consists of three moving links 2, 3,
4 and ground link 1. Assuming pure rolling of 4 on 1, find the velocity of point
B, and the angular velocity of links 3 and 4 when link 2 rotates at a constant
angular velocity (J) 2 =1 rad/s ' and e = 65° .
0 _r4 = 900mm , AB = 1200mm , BC = 600mm ,
r 1 = 600mm , r4 = 450mm
Fig. P3.3
3.6 Fig. P3.4 shows a swivelling-joint mechanism. The dimensions of the various
links are:
0.r4 = 25mm , AB = 180mm , AD = AB = 90mm
0 4B =50 mm , DF = EF = 100mm , 0 20 4 = 150mm
The crank 0 _r4 rotates at 191. rpm as shown in _the figure. Determine the
velocity of sliding oflink DE in the trunnion. Det~rfnine also the velocity of the
slider F. ·
3.7 In the Whitworth mechanism shown in Fig. P3~5, crank 0_r4- rotates at 120 rpm
in clockwise direction. Determine the angular velocity of the slotted link AB
and the velocity of the slider D for the phase when e = 60°. The dimensions
of the various links are:
0_r4 = 200mm , 0.2 0 4 = JOOmm , 0 4 C = 150mm , CD = 500mm
J
Solve the problem
a) graphically;
b) by using vector algebra.
I
I
I
i
1120 mm
I' 75 mm
- - '·
11 85 mm
!
Fig. P3.4
Fig. P3.5
74 Mechanisms ofMaclzinery
3.8 For the mecaanism shown in Fig. P3.6, locate all the instantaneous centers of
zero velocirv.
If the crank 0~ rotates at a co-nstant clockwise angular speed of 120 rpm, find
the velocity of B, C and D and the angular velocity of links AB, BC and CD by
using the instantaneous cemer method. The Dimensions ofthe various links are:
0~ = 200mm , AB = 1500mm , BC = 600mm ,
O.:B = 400mm , CD =500mm
! 35o mm
Fig. P3.6
3.9 The mechanism shown in Fig. P3.7, is driven such that velocity of point C,
Vc = 250 mm/S to the right:. Rolling contact is assumed between links 1 and
2, but slip is possible between links 2 and 3. For the position shown in the
figure, determine the angular velocity of link 3.
.v I.
,
_I X
I
I
65 mm
II
r-,
Fig. 3.40 I
' - ' I
\·.
Link 2 of the mechanism shown in Fig. P3.8, rotates at 2000 rpm. Using the
instantaneous centers and the line-of-centers method, determine the velocity of
points B, C and D for the phase shown where 0 ~ is horizontal. The
dimensions of the various links are:
0~ = 50mm , AB = 150mm , AC = 50mm, CD = 125mm
Fig. P3.8
3.11 In the oscillating cylinder mechanism shown in Fig. P3.9 crank 0 2 A rotates at
a constant speed of I OOn: rad/s clockwise. The cylinder oscillates about 0 4 . For
the phase when e = 60° , using vector algebra, determine:
a) velocity of piston B relative to the cylinder walls;

b) angular velocity of the piston rod AB;
c) acceleration of the piston B relative to the cylinder walls;
d) angular acceleration of the piston rod AB.
Fii!. P3.9
3.12 In the Geneva wheel shown in Fig. P3 .1 0 the pin P is an integral part of wheel
A and the locking plate B engages the radial slots in wheel C turning the wheel
Cone-fourth of a revGl.ution for each revolution of the pin. At the engagement
position shown~ 8 = 45° . For constant clockwise angular velocity w2 of wheel
A determine the angular velocity of wheel C in terms of 8 and fJ .
If w 2 = 2 rad/s clockwise, determine the corresponding angular velocity w 3

of wheel c for the position when e = 20° .
a I_/
l
~------~·----~~~
Fig. P3.LO
3.13 For the mechanism shown in Fig. P3 .11, link 0 2 B has an angular velocity
w 2 = 4 radls in the .counter clockwise direction for the instant when
8 = f3 = 60°. Pin A is fixed on link 0 2 B and slides in the circular slot on link
0 3 C. The radius of curvature of the slot is 150 mm and for the phase shown, the
tangent to the slot at the point of contact is parallel 0 2 A . Determine the angular
velocity of link 0 3 C for the phase shown.
150mm
Fig. P3.11
Gear D rotates in the counterclockwise direction about 0 2 with a constant

angular velocity w 2 = 4 rad/s. The 900 sector 0 2 A B is mounted on an
independent shaft at 0 2 , and each of the small gears at A and B meshes with
gear D. If the sector has a counter clockwise angular velocity cv3 = 3 rad/s at
the instant represented, determine the corresponding angular velocity of each of
the small gears. Use the instantaneous center method.
25 mm
Fig. P3.12
---.i 3.15 For the linkage shown in Fig. P3.15, determine the angular velocity of links 3
and 6 when e =45° . The angular velocity of link 2 is 1 rad/s. Dimensions
of the links are:
Oy4 =50 mm, AB =·250 mm, AC = 75 mm,0 6C = 150 mm
Fig. P3.13
.I
80 Mechanisms oflv!achinery
Substituting for i·, j. and k ,
v =(xi + jij + zk) + i( ro xz) + y(ro><J} + i( ro xk) (4.5)

Letting
(xi + jij + ik) = a (4.6)
and noting that

x· (wxi) + y (w xj) + z· (w x k) = m x(xi + yj + zk)
=mxV
(4.7)
the acceleration component V can be written as
V =a + w x V (4.8)
The last term on the right hand side of the acceleration equation is
(4.9)
= ro x V + ro x(ro><R)
Substituting for V, w xR· and V0 , the acceleration equation becomes

aP = a0 + a + ffi xR + 2roxV + ro x(ro xR) (4.10)
The different acceleration components are:
is Corio lis ' component of ac9-dleration, sense normal to V;

is acceleration of the origin·of x-y-z relative to X -Y-Z system;
is acceleration of P relative to x-y-z system;
is the tangential accele\-ation of a point fixed on the x-y-z system
coincident with P as the system rotates about 0 ;
wxwxR is the normal component of acceleration of the point coincident
withP;
where w is angular velocity of x-y-z system relative to X-Y-Z system;
v is velocity of P relative to x-y -z system; and
R is position vector of P.
Acceleration Analysis ofLinkages 81
For the mechanism shown in Fig. 4.2, link 2 rotates at a constant angular velocity
012
== 2 radls in the clockwise direction and slider D m-oves to the right at a constant
linear velocity of 150 mmls. By using vector algebra determine the acceleration of point
C. Given are:
0~ == 150mm, AB == 175mm , AC = JOOmm, BC =ED = 200mm
Fig. 4.2
Solution:
From the geometry of the mechanism
OJ
2 = OJ2 k ==-2k radls
The velocity of point B can be determined as follows . Since B remains fixed with
respect to A and D
v B =.vA + V B/A (a)
VB =VD + V BID (b)
Velocity of point C can be written as:
vc = V A + V C/A (c)
vc = V B + V CIB (d)
Combining equations (a) and (b) we obtain:
,
VA + V~= V D + V BID (e)
VA is known in magnitude with direction perpendicular to 0~
= -300 i mm/s
.-
VB/A is unknown in magnitude with direction perpendicular to AB
VB/A = -VB/A j
VD is known both in magnitude and direction
V 0 · = V0 sin53 i + V0 cos53j
= 200 i + 150 j mm/s

VBID is unknown in magnitude, direction perpendicular to BD
VBID = -VBID cos7 i + V81D sin7 j
= -0.993 V810 i + 0.122 VBID j mmls
Substituting into equation (e)
-300 i -VB/A j = 200 i + 150 j -0.993 VBID i + 0.122 VB!D j
Collecting like terms:

i terms:
-300 = 200 - 0.993 VBID
which yields .1'
VBID = 503.5 mm/s

Or,
VBID = -500 i + 61.4 j mm/s
j terms:
-VB/A = 150 + 0.122• VBID

which gives
VB/A = -211.4 mm/s
Or,
Acceleration Analysis of Linkages 83
:::::=;1>
equation (a)
= -300 i + 211.4 j mm/s
bining equations (c) and (d)
(f)
where VCIA is unknown in magnitude, direction perpendicular to A c.
V CIA =V0 A sin45 i - V CIA cos45 j
V
08
= V 08 sin35 i + V 0 8 cos35 j
Substituting into equation (f)
-300 i + V0 A sin45 i - VCIA cos45 j =

-300 i + 211.4 j + V08 sin35 i + V CIB cos35 j
Collecting like terms,
i terms:
300 + 0. 707 VCIA = -300 + 0. 574 V CIB
j terms:
-o. 707 VCIA = 211.4 + 0.819 VCIB
Solving the above equations for the unknown terms simultaneously,
VCIB = 279.0 mm/s

or,
V CIB = 160.1 i +- 228.5 j mm/s
VCIA = -622.2 mm/s

or,
V0 A = 439.9 i - 439.9 j mmls

From equation (d)
= 211.4 j + 160 i + 2 28. 5 j

or,
Vc = 160.1 i + 439.9 j mmls
The relative acceleration equations are written as follows :
where
aA =0
V = 0, since !R I = AB remains constant
{l) = ffi~.)
Hence, the relative acceleration equation becomes
(g) '
Similarly, aB can also be obtained with respect to a D·
where /R / = DB, and w = w4 .

./
From the velocity ana~ysis,
w3 = = 211.4 = 1.21 rad/s

VB/A •
AB 175
w3 =1.21 k rad/s
503.5
W4 - -- = - - = 2.52 rad/s
BD 200
w4 = - 2.52k rad/s
Equations (g)· and (h) are combined to give
the acceleration components are:
= 2k x2kx150j = -600j mm/sl).,
aD =0
w-l xR 08 = cJ-Ik x(200 sin6.5 (- 2.00 cos6.5 j )
= 22.6cJ-I j + 1Wf. 7w4 i mmls 2
w xw-lxR 08 = -2.52kx[ -2.52k x(200 sin6.5 i - 200 cos6.5 j ))

4
=-1 43.9 i +1 262. 8 j mmls 2
Substituting into equation (i),
-600 j + 175cJ3 j - 256.2 i = 198. 7cJ4 i + 22.6cJ-I j - 143.9 i + 1261.8 J
Collecting like -terms:
-25.6.2 = 198.7cJ4 - 143.9

cJ4 = -D..5 7 radls 2
w-1 = -0.57k radls 2
j terms:
-600 + 175cJ3 = 22.6cJ-I - 1261.8
w3 = 10.57 radls 2
w3 = 10.57k radls 2
To determine the acceleration of point C, the acceleration equation is
ac = a A +a + wxR + w x(wxR) - (j)
wher& = 0 ' w = w] ' IRI = AC = 100 mm.
86 Mechanisms ofiY!aclzinery
Thus, the acceleration equation (;) becomes
(k)
The acceleration components are
aA = -600 j mmls 2
ai3 xRAC = 10.57kx(JOO sin45 i + 100 cos45 j)
= -747.3 i + 747.3 j mmls 2
m3 x(w 3 xRAc) = 1.21kx[J.21kx(IOO sin45 i + 100 cos45j)]
= -103.5 i - 103.5 j mmls 2

Substituting into equation (k),
ac = -600j - 747.3i + 747.3j - 103.5j
ac = -850i + 43.8j
Example4.2
In the Whitworth mechanism shown in Fig. 4.3, the crank 0_r4 rotates at a constant
angular velocity of 30 rpm in the clockwise direction. Determine the angular
~cceleration of the slotted link AB and the acceleration of the slider D for the phase
when the crank 0 _r4 makes an angle off) = 45° with the vertical. The dimensions of the
various links are:
0/1 = 150 mm, 0 2 0 4 = 100 mm, 0 4C = 1~~/mm, CD = 500 mm.
Solution
The coordinate systems X- Y and x-y are selected with origins. o 2 and A, respectively.
w 2 = 30 rpm = 1r rad/s
or,
w2 = 1C k radls
From geometry of the mechanism, for e = 45°,

j3 = 63.4°, rj; ,= 13°, Y = 18.4°
0~ = 232.5 mm
Fig. 4.3
Velocity analysis
For the phase s4own, consider a point A' on link 4 coincident with A. The velocity
. #equation can be written as
VA is known in magnitude, direction perpendicular to 0 .zA ;

VA1 is velocity of A' as it rotates about ~ 4 ; magnitude of VA1 is known
with direction perpendicular to 0 ,A 1
V is vel~city of~ r~lative to the slot_( point A '); the magnitude ofV
is known with direction along the slot;
m = m-1 is the angular velocity of the moving coordinate system;
R is the position vector of A Jelative to A ',
= n: k x(l50 sin18.4 i + 150 cosl8.4 j )

= -448.2 i + 145 j mmls
= w-+ k x(O i + 232.5 cosl8.4 j)
= -232.5w , i mm/s
"
v =vj
Substituting into the velocity equation,
-448.2i + 145.6j = - 232.5wi + Vj

Collecting like terms:
iterms:
-448.2 = - 232.50J.j
w 4 = 1.93 rad/s
w4 = 1.93k rad/s
j terms:
V = 145.6 mmls
V = 145.6 j mmls
Considering points C and D, the velocity equation is:
VD = vc + VDIC
where
V D is unknown in magnitude, direction along th~.tX-axis
VD = V D sin63.4 i + VD cos63.4 j mm/s ,
Vc is known in magnitude, direction perPendicular to O,C.
= 1.93k x(O i - 125 j )
= 241.3 i mmls
V DIC is w:Umown in magnitude with direction perpendicular to CD
= -Vo;c (cos50.4 i + sin50.4 j )
·h.tting in the relative velocity equation,
sin63.4 i + V0 cos63.4 j = 241.3 i - V01c cos50.4 i + V01c sin50.4 j

,11c~.;wll>< like terms and simplifying,
= 170.2i + 85.2j mm/s
y01c = -70.2i + 85.2j mm/s
the coincident points A and A', the acceleration equation is written as:
= aA + a + ro xR + 2rox v + ro x(roxR)
A = (a) n which is known in magnitude, direction along 0 2 .
= ·71: kx [7r kx(1 50 sin18.4 i + 150 cosl8.4 j )]
= -457.5 i - 1408.0 j mm/s 2
=0,
(J) xw xR = 0
mxR = 0
aA; has two components, (aA)n and (aA ) 1 •
The acceleration component(aA )n is along A04 with known magnitude and
direction
= 1.93 k xJ.93k x232.5j

= -866 j mmls 2
The tangential component(aA)r IS perpendicular toA04 with unknown
magnitude.
= w4 kx232.5 j
= -232.50 i mm/s 2
The Coriolis' component of acceleration is known both in magnitude and direction.
2wxV = 2w ..,x V
= 2(1.93 kxJ45.6 j)
= -562 i mm/s 2
a is unknown in magnitude, direction along A 0 4
a =a j mmls 2
Substituting in the acceleration equation,
-457. 5i - 1408j = aj - 232.5o5i - 562i - 866j

Collecting like terms and solving for the unknown quantities,
w4 = -D.45k rad/s 2
a = -542j mm!s 2
Considering points C and D, the acceleration equation is
aD = ac + a DIC
aD is unknown magnitude unknown, direction ~long the X - axis

.I
aD =a D sin63.4i + aD cos63.4j
The acceleration a c has two components, the normal and tangential components. Thus a c
is give by
Upon substitution
= }.93 k X [ J.93 k X ( - 125 j)] + [( -0.45 k) X ( -125 j )]
= 465.6 j - 56.3 i mmls 2
the relative acceleration term aDIC has two components
= (JJ5X((JJ5XRcJ + uj5xRCD
"'
= 0.22kx[0.22kx(500 cos4;4.6i + 500 sin44.6j)]
'
+ w 5k x(5oo· cos44. 6i + 500 sin44. 6j)
I"
= -17.2 i - 17.0 j + 356w5 j - 351w5 i
in the acceleration equation,
0.89aD i + 0.45aD j = 465.6 j - 56.3 i
-17.2 i - 17.0 j + 356w5 j - 35Jw5 i
· llecting like terms,
0.89aD = 73.5 ..:. 351w5

0.45aD = 448.6 - 356w5
aD = 826.5
aD = -739.0i - 369.8j mmls 2
w5 = 2.3 rad/s 2
·or,
Example 4.3
The vanes of a centrifugal-pump impeller which rotates with a constant cloc~~s~

angular velocity of 300 rpm are shown in Fig. 4.4. The fluid particles have an absi:}·~~~ -
velocity whose component in the r-direction is 3 mls at discharge from the vane.
Moreover, the magnitude of the velocity of the fluid particles measured relative to the
vane is increasing at the rate of 24 mls2 just before they leave the vane. Determine the
velocity and the acceleration of a fluid particle an instant before it leaves the impeller.
The radius of curvature p of the vane at its end is 200 mm.
X r
Fig. 4.4
Solution
Introduce the coordinate axes shown in Fig. 4.4 where x-y is the rotating coordinate
system with origin at the tip of the vane A, and X-Y is the fixed coordinate system
located at the axis of rotation of the pump impeller.
Consider the fluid particle P just before it leaves thy impeller. The relative velocity
~·
equation can pe written as
r AP is the position vector of P relative to A; hence r AP = 0. Therefore,
vp = VA + vrel
Given that
(Vp)r =3 mls
and noting that VA has no velocity component in the r-direction, from the relative
velocity equation it can be deduced that
{Vre)r = {Vp}r
vre{ = 3000{2 i mmls
"'"'1'-'H. of the tip of the vane A is
"'
27r
= -300x- k = -l07r ·k radls
60
=r cos45 i - r sin45 j = 75{2 i - 75{2 j
V.4 = -j 07r k X (75f2 i + 75f2 j)
= -750{27r i - 750/27r j mm/s
and the velocity of the fluid particle P is
= 3000{27ii - 750/27ri - 750{27ri

= 910.5i - 3332.2j
The relative acceleration equation is
where the various terms are evaluated as follows.

{1) X (J) X r =0
(Jj xr = 0
aA = (a ) n = w xw xr
= -107rkx[ -l07rk x(75/2i - 75/2j )J

= -7500{2n!i + 7500{2n!j
2w x Vrel = -l07rk x3000/2i
= -30000j27rj mm/s 2
are1 has two components:
= -lOrck x( -lOrck )x( -200j )

= -20000~j
fa
\ ref) = 24 i m/s 2 = 24000 i mm/ s 2
1
Substituting in the acceleration equation and after simplification, the acceleration ofthe
fluid particle is obtained to be
aP = -80.683 i - 225.995 j m/ s 2
4.2 Acceleration analysis by using equations of relative motion
4.2.1 Acceleration of points on a common link
Consider a lirik AB rotating with an angular velocity w and angular acceleration a as

shown in Fig. 4.5(a).
(b)
Fig. 4.5 Acceleration ofpoints on a common link
Let a A and a B be the accelerations of points A and B, respectively. The re!ative

acceleration equation is
(4.11)
the acceleration term aAlB has two components:
(aA!Bt =(Ji xR AB along the link from A to B, and

(aAlB) =a xRAB in
1
the direction perpendicular to AB.
The acceleration equation is represented vectorially in Fig. 4.5(b) which can be solved
graphically, or vectorially or by using sine and cosine rules .
.
For the four-bar linkage shoWI}ih Figure 4.6, find the acceleration of point Band the
angular acceleration of links 3 and 4. ro2 = 200 rad./s counter-clockwise.
00 = 150 mm, AB = 450 mm, 0/3 = 300 mm, 0 2 0 4 =200 mm, 8 = 45°
Fig. 4.6
Solution
From the geometry of the mechanism, fore =45° ,

L0 20 4B = 111.2°
L00B = 67.6°
i) Velo<;ity analysis
Points A and B are on a common link. Therefore, the velocity equation can be written
as:
where
VA is known in magnitude and has direction perpendicular to O.zA
VA = (J)2XR 00 ; 200kx( -200 cose i + 200 sine j )
= -28284.3 i - 28284.3 j
V8 is unknown in magnitude, direction perpendicular to 0 4B;
VB! A is unknown in magnitude, direction perpendicular to AB.
The relative velocity equation is represented vectorially in Fig. 4.7(aJ drawn to a

convenient scale. Since 0 2 and 0 4 are fixed, they are represented by the same point
o2 (o4).
Vector op is drawn perpendicular to O.zA to represent V A.

VB is along the perpendicular to 0 4B through o2 .
V81A is along the perpendicular to AB through a.
· The intersection of the latter two lines representing VB and V B/A gives point b, where
vector o2b represents V B and vector ab represents ~BIA .
.I
,I
t ·
a
/ I
I
(a) I
I
I
( a s)n 1
ct .....................
..............
.......
b
(b)
Fig. 4.7
By measurement from the velocity polygon,
V8 = o 2b = 38200 mmls
V81A = ab = 38000 mm/s
from which the angular velocities of links 3 and 4 can be obtained.
= V B! A = 38000 = 84.4 radls

w3 AB 450
ii) Acceleration analysis
The relative acceleration equation is
Since links 0 r4 and 0 4B rotate about the fixed axes 0 2 and 0 4 , respectively, the
acceleration equation is re-written as follows.
(a at has a known magnitude with direction along Bq 4, from B towards 0 4 ,
(a8 t = (04B).w~
·= 300xJ27 J32
= '4861. 6 mm!s 2 · A- 8 6\ S 8
~ wt ...
~L,.. ,..
(a8 ), has unknown magnitude, direction perpendicular t.~ BO4 .

.,
(aAt is known in magnitude with direction along 0r1. from A towards 0 2,
(aAt = (Or4J.w;
= 150x20Q2
= 6000000 mmls 2
For constant w2 ,
(aslAt is known in magnitude and has direction along BA from B towards A
(as/At = (AB). w~
= 450x84.42
= 3205512 mm/s 2
,-
(aSIA) 1
is unknown in magnitude, direction perpendicular to 0 4B .
Fig. 3.3 1(b) represents the acceleration polygon drawn to a convenient scale. From the
scale drawing the acceleration components are obtained to be
(as1A) = db = 300000 mmls 2

1
as = 5940000 mmls 2
300000
=
450
2
cJ3 = 666. 7 rad/s
4.2.2 Acceleration analysis of a block sliding on a rotating link
Block A slides on the rotating link o;s

as shown in Fig. 4.8(a). The position of link
2 at tim e t is given by the angular position 8. After time dt, link 2 rotates through dB
to position o;s
I and the block slides along link 2 to A '. The acceleration of the block
is found by considering the radial and tangential components of the changes in velocity
of the block.
(co+ dco ) x (r + d r)
y
B
co
(b)
X
(c )
Fig. 4.8 a) Velocity components sliding on a rotating link

b) Change in the radial component ofvelocity in time dt
c) Change in the transverse component ofvelocity in time dt
~otati.Ilg coordinate system r - e is attached to link 0 J3 as shown in the figure .

. .....~.-- component of the velocity is V at time t, and V + dV at time t + dt. The
in the radial component of velocity in time dt is dVas shown in Fig. 4.8(b). The
rn.o1one:nrs of dV in the radial and tangential direction are:
in the radial direction, and
in the tangential (transverse) direction.
"' '
, the change in the transverse component of velocity in time dt 1s dV8 as
in Fig. 4.8(c). The compon~nts of dV8 are:
r
-(J)rdB in the radial direction, and
(J)dr + rd(J) in the transverse direction, neglecting higher order differentials.
the total change of velocity is
dV - wrdB in the radial direction, and
VdB + (J)dr + rd(J) in the tangential direction.
component of acceleration of block A is
1
ar = -(dV - (J)rdB)
dt
=a - r(J)-' (4.11)
or, in vector notation,
(4. 12)
The tangential component of the acceleration is
1
a8 = -(VdB + (J)dr + rd(J))
dt
= 2wV + ra (4.13)
Vectorially, the tangent~al acceleration is written as
(4.14)
Therefore, the acceleration of the block sliding on the rotating link is given by
100 Jl-fechanisms ofMachinery
aA = wx(wxr) + axr + 2wxV +a (4.15)
where v is the sliding velocity of the block along the link o;s' and
a is the sliding acceleration of the block along the link o;s.
If a point A 2 fixed on link 0 ;s is coincident which is coincident with A for the position
shown in the figure, the acceleration equation can be written as:
a A =a A2 +aAIA (4.16)
2
The term a AlA is the relative acceleration between two moving points, and
2
(4.17)
If the link were a curved link, the acceleration term a of the relative acceleration
component aAIA would have both tangential and normal components. Therefor, the
1
relative acceleration could be written as
a.A =2wxV+a +a (4.18)

IA2 n , I
In general, the relative acceleration equation is
aA = (aA)n + (aA)r + 2wxV + (a)n + (a)r (4.19)

where
(aA)n = wx(wxr)
(aA)r = a xr .I
~·
and, 2w x V is the Corio lis'. component of acceleration.

!
Example 4.5
In the crank-shaper mechanism shown in Fig. 4.9(a), link 2 rotates at a constant angular
velocity ofm 2 = 10 rad/s as shown. Determine the acceleration of point A 4 on link 4
coincident with block A, and the angular acceleration of link 4 when the mechanism is --
in the phase shown. Given are:
0~ = 100 mm, 0 2 0 4 = 300 mm
Acceleration Analysis of Linkages 10 1
0~
d
(b)
.•
.r
c
(a) (c)
Fig. 4.9
geometry of the mechanism,
e = 51° , fJ = 18°
i) Velocity analysis
Block A slides in the rotating

., link 0 4B. Consider point A..y on link 4 coincident with
A. for the phase shown. The relative velocity equation is written as
Vn<, is unknown in ma12:nitude with direction perpendicular to 0 .,A 4 .

~
VA is known in magnitude with direction perpendicular tg. 0~
VA = (0 ;r4Jm 2
=lOO xJO =1000 mmls
VA/A is unknown in magnitude, direction along 0 J3.
102 Mechanisms ofi'l faclzinery
The velocity polygon is drawn to a convenient scale as shown in Fig. 4.9(b), and by
measurement
.!o 2aa.; = 2JO
Laa.;o 2 = 90°
o 2a = V.-1 = 1000 _!!lm/s

VA J
= VA sin21 = 358. 4 mm/s
ii) Acceleration analysis
The acceleration equation is written as
Ti1e re~ative acceleration term is
a "·'lA.: = 2w xV + a n
where
V= V
AlA.:
Since the bloc~( is sliding on a straight link,
an =0
and a 1 is along link 4.
2w x V is known in magnitude, direction perpendicular to V.
2w x V = 2670 mm/s 2 j
The acceleration a A is known in magnitude, directi'on along A 0 4
a A = (a )n = w 2 x(w 2 xr0 .)
a,
"
= r o1A w 2 = 10000 mmls 2
The acceleration term aA. has two components, normal ar1d tangential compone:1ts and
can be written as
(0~ 4~ = 1152.5 mmls 2

2
(aAJn =
(a AJ is unkno·.:vn in magnitude, direction perpendicular to 0 .r4 4 .
acceleration equation is, therefore, written as
4.9(c) shows the acceleration polygon drawn to a convenient scale where co 2

uu•~............ intersects da produced at e.
Leap = 69°
-o e
2
= aAcos6g = 3583.7 mmls;
= 1152.5 ' + 3583.7 = 4736.2 mm/s 2
ae = a rlsin6g = 9335.8 tnmls 2
(a1AJ = ae + ad = g335.8 + 2670 = 12005.8 mmls 2
= (ar~)r = 12005.8 a. = 48.0 r~dls2

a.-I 0 .;4., 250 -1
or the mechanism given in Example 3.5, determine the angular acceleration of rod AB
slides through the pivoted collar c for the position when e = goo.
t O;A = 250 mm
Solution
The mechanism is duplicated in Fig. 4.10 below for the position when B = goo.
From the velocity analysis given in Example 3.5, and considering point C 1 fixed on
link AB and coincident with C for the instant in consideration,
~ = 115-1 i mm/s
w AC / = -o. 74 j rad/s
1Q4 Mechanisms ofMachinery
600mm
Fig. 4.10
X
The ac:::eleration o{0.felative to A is written as
acI = aA + wxmxr + uJxr + 2wxV +a

where
2mxV = 0
a = 0, since f~c, =0
Point C 1 is sliding in a rotating block and its accele~ation is givea by

.I
ac; = (ac1x + 2~xvc ,

-.
=(act + 2( -0, 74k ) x(JJ 54i) "

2
= (ac't - 1708 j mmls
= ( -5k) x[( -5k) x(96.1 i + 230.8j)]

= -2400 i - 5770 j mm!s 2
(1) X {J) XrACI =( -Q. /4k) X [( -Q. 74k) X ( -650i)]
= -356i mmls 2
= -{w k ) x ( -650 t)
= 650w j mmls 1
LH~··~~··'"" these values in the acceleration equation and simplifying, the required
-"I:Jl\,• ~ ...... ~ ··
terms are obtained to be
= -2 756 mmls 1
.
Relative acceleration of c6.incident points at the point of contact of
rolling elements
2 and 3 roll on each other at the point of contact P as shown in Fig 4.11.
P2 on link 2 and P3 on link 3, for pure rolling contact, it was established
The relative acceleration (aPIP ) or (aP! P ) has two components, normal and
1 1
tangential components. The no~al component"of the relative acceleration of P2 is
toward 0 1 and that ofP is toward 0 ~· .The tangential component has direction along
3
the tangent. For the condition of no sliding, the tangential component of the relative
acceleration is
(4.20)
Le.
(4.21 )
from which it can be deduced that
r,.<
(4.22)
The normal component of the relative acceleration (aP/P;) is the difference of the
normal components of acceleration (aP1
and (ap3
t, i.e. n
4.3 Acceleration Analysis by Using Complex Numbers
Consider again the mechanism shown m Fig. 3.15 reproduced in Fig. 4.12 for
convemence.
'
\
\
\
\
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.12 (a) An inversion of a slider cronhmechanism (b) posirion polygon
Replacing the elements of the mechanism by position vectors such that their sUJ.-n is
zero, as shown in Fig. 4.12(b), yields the acceleration equation on two successive
' ..~
differentiations with respect to time. From the vector closure of the position vectors,
~.
(4.24)
Differentiating · the vector sum with respect to time, and introducing the complex
notation yields the equation
. I.e i8J') = 0
r 2(J) 21f."ze i81l1 r 4 (J) 41f."ze i84') - r41 (4.25)
Again differentiating equation (4.25) yields the acceleration equation
(4.26)
from which the angular acceleration a. 4 and r~ can be obtained. Separating the real
and imaginary parts of equation (26) yields
riv; cos82 + f~ cos84 - 2r/V4 sin84 - r/v~ cos84 = 0

(4.27)
riv; sinB2 + r~ sinB4 - 2rli54 cg,sB4 , - rlv~ sinB4 =0
Solving equations (27) simultaneously and noting that w4 = a.4 , the required
accelerations are obtained to be
(4.28)
(4.29)
Example 4.7
In the mechanism shown in Fig. 4.13 the driver 0 _0 has a constant angular velocity w 2 .
Determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of link 5 for the phase shown.
A
B 4
c
Fig. 4.13 -"
Solution
The various links are represented by position vectors such that the vector sum is zero
as shown in Fig. 4.14.
R3
Fig. 4.14
These position vectors are represented as
i82
R2 =r2 e
i81
R 3 .:·· r3 e
j()j
R5 = r5 e
i()I
Rl =rl e
Using the summation law,
R -:- R 2 -- R 3 - R 5
· I
=0
Substitutjng for the position vectors
(a)
.. ...
W riting the re"J and imaginary parts of equation (a)
rl easel + r2 cose2 - r3 cose3 - r5 cose5 =JJ

.·
BI = 180° and from the geometry e3 = 90° + e5 . Substituting for eI and e3 '
-r1 + r2 cosB2 - r3 cos(90 + B} - r5 cos85 = 0
r2 sinB2 ·· r3 sin(90 + BsJ - r 5 sinB5 = 0
Or,
the second equation r 3 is obtained to be

r2 sin82 - r5 sin85 \,
r =
3 cose5
bstiruting into the first equation and simplifying yields
(b)
which e5 can be determined.

angular velocity of link 5, m5 is obtained by differentiating equation (a) with
to time. Noting that '
r
e~ = m2' e~ = e~ = m5
.
zr22
co e - - zr33
t8,
co e 0
. tB1
- r3 e
• i81 •
- zr55
co e •
i8.
=O (c)
Separating the real and imaginary parts of equation $) and substituting for e3 , we get
-r2m2 sin82 ..,. rj cos(90 +8sJ + r3m5 sin(90 +8j + r5m5 cose5 = 0
---
Or,
-r2m2 sin82 + rj sin85 + r3m5 cose5 - r 5m5 sin85 =0
r2m2 cose2 - rj cose5 + r3m5 sin85 - r5m 5_C(JtSB5 =0
These equations are solved simultaneously for the unknowns co5 and rj to obtain
r ,co ,
(J) 5 = _._.
r
sin(e - e .J
5 •
3
.
rJ : :;:;
5
[ cosO, + sin(IJ5 - o,{sin8 5 - :: cosO) ! 1
The angular acceleration of link 5 and the relative acceleration of the block r j are
obtained by differentiating equation (c) with respect to time.· The differentiation yields
110 Mechanisms ofJV/aclzinery
Noting that
(j3' = fj'_
: )
and separating the real and imaginary parts, we get

.' .
-r2e2-cos82 + rjsirtfJ3 + 2r~83cos85
+ r3cos85 + rsSin85~~ - (r:rin85 - r5cos85'{J/ = 0

(d)
.' .
-r282-sin82 - i'/os83 + 2r~83 sin85
(e)
+ fr 3sinB5 + r5cos85~~ - r 3cos85 - r 5sin85'{J/ =0
Solving the above equations simultaneously the angular acceleration of link 5 IS

obtained to be
r~ is obtained by substituting for 8~ in eithe:- equation (4) or equation (5) .
.I
The crossed linkage of problem 3.1 is shown in Fig. P4.1 Crank 2 is the driver and
rotates at a constant velocity w2 = 1Ok radls. Determi~e the accelerations of G 3
and C the angular acceleration of link 4 for the phase where e
= 53°. Use vector
algebl@-) = 150mm , AG3 =300mm , AB = -150mm
AC = 600mm , O.JB = 150mm , 0 2 0-1 = 450mm
--x
c
Fig. P4.1
4.2 Solve problem 4.1 graphically.
4.3 Fig. P4.3 shown linkage O~BO.JC , which consists ofthree moving links 2, 3, 4 and
ground link 1. Assuming pure rolling of 4 on 1, find the acceleration of point B, and
· the angular accelerations of links 3 and 4 when 11nk 2 rotates at a constant angular
velocity w 2 = 1 radls, andB = 65° .
0~ = 900mm, AB = 1200mm, BC = 600mm, r 1 = 600mm, r 4 = 450mm
4.4 Fig. P4.4 shows a swivelling-joint mechanism of Problem 3.6. The dimensions of
the various links are:
O;A = 25mm, AB = 180mm, AD =jiB = 90mm __
O+B = 50mm, D£ = EF = 100mm, 0 2 0+ = 150mm
The crank 0 ;A rotates at 191 rpm as sho~ in the figure. Determine the
acceleration of sliding oflink DE in the trunnion. Determine also the acceleration
of the slider F.
112 .Mechanisms ofjl1acltinery
Fig. P4.3
. '•
!'
i
II
I j120mm
I' 15 rr.m l
I
I
./
Fig. P4.4
4.5 In the Whitworth mechanism shown in Fig. P4.5, crank 0_0 rotates at 120 rpm in
clockwise direction. Determine the angular acceleration of the slotted link.AB and
the acceleration of the slider D for the phase when 8 = 60°. The dimensions of
the various links are:
0r4 = 200mm, 0 1 0 4 = JOOmm, 0 4C = 150mm, CD = 500mm
Solve the problem
a) graphically;
b) by using vector algebra.
6
/
Fig. P4.5
the mechanism shown in Fig. P4.6, the crankO) rotates at a constant

wise angular speed of 120 rpm, for the instant whene = 45° determine the
acceleration of the slider D and the angular acceleration of link BC. The
Dimensions of the various links are:
0~ = 200mm; AB = 1500mm, BC = 600mm, 0/3 = 400mm, CD = 500mm
Fig. P4.6
4.7 Link 2 of the mechanism shown in Fig. P4.7, rotates at 2000 rpm. For the phase
shown where 0 ~ is horizontal, determine the acceie~~tion of sliders B and D. The-
dimensions of the various links are:
0r4 =50 mm, AB = 150 mm, AC =50 mm, CD = 125 mm
Fig. P4.7
4.8 In the oscillating cylinder mechanism shown in Fig. P4.8 crank O;A rotates at a
constant speed of 1OOTC rad/s clockwise. The cylinder oscillates about 0 4 . For the
phase when B = 60° , using vector algebra determine:
a) velocity of piston B relative to the cylinder walls;

b) angular velocity of the piston rod AB;
c) acceleration of the piston B relative to the cylinder walls;
d) angular acceleration of the piston rod AB.
Fig. P4.6
4.9 In the Geneva wheel shown in Fig. P4.9 the pinP is an integral part of wheel A and
the locking plate B engages the radial slots in wheel C turning the wheel C one-
fourth of a revolution for·each revolution of the pin. At the engagement position
shown, e = 45°. For constant angular clockwise velocity m2 of wheel A
determine the angular acceleration of wheel c in terms of e and f3.
If m2 = 2 rad/s clockwise, determine the corresponding angular acceleration a3
c
of wheel for the position when e
= 200.
r r
Fig. P4.9
--For the mechanism shown in Fig. P4.10, link OJ3 has an angular velocity
w2 = 4 rad/s in the counter clockwise direction and an angular acceleration
a2 = 6 rad/s 2 for the instant when 8 = f3 = 60°. Pin A is fixed on link 0 J3
and slides in the circular slot on link 0 3 C. The radius of curvature of the slot
is 150 mm and for the phase shown, the tangent to the slot at the point of
contact is parallel AOr Determine the angular acceleration oflink 0 3 C for
the phase shown. ·
Fig. P4.10
\
fii6;
_/
Mechanisms ofMachinery
4.11 For the linkage shown in Fig. P3.15, determine the angular velocity o(links 3
and 6 when e = 45° . The angular velocity of link 2 is 1 rad/s. Dimensions
ofthe links are:
00 =50 mm, AB = 250 mm, AC = .75 mm,06C = 150 mm
Fig. P4.11
Chapter 6
CAMS
, -·haped mechanical member for transmitting a desired motion to ·
· irreaUlar~Sl
A cam IS an :;, W11 as the follower, by direct contact. The cam and the follower
another element, k..."10d onstirute a higher pair. A cam may remam stationary, translate
. tact an c
have a 1me con wer may translate or oscillate. Usually cams rotate at consta..'lt
11
or rotate while the fo ~ovide a means of achieving any desired follower motion and are.
angular speed. Cam~ p They are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust
· · machmes. ·
used m many l bustion engines, and are extensively used in machine tools,
valves of internal co~ insrrurnents and many other applications.
mechanical computer..,,
Roller follower
Fig. 6.1 A cam arrange;:rfent
CLASSIFICATION OF FOLLOWERS~ ~
6.1
.fi d based on the following:
Followers may be classl Ie -
. f th urface of contact
a) ConstructiOn o e s
. motion
b) Type of foi1ower
. f 0 tion with respect to center of cam ·

c) Location of llne 0 rn
Cams 147
ification of followers based on surface of contact
of followers based on follower surface of contact is shown in Fig. 6.2.
ife-~dge follower: In such a follower a sharp, knife-edge is in contact with the

Such followers produce excessive cam wear, so they are oflittle practical use.
r follower: A cylindrical roller, held by a pin to the follower assembly, is in

with the cam. At low speeds pure rolling contact is possible but at high
A> '
some sliding can also occur. These types of followers reduce wear of the
surface at high peripheral s~eeds .
/'
ced follower: As the rraine implies, flat face is in contact with the cam.
types of followers cause high surface stress and to reduce this stress, the flat
is modified to a spherical surface with a large radius.
(b) (c)
Cam followers: (a) knife-edge f ollower, (b) roller follower, (c) flat-facedfollower,
(d) spherical-facedfollower
.2 Classification of followers based on type of follower motion
The classification of followers based on type of follower mot~_on is represented m

~ig. 6.3.
Translatory followers: As the cam rotates, the follower reciprocates in guides.
Oscillatory followers : For a uniform rotary motion of the cam, the follower
oscillates through a certain angle.
148 Mechanisms of Maclrinery
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.3 (a) In-line translatingjollower, (b) off-set translatingjollower,

(c) Oscillatingjollower
6.1.3 Classification of followers based on follower line of motion
Fig 6.3 is again used to represent classification of followers based on follower line of
motion.
a) Radialfollowers: These followers translate along an axis passing through the cam
center of rotation .
b) Off-setfollowers: The axis of follower movement. is displaced from the cam center
of rotation.
.I
c) Oscillating followers: These followers .... os<1illate about the axis of the follower
-~
through a certain angle
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CAMS:
Cams are classified based on:
a) cam shape as d:_isc cams, translation cams, cylindrical cams, globoidal cams
etc.;
b) follower motion e.g. dwell-rise-dwell-return, dwell-rise-return-dwell, etc.;
·c) cam constraint as spring or pre-loaded cams and positive return cams. Pre-
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Cams 149
loaded cams are cams in which the follower is held in contact by an external
force provided by springs, gravity etc.; in positive return cams no external
force is required to keep the cam and the follower in contact.
GRAPIDCAL DESIGN OF CAM CURVES:
Disc cam with a flat-faced radifal fo llower
6.4 shows a disc cam with a flat faced radial follower. As the cam rotates at a
angular velocity in the direction shg,wn,. the follower moves upwards a distance
a specified rise. (The return motion is a~sumed to be through the same displacement
thout a dwell.)
/
To determine the cam contour graphically, the mechanism is inverted by holding the
cam stationary and making the follower move around it. In so doing, the relative
motion is not affected.
n
II
I•
(J
Fig. 6.4 Disc cam construction with a flat-faced follower
Procedure of construction
i) Rotate the follower about the cam center in opposite direction to cam rotation.
ii) Move the follower radically outward (or inward in case of return motion) the
correct amount for each division of cam rotation.
iii) Draw the cam surface tangent to the polygon that is formed by the various
positions of the follower.
6.3.2 Disc cam with a radial roller follower
With this type of follower, the center of the roller moves with a prescribed motion.
Procedure of construction is the same as for a cam with a flat-faced.radial foUower.. wiL~
.
the exception that the cam contour is drawn tangent to the various positions of the roller
follower. See Fig. 6.5.
0
pressure I1
angle
~
.....---- trace point
10
Pitch point
4 8
~ Pitch Curve
Cam Surface
Fig. 6.5 Disc cam construction with a radial roller follower
Cams 151
Disc cam with oscillating follower
type of cam, the follower is rotated about the cam center and at the same time it
· center through the required displacement angle for each position as shown in
:::,, .;,_.,,...,r'" of the follower rotation are indicated by 0 , 1, 2, ... 11. With these points
and radius 00 arcs are drawn to intersect with other curves drawn with 0 as
........1'Pr<:!
and the required follower di~pla~ement. The intersection of these arcs give
O', 1', 2 ', ... 11 '. Drawing tahgeni lines through these points to the circles drawn
centers 0, 1, 2, ... 11, determines the polygon which circumscribes the cam. From
I"
the cam profile can be drawn by passing a curve tangent to the sides of the
3
2
:··,·-~\_,
\ '
9
\'--- - cam profile
Fig. 6.6 Disc cam construction with an oscillating follower
li
Cams 153 s
.'!t'
ofFigure 6.5 is explained below.
-
is the smallest circle that can be drawn about the center of cam rotation and
cam surface. Its size determines the size of the cam.
tis a theoretical point on the cam follower which corresponds to the point
follower. It is used to generate the pitch curve. In a roller follower, the
of the roller represents the trace1Joiht.
angle is the angle betwee11;th~_ <;iirection of follower n:otion and a normal to
curve. This angle indicates that the forces existing between the cam and
of
are not in the direction the follower motion in which case, if the pressure
is too large, the translating follower may jam in its bearings. Moreover, the
'
angle is an important factor in determining the size of the cam. A small cam
a higher pressure angle and is steeper than a large cam with a smaller pressure angle.
a larger cam is undesirable because it uses more space and may produce unbalance.
_good performance of a cam, the pressure angle should not exceed 30° . However,
orne cases where the working forces are small, larger pressure angles can be used.
a given displacement of the follower, the pressure angle can be reduced by the
methods:
- increase the size of the base circle;
-increase the cam angle for a given follower displacement;
- change type of follower motion;
-
- chanste amount of follower offset.
-
Pitch point is a point on the pitch curve which designates the location of the maximum
pressure angle.
Pitch circle is the circle about the center of cam rotation and through the pitch point.
Prime circle is the smallest circle about the center of cam rotation and through the pitch
curve.
-·
Lift or Rise is the maximum travel of the follower from the lowest position to the top
most position.
6.3.4 Positive-Return Cams
In disc cam and radial follower arrangements, external means is required to ensure -~
contact between the cam and follower, particularly during the return motion. In some .• ,
designs, however, control of the follower motion, for both outward and return motions,
is obtained without requiring any external means of ensuring contact between cam and
follower. Such cams are known as positive-return cams. Fig. 6.7 shows a positive-
return cam. For such cams, the displacement for the rise and return motions must be the
same and in opposite directions.
As can be noted from Fig. 6.7, the width b is equal to the diameter of the base circle •
plus the total rise of the follower. Moreover, points 1 11 , 2 11 , ... , 12 11 are located on.
the flat face in such a way that lines formed by diametrically opposite points are of
equal length, i.e.
This condition provides a return motion which is the same as the outward motion.
Construction of a positive-return cam shown in Fig. 6.7 follows the same procedure as
cam construction for disc cams with flat-faced radial followers.
6.5 DISPLACEl\1ENT DIAGRAM:
Before a cam profile is determine~ the motion of the follower in accordance to

requirements of the system must be selected. The follower motion is indicated on
displacement diagram. The displacement diagram has as an abscissa the cam
angle, and the ordinate is the followe!" travel in miilimeters. The divisions of
abscissa are identified by the station point numbers. These divisions can be in de
or in seconds.
The displacement diagram identifies the following motion characteristics:
the rise: motion of the follower away from the cam center,
the dwells: those periods during which the follower is at rest, and
the return: motion of the follower toward the cam center.
6.6 TYPES OF FOLLOWER MOTION:
The first step in the design of a cam curve consists in constructing the associa
displacement diagram. The follower motion might be a sta.."ldard type or a custom
Some of the standard motions are: uniform, modified uniform, simple harm
parabolic and cycloidal. Ordinarily, a cam will have one or more rises and,
as many returns as rises. Dwell periods might not be necessary. The rises, dwells
returns must suitably be distributed around the perip~ery of the cam. The perioqs
these occupy the time of one rotation of the cam ...
.I
,.·
6.6.1 Uniform motion
A follower has uriform motion when its veldcity"is constant. The displacement
is as shown in Fig. 6.8(a). The velocity and acceleration characteristics are represen
in Fig. 6.8(b).
The follower moves through the same distance for each equal interval of time or
rotation angle.
Uniform motion is the simplest possible cam motion, but shock results from the
in velocity from 0 to some finite value or vice-versa. For this type of follower
there occur theoretically infinite accelerations and decelerations at the beginning
end of the rise and return motions.
Cams 155
dwell rise= p dwell

a=oo
V = const.
4'
i 3'
v =0
2 I .) 4 5 6 0
Cam angle, a Cam angle, a _00
ace=
(a) Jf1)
(b)
(a) Follower displacem_ent diagram for uniform motion, (b) follower

velociry and acceler;zizon for uniform motion
motion can be represented by a simple equation like:
(6.1 )
y = follower displacement corresponding to the cam angle e; and

c = constant to be determined from the boundary conditions.
d = the total distance through which the follower is to rise, and

j3 = the angle in radians through which the cam is to rotate to produce the
required rise,
(6.2)
d
(6.3)
j3 ..
the equation that represents the follower displacement is:
d
= -e (6.4)
f3
· is an equation of a straight line or uniform motion. The velocity and acceleration
the follower are obtained by differentiation.
v - dy dd/i d
=- - = -(J) (6.5)
dt f3 dt f3
= d2y d dw
a =- - = 0 (6.6)
d? f3 dt
156 Mech anisms of Machinery
Before the follower starts to rise it is in the dwell position, Between the dwell and rise
periods there is an acceleration and it is infinite. Thus the forces transmitted are very
large and shock and ather secondary effects result.
6.6.2 M odified uniform motion
The uniform-motion clirve is modified to reduce the shock at the beginning and end of
the motion. A convenient method is to use circular arcs at the beginning and end of the
motion which are tangent to the dwell and rise lines. The displacement diagram of the
modified uniform-motion is shown in Fig. 6.9.
6'
I~
I
'
5'
I I I
'
:
4'
I 1/
follower ; ~·
.)
' I 1/
rise 'd'I 2' /
'
: 1'
/
'
/
0 l' 2' 4' 5' 6' 7'
cam angle ' e or time, t
F ig. 6.9 Follower displacemenz diagram wiih modified uniform motion
Poor acceleration characteristics limits the use of this motion to low cam speeds.
6.6.3 Parabolic motion:

./
Parabolic motion is a constant acceleration motion'. For a given cam speed and follower
rise, parabolic motion has the lowest or ma..'Ximurn·acceleration. Parabolic motion can
be modified to include a constant vel~cicy motion between acceleration and
deceleration. This follower motion is recommended for low or moderate speeds.
To construct the displacement diagram use even number of time divisions with least
number of divisions equal to six. Through the origin of the displacement diagram,
construct any line at any angle to they- axis or displacement axis. Divide this line into
parts proportional to:
I , 3, 5, 5, 3, I for six divisions,
I, 3, 5, 7, 7, 5, 3, 1 for eight divisions, a..1d so on.

Cams 157
division with the point marked on the displacement axis corresponding
the other divisions draw lines parallel to this line to obtain the
ement for each division of cam rotation. This procedure is shown in
dwell. rise = ~/2 r:.re = ~/?...

Hltl:lm. dwell
accelerationi
'·· ;
3 4 5./ 6 cam angle, e I

I
cam angle;e i
i
Ii
i
(a) (b) i
~--___j
Fig. 6.10 (a) Follower displacement with parabolic motion,

(b) follower parabolic motion characteristics
parabolic motion of the follower can be represented by the equation:
y =crY (6.7)
· equation is valid only up to the inflection point where the follower rise is d/2 and
the cam angle is {3/2. Applying this boundary condition:
c = (6.8)
and the displacement is given by:
(6.9)
The velocity of the follower is:
v = dy = 4d dB = 4wd
8 8 (6.10)
dt p2 dt p2
and the acceleration
2
a = d y _ 4o/d (6.11)
dt2 p2
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~ ,.
As can be noted, the acceleration is constant.
The velocitv is maximum for 8 = {JI-2 a.'l.d is given by
.:fwd fJ 2wd
vmax - - -- (6.12)
/32 2
For the second half of the motion the displacement equation can be given as:
(6. 13)
where c 1 I c 2 andc3 are constants to be evaluated from the boundary conditions.
The boundary conditions are:
when e = f3 1 y = d which yields
CI + C2 f3 + C3 /32 = d (6.14)
when e = f3 I V = 0 which gives
(6. 15)
and, when e = /312. 1

v = vmax
c2 w + 2c3 w2f3 = p
2wd
(6.16)
Solving equations (6. 14), (6. 15) and (6.15) for the ~own constants simultaneously,
"
cl = -d
c2 - 4d
- "
f3
2d
c3 = --
/32
Substituting for c 1 I c2 and c3 , the displacement equation becomes
Y = -d + 4d 8 _ 2tl ff2
(6.18a)
fJ jJ2
or,
(6.18b)_
Cams 159
acceleration equations, respectively, are given by
(6.19)
--4o/d
!l
(6.20)
note that jerk, which is proportional to the rate of change of force

' is infinite at the beginning and end of rise and at the inflection point.
.~
..
harmonic motion is ob~ed graphically by construction a semi-circle on
s of the displacement diagram and then dividing the semi circle into"as many
as are used for the time axis (or cam angle) as shown in Fig. 6.11.
dwell. rise= P dwell
:0
(l)
Cl'l
;....
....
(l)
~
0
,£
~
.J 4 5 6 cam angle, a
cam angle,e
. (a)
--
acceleration
(b)
Fig. 6.11 (a) Follower displacement for parabolic motion,

{b) follower motion characteristics for parabolic motion
simple harmonic motion of the follower can be represented by the equation
_,.
(6.21)
The constants C 1 and fSJ.., can be obtained from the bo':ffidary conditions
y = 0 for¢ = 0 and -
y = d far . ¢ = 11:.
Applying these conditions, we get
(6.22)
(6.23)
Solving for the constants

d
cI = c2 =-
]
Therefore, the equation of the follower displacement is given by
y = d 0 - cos¢) =
d
(1 - cosw,t) (6.24)
2 2
where the angular velocity of the rotational radius, w is taken to be constant.

r '·
To relate the angular velocity ofthe rotational radiusw, to the cam angular velocity w,
note that when ¢ =7r , the corresponding cam rotation is fJ from which the time
element can
be determined as
1C
t - - or t = /!_ which yields
w, (J)
1C - f3
(6.25)
w, (l)
and (J)r is obtained to be
(J) = -1C (J) (6.26)

r fJ
.I
Substituting for w ,, the displacement equat~~n is··
(6.27)
But the cam angle eis given bye = wt. Hence the displacement equation becomes
d 1C
y = -(1 - cos/38).
2
The velocity and acceleration are given by time derivatives of displacement.
wd . 1r8
v = ir-Sm-
2/3 f3
Cams 161
(6.30)
if a dwell occurs before or after the rise motion a step ch~ge in acceleration
and jerk will be infinite at this point.
idal motion
'
to avoid infinite jerk between rise, r_eturn and dwell motions, cycloidal motion
employed. Cycloidal motion is a ~otidn which has a zero acceleration at the
and end of the rise.
lacement diagram for the cycloidal motion is obtained from a cycloid. A

is defined as the locus of a point on a circle that rolls on a straight line. For
.
·on angle j3 , the displacement of the cycloidal motion is the rise A C = d,
must be equal to the circumference of the rolling circle. Thus,
=d (6.31)
which the radius of the rolling.circle r is obtained to be

d
(6.32)
2rr
the displacement diagram for the cycloidal motion:
draw g. circle with center Bas shown in Fig. 6.12(a).
the circle is then divided into as many equal parts as are used for the cam angle
runs.
iii) the points on the circle are projected to a vertical line through B as shown on
the figure. Through these points lines are drawn parallel to AB which intersect
with vertical lines drawn through the divisions on the cam angle axis.
iv) The intersection points are joined by a smooth curve to give the cycloidal
•'
motion displacement.
dwell rise= 13 dwell
4 5 6 cam angle, 6
cam angle, e
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.12 (a) Follower displacement for cycloidal nzotion,

(b) follower motion characteristics/or cycloidal motion
From Fig. 6.12, it can be show_n that the ordinate of a point P on the displacement
diagram is
y = r (IP - sin~ (6.33)
Since the rolling circle makes one revolution for the rise d of the follower (or for the ,
return d), the displacement of the rotational radius can be related to the cam angular
displacement by
IP = 271:-
e
[J ~ .. .. .
,/
The displacement y of the follower with cycloidalmotion is then given by

'
Substituting for r
y = d ( !}_ - _!_ 8
sin 211: ]
fJ 271: - /3
The velocity and acceleration of the cycloidal motion are
p
v = wd( I - cos(p8)
211: l (6.3
Cams 163
(6.38)
Advanced cam curves
high-speed cams the selection of the motion of the cam follower must not be based ·
on the displacement but also on forces acting on the system as a result of the
selected. Dynamic. loading pro9t!ce~ impact loads which produce sharp blows
the system which may cause structill'al ~~age and set up und~sirable vibrations in
system. Jerk is an indication of tf:,e'impact characteristics of the loading; it may be
that impact has jerk equal to i~~ity.
· deficiency may be improved by using cycloidal motion as noted in section 6.6.5,

by combining portions of several basic curves. The advantage of combining portions
ic curves is that a lower peak acceleration (force) than that occurring in cycloidal
might be realized.
When basic curves are combined, the displacement curves must be tangent at the
and the accelerations should be equal. By so selecting the accelerations at the
infinite jerk is avoided at the ends. And since no discontinuity is allowed on
the displacement-time curve, at junctions the velocities also 'm ust match .
. Another method of eliminating the deficiencies of .the basic curves is to use a

polynomial cur.ve. The polynomi~ equation is:
+Cfr
n (6.39)
y is the follower rise,

e is the cam angle as before,
c 0I c l I c2 I ... l en are constants.
The constants depend on boundary conditions and are evaluated from the boundary
~. conditions.
:rt•As an example let's select the following boundary conditions.
For 8 =0
y =0
y'=0
i =0
For 8 = fJ
y =d
y· = 0
.Y" = 0
There are six conditions from which six constants can be evaluated. For this particular
case, the polynomial equation to be used is
(a)
The first and second derivatives are:
i =C dB .,. 2CJed8 + 3C (jdB + 4C (jdB + 5C rfd8

4
I dt - dt 3
dt dt 5
dt (b)
Or,
i = ClJJ + 2C./JJ8 + 3C3wrY + 4C4w& + 5C5wrf (d)
(e)
Substituting the boundary conditions in equations (a), (d) and (e) and solving for the
constants, we obtain
C0 = 0, C1 = o.
c3- -- JOd .·
./
p3
15d
fJ"
c5 = 6d.
The equaticfr:s of motion are obtained by substituting for the constants.
y = JOdff _ 15drf + 6dg5

(f)
p3 fJ" - /]5
i = 3 Owd g2 _ 60wd (j + 3 Owd rf

(g)
{J 3
If !l
Cams 165
I80oid rY
(h)
!!'
3 3
_ 60m de + 3Om drY (i)
tr (i
. called 3-4-5 polynomial, because ()[ tQe remaining terms in the follower .
acf~mc;!nt equation. This type of cam will 'begin and end its motion slower than
The relationships are plotted jn the ·following Fig. 6.13. ·
. ~ .. ,
I dwell rise=~ 1 dwell 1
r - -~ .,·'
..
1', t
,.
'I
..•
Fig. 6.13 3-4-5 polynomial motion characteristics ofa cam follower
6.6. 7 Nonstandard cam curves
In cases where the required follower motion is not a simple dwell-rise-return motion,
the motion characteristics can be obtained by combinfng various curves to give the . ~.
required motion of the follower. Figs. 6.14, 6.15 and 6.16 show the motion
characteristics of three analytic functions
a) harmonic and halfharmonic,
b) cycloidal and halfcycloidal, and
c) eighth-power polynomial
which can be used to generate the required motion of the follower.
These functions were developed by Kloomok and Muffley for cam design to avoid
infinite jerk. Various combinations of. these curves are used depending on the motion
requirement of the follower.
It should be noted that in using these functions, the rise or retlllJl cam angle f3 should
start at the position where the cam rotation angle 8 = 0, and matching of aJ!gles should
be carefully handled.
By observing the velocity characteristics of the above functions the following remarks
can be made.
i) Harmonic motion characteristics can be applied with or without any dwell after
the rise or return motion.
ii) Cycloidal motion characteristics can also be applied in similar manner to

harmonic motion characteristics.
iii) The eighth-powerpolynomialmotionis good forrise-dwell-returnmotion

.. ,·
with
a dwell after the rise motion because it provides zero velocity condition after
..1
the rise and avoids infinite jerk.
. Cams 167
I· ~e r2L( . -rl)
f ~ A•--.pl Sin ZIJ
A
Y•- rL Ieos
2P \
re)
ZfJ
ll-6
L(
Lt S•- 1 +cos- d)
te 2 tJ
_,
Fig. 6.15 Harmonic motion characteristics of a cam follower
s C-3 s C-4
~i e
I~ 11~
S•L ( 1--+-linr-
8 1
~
')
.. p
~p
I~
_I
Lt B•L ( 1----sln
t
8
' l r-
P r
~)
p
~8
y
V• _.f!
~
(1-cos.r.!..)
p VB
v
V• .- ; (1 +ccs ~.;)
A
~8 A • -TL
-
pl c ')
Stn :r-
~
us A .• .!:f
p2 ( sln r.!)
p
A '
Fig. 6.16 Cycloidal motion characteristics ofa cam follower
Cams 169
-r saL [ 6.097ss(;} - 20!BlJ4o(jf +zs.73lss(;J

1
I
~::::..-----f:_L~.- e -13.6096\; )' + z.s609s(~ fJ ·

va k[18.2926s(;) - 103.90200 (;) + 160.38930 c;)
- 95.26755(~ y+20.48760(; }] :
A1111-jl [ 36.,s;s3ol*)-415.608oo(#Y +~Ol.946so(;Y
/--~71.~530 c;Y + l43.41320C~) J 6
.f-1
2 5
f~t
5 =L [ 1.00000 - 2.63415(1) + 2.78055(~)
G 7
+ 3.1706o(~) - s.a779s(~) +2.s609s(i)
8]
. l·~e
~ 1"\:7 f; [- 6
v= s.2683o(~) + 13.9027s(~J + 19.02360(!}
t "\..._/ -48.14565\J) + 20.48760(~)]
A=:Jr[ -5.26830 +ss.GIIoo(jf +9s.usoo(Jr}
- 288.87390(;)s + 143.41320(~)&]
A
P-2
Fig. 6.17 Eighth-power motion characteristics ofa cam follower
..
Example 6.1
a) Draw the displacement diagram for a radial roller follower that rises 50 mm from
irs lowest position with a simple harmonic motion in 113 of a revolution, dwells for
1112 of a revolution and then r~turns to its lowest position in 116 of a revolution
with simple harmonic motion to remain at rest for the rest of the revolution.
Assume of roller diameter of 20 mm, and minimum cam radius of 25 mm.
b) For the above motion of the follower, lay out the cam profile that would produce
the required motion.
Solution
Follower rise d = 50 mm
Cam angle for the rise motion fJ = -271: rad = 120°

3
Dwell angle = ;r rad = 300
6
Cam angle for the return motion fJ 1 = 71: rad = 60°
3
5
Dwell angle after the return motion = - n rad = 150°
12
The displacement diagram is shown in Fig. 6.18(a) drawn to a convenient scale. The
procedure of construction is as follows:
1) Draw the horizontal straight line OPQRS with a y<>nvenient length. Preferably
OS= development of the prime circle. OPOR$ = 3'600.
Divide the line OS into segments where
OP = 1200, cam angle corresponding to the tfse of the follower;
PQ = 30° , cam angle corresponding to the dwell of the follower in its lifted
position;
QR = 60° , cam angle corresponding to the return of the follower;
RS = 150°, cam angle corresponding to the dwell of the follower in its lowest
position.
2) Draw a vertical line through·o equal to the follower rise,

o/ 1 ·= 50 .· mm
'
Cams 171
Divide the cam angle corresponding to the rise and return motions into equal even
number of divisions, in this case six divisions.
We obtain 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 for the rise and 0',1',2',3',4',5',6' for the return.
With of1 as diameter draw a semi-circle and divide it into equal divisions, the
number being equal to that in step 3. This locates points a, b, c, d, e, andf Project
these points on to the vertical lines through 0, 1, 2, etc. and 0', 1', 2', etc. The
·projections give points A, B, C, D, E, F on the rise and A ', B ', C ', D ', E ', F' on the
return.
5) Join points A, B, C, D, E, F by a s.mnoth curve and so also A', B ', C ', D ', E ', F ' to
obtain the displacement diagram:
.1"
he cam curve is laid out according to the following procedure of construction.
1) Draw the prime circle with center C and radius CO.

CO is set equal to minimum radius of cam plus radius of roller.
Draw
angle OCP = 1200 to represent the follower rise;
angle PCQ = 300 to represent the dwell of the follower in the outermost
position;
angle QCR = 600 to represent the return of the follower to its lowest position.
Angles QCP and QCR are divided into even number of divisions to match the
number of divisio-\).S in the displacement diagram. In this case there are six
divisions.
S) From the displacement diagram, a, a ', b ', c ', d', e ', and f are transferred to a
vertical line through the trace point 0 and the cam center C.
These points are rotated to inter$ect with the rise divisions and return divisions at
1', 2', 3', 4 ', 5', 6', and 7', 8', 9', 10', 11', respectively. With these points as center,
draw the positions of the roller.
4) Join points 0, 1', 2', ... 11 ', 12' to obtain the pitch curve. Draw tangent to the roller
positions to obtain the cam profile.
The cam profile is shown in Fig. 6.1S(b).
F F'
oo 3 4 5 6
cam '!flgle, 9
(a)
Fig. 6.18
Cams 173
,ILl............. at a uniform speed gives an offset roller follower the motion described
rise of 50 mm from the lowest position for cam rotation through 1200;
dwell for the next 600 of cam rotation;
return to lowest position for 900 cam rotation;
dwell for the rest of cam rotation.
minimum cam radius of 25 m!n'and.line of motion of follower to be 20 mm

the cam axis of rotatio~ draw the cam profile if both the rise and return
are to be cycloidal motion. R.oner diameter is 12 mm.
r
u•"·Y ...,,.......t diagram is drawn in Fig. 6.19(a) by the method described in section
the cam profile, we follow the procedure outlined below.
the prime circle with center C and radius CO.

CO= minimum radius of cam plus radius of roller. 0 is the trace point.
Draw a circle with radius equal to the off-set and center C. This is the off-set circle.
Locate point B as shown in the figure.
Through B draw a tangent to the off-set circle to intersect with the prime circle at
·0.
Lay angles :
OCP = 1200 to represent the follower rise;
PCO = 600 to represent the dwell of the follower at the topmost position;
QCR = 900 to represent the follower return.
The rest of the revolution represents the dwell of the follower at the lowest
position.
Arcs OP and QR are divided into equal even number of divisions, eight in this
particular case, to obtain points 1, 2, 3, ... , 8 tOr OP and 8', 7', 6', ... , I' for QR.
Through these points lay tangents to the offset circle.
174/ Mechanisms of Machinery
"
follower displacement in the rise and return motions, respectively.. Join a, b, c, ...
h ',g ', f', .. _ to obtain the pitch curve.
6) With a, b, c, ... h ',g ', f', ... as centers draw circles with diameter equal to the roller
diameter. Lay a curve tangent to these circles to obtain the cam profile as shown
in Fig. 6.19(b).
2'
8 ~
r-7'r=T=~=F=r=T=9~~k-~~,_~~~~~~~-.-..-----------~ l'
i 6 12'
i 5 .L 3'
4;'
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.19
Cams 175
Example 6.3
Determine:
a) the relation between cam angles /3 1 , f3 2 and lifts L 1 , L 2 to match a cycloidal
curve C-1 with a harmonic curve H-2; and
b) the relation to match curves H-3 and C-4.
For cycloidal motion C-1
s = L(; - ~sin(rr?)
v= ~(I -cos(rr?)
a = ;:(sin(~?)
where f3 = /3 1 and L = L1
For harmonic motion H-2
s r( sin(~~)
= l
v = ;~( ~os(;?)
a = -~;(cos(~)'
the motion requirements, the velocity at the begirming of the H-2 motion and the
·ty at the end of the C-1 motion should be equal; ·otherwise, matching of the two
will not be possible. Therefore, for fJ = f3 1and fJ1 = 0
1rL (
=-cos(-1rfJ1) J
r 2/32 2/3
which we obtain
:~ (2) - JT:L2
and the required relation is
b) Similarly, for H-3 _and C-4, the velocity at the beginning of the C-4 motion and at
the end of the H-i motion must be equal. i.e. for B1 =fJ 1 and e = 0
From this the required relation, upon substitution, is obtained to be
6.7 ANALYTICAL CAM DESIGN
Graphical method of cam design is limited to slow-speed applications. For high speed
cams the analytical design approach is adapted.
6.7.1 Disc Cam with Radial Flat-Faced Follower
In analytical method of cam design, three valuable characteristics of the cam are
determined. These are
i) parametric equations of the cam contour, j
ii) minimwn radius of the cam to avoid cusps or' sharp points, and
iii) location of the point of contact which giv~s the length of the follower face.
~ "
Consider Fig. 6.20 which shows a cam with flat-faced radial follower. The cam rotates
with a constant angular velocity. The point of contact between the follower and the cam
is at (x,y) which is at a distance of l from the radial center-line of the follower. The
displacement of the follower from the origin is given by
r =C + f(B) (6.40)
where C = minimum radius of the cam, and

f(B) = the desired motion of the follower, which is a function of the angular
displacement of the cam angle.
Cams 177
geometry ofthe cam and follower arrangement, the radial displacement is
r =y sin8 + X COS8 (6.41)

I
the length of contact I is given by
=y COS8 - X Sin8 (6.42)
right side of equation (6.42) is the derivative with respect toe of equation (6.41 ).
,p
Fig. 6.20 Coordinates ofa generic point on a cam with radial flat-faced follower
l = dr (6.43)
dB
1 = _:!_(c + f(BJ ) =/ 1(BJ (6.44)

dB
If the displacement of the follower is given as a mathematical function, y = f(B), then

rand l can easily be determined. As can be seen from the equation, the minimum length
of the follower face is independent of the minimum cam radius C.
For the follower moving from the Ca!!l center with positive velocity, l is positive and
contact occurs above the follower axis. When the follower moves toward the center,
velocity of the follower is negative indicating that the contact is below the axis of the
follower.
The cam contour is determined by solving equations (6.4d) and (6.~ simultaneously
from which we obtain
x = jC + f(B) jcose - f 1(8)sin8 }

- (6.45)
y = /C 1
+ f(B) /sine + f (e) cose
Minimum Radius C to A void Cusps
dx dy
A cusp occurs when both - and are equal to zero. In this case, a point is
de de
~ ~~
formed on the cam as in Fig ..5.~
Fig. 6.21 A pointed cam
As can be seen from the figure, at this point, for the follower rotation by de, the point
of contact (x,y) does not change; i.e.
(6.46)
Cams 179
11
= - jC + f(8) +/ (8) fsin8
(6.47)
11
= jC + f(8) + / (8) fcosfJ
(6.47) can become zero simultaneously if
(6.48)
, to avoid cusps, the condition ~~t must be satisfied is
+ j(fJ) + /
11
(fJ) = 0 (6.49)
(6.50)
sum f(B) + f 11(8) is positive, C becomes negative and does not have any
significance. In this case, the minimum diameter ofthe cam is determined from
of the cam.
Disc Cam with Radial Roller Follower

.
.22 shows a cam with radial roller follower .
.
"splacement ofthe center of the follower from the cam center is given by
= Ro + f(8) (6.51)
R0 = minimum radius of the pitch circle of the cam;
f{B) = radial motion of the follower as a function of the cam angle.

·-"''
p = radius of curvature of the pitch surface, ~

p c = radius of curvature of the cam surface,
Rr = radius of the roll~r.
----Pitch
Surface
Fig. 6.22 Position coordinates of the center of a radial roller follower for
a given cam angle e
Keeping p constant, if Rr is increased, Pc decreases.!~ Rr is increased untilRr =p, Pc

equals zero and the cam becomes pointed. So, to preve.Rt
•
pointed cams, Rr must be less
than Pmin where Pmin is the minimum.value o~p o;ver a particular segment of profile
being considered. Thus, each segment of the profile must be checked to avoid
formation of sharp points. "
The radius of curvature at a point, expressed in polar coordinates (r,({J), is given by
(6.52)
where r(({J) and the first two derivatives are continuous.
Cams 181
our caser{(jJ) = r(B) and the radius of curvature p is obtained from
(6.53)
equation (6.53), Pmin can be detel1Ilineq that prevents pointed cam surface.
since the mathematical operations inv.olved to obtain Pmin from the above equation
/'
complex, p . is determined from cirrves developed for the ratio p min for various
~ . R
0
values, where Lis follower rise. Figures 6.23 through 6.25 show the plot of Pmin
Ro
the cam angle for various values of!:._. From these curves it is possible to
Ro
·""""·•u.u•~~--- whether or not p m1n. is greater than Rr .
~
.·
182 Mechanisms of Machin ery
2.8 -
- -
/v
2.5
2.4
~
1 - - - - - f- -
-7 v
/ v/ v
.-•
2.2 -- - - 1-- -
2.0 .
V'/ ' / !.---
1.8 I V/ v_~
V7 V__...l--
'--
~~
L/Ro a 2.00
-01.6 1.75
a:
1.4
1.50
1.25
> 'i~! 7 -
~, ..........- ~.-
..,.
~~w ~ l----~
.!;
1:
~ 1.00
~~~c:-
1.2
1.0 I ~~~~ 0.600.80

/,'/
0.8
~V'
'
0.40
p:~ 0.20
0.6
0.4
~v I
~
~
0.2 ..........-:: I
--:::::::: ~
0
10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400
Active cam angle, JJ, degrees
1.0 r-r--,.--...-r-r,.-----r-.---r-~-r-r--==-~--,
0.9 - f - --i- i-1
0.8 1--+--1--4-l ......1-.1----l
0.7 1--f--i--+--r-
0.3 .-+--
0.2 ~---•----+,..<'-!
o~~~~~JL_j_j_lj_j_L_~
5 10 - J5 20 30 40 60 80 100 150 :
Acllve cam angle. S. degrees
Fig. 6.23 Harmonic motion
Cams 183
2.a f-
1/
2.6 /
:.-
2.4 ~
-/ /
v
2.2 / / /
:....--- 1-
2.0
V/ v :....--- f-
~ 'lv -
./
~ I-
1.8
0 1.6 1--
L/Rtfa 2.00
. .).75
r-- ~
I"
II/v . v
v
vi- 1-
~ ' LSO·r--
"'~~ ~---~--- ! -
~V//: ~v --
.• 1.4 1.25 r-.: ~
.
J
:--~- ~
~ ~ ~-
Q. I 1.00- "']
1.2 . ~ 1-
1.0 ~~ ~
0.8
I) ~ ~ \~ 1-0.80
0.60
~
v
~~
"
0.<40
0.6 0.20
/ P'
y ~~
0.4 - 7
0.2 ......... ~
:--::::: i-"'
~~
0
...-
10 15
----20 .30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400
Active cam angle, fJ, degrees
1.0 ,.--.;--,-..,-.,-,.-.--y-,_;_-y--y--y---r--r--r::::::t:==~~--,
0.9 -1--..J-J-+~
0.8 1---+--~-''--'---'--.L....L--1--t-~+----1--..L-,Y"-~~~R-!-+-~
L/Ro = 0.01
•0.1 r----1--~-....-~ ·o.oz _.....~~4-~C-....!.~~:...r,ir--~t-t-+-;---i
0.03
00.6 1--1--+--1--1--f 0.04 -~~-~.4_,;1:~.__,L~~!,L--h(_;t-+-l--+---t
~ 0.06
·i0.5-
Q.
'0.4 1-----J.--1-~
0.3 r---1-~--f---¥-~ J-_,£--/-~....,..c+,r,r..,_'7r-.:wl
0.2 1---1---7"''-1-""":7'1 --iooL....-'--., -'-L-~~~,qc_..u;;...-·1,-
Fig. 6.24 Cycloidal motion
-
l.B
1.6
-
- --
~~ 1- -
L/Ro ::a 2.00
1-
I D
~ ~~ .
. 1..75
1.4 1.50 '
~~
"~Wh
1.25 "
~
1.2
- ~
0
e:: "~ ~ ~-
sl.O ~~ "\r- •
~~ ~
~ 1\ ~1.00
€
0..
0.8 t- L~~ ~ 0.80
~~v
~
~0.40
0.6 ~ tL' 0.20 .
0.4
_&
~......~
r;.--
0.2 ~
~ ~ ~~
......
0 ........ Pr"
10 15 20 30 40 60 . 80 100 200 300 400
Active cam angle, "{J, degree~
1.0 •
Fig. 6.25 Eighth-power polynomial
Cams 185
Maximum Pressure Angle a
angle is an important factor in determining size of a cam. A large cam, with

pressure angle, is not desirable since it uses more space and produces more
in the moving parts at higher speeds. On the other hand, a small cam
a steeper rise and tends to introduce large side forces because it has a higher
angle.
of the maximum pressure angle is often difficult because of the algebraic

involved. K.loomok and Ni:uffley have developed a nomogram, shown
6.26, for determining the maxim~ pressure angle as a function of the cam angle
ratio for harmonic, cycloidal and eighth-power motions.
I"
Total cam angle

{3, deg
I
L!R0 for cycloidal cam
I 300
360
0.1 0.2 1 0.4
5 LR [tor
harmonic cam
I 0 for eighth power polynomial (approx.)
85
/·
·I Ma~imum pressure anglo
a = • deg
40 45 50
Fig. 6.26 Nomogram for the determination ofmaximum pressure angle

ofa cam with radial roller follower
-·
radial flat-faced cam follower translates a distance of 50 mm with a simple harmonic

• rn,nT1·r'~ for half a revolution of the cam. Determine the minimum radius of the cam and
length of the follower face.
Solution
The follower motion is specified by simple harmonic motion and is given by
S~ ~(I ~cos(?))
where fJ is cam angle which corresponds to follower rise,
1 1
fJ = -rev = -n:
4 2
Therefore the follower rise is given by
S = -d (1 - cos(28)) = f(B)
2
The minimum radius C of the cam is obtained from
= d(2sin(28))
2
d
= -(4cos(28))
2
Therefore,
C > - d II - cos(28) + 4cos(28JI

2
C > - d II + 3cos(28JI
2 .I
The minimum value ofthe terms in brackets ispbtained for B where

2
I + 3cos (28) = -2
Therefore, C > d or C > 50 mm.
The minimum length of the follower face is obtained from
l =/ 1{8) = dsin(28)
l becomes maximum for sin(28) = 1 which yields the minimum length to be
.Cams 187
lmm. =d
This is the minimum value of the follower length. Additional ap10unt must be added to
each side of the follower face to prevent contact from occurring right at the follower
edges.
Example 6.5
In the displacement diagram shown in Pig. ~.27, it is desired to achieve the full lift of
40 mm of a radial flat-faced follower .by matching the cycloidal curve C-1 with the
I
harmonic curve H-2.

;
a) Using the data given, determine the angle /3 2 for the harmonic.event so that
both velocity and acceleration of the follower will be matched at B where the
two events are joined.
b) Determine the maximum theoretical length if the follower face needed for the
two events shown.
I
25 mm
'}
15 mm
I
Fig. 6.27
Solution
a) For the C-1 curve, the equations of displacement, velocity and acceleration are:
s ~r( ; - ~sin(;8))
v = ~(I - l
cos(;e)
Mechanisms of Machinery
1 = ;r;L( sin(;r; 8)]

/32 j3
he H-2 curve the corresponding q~antities are
iLL . ;r;
'( l
a = - - szn(- 8)
rj32 2/3
n motion requirements of the follower, the velocity at B considering the end of the
oidal motion and the beginning of the harmonic motion must be equal.
n the cycloidal motion,
:re/3 = /31 = 45° and for full lift with cycloidal motion, e = j3 = /31 = 45°.
refore,
15
VB
= 45 (1 - cos;r;)
vB = 0.667 mmldegree
./
lilarly, for the beginning of the harmonic motion where j3 =/32 and fore = 0, the
Jcity of point B is "
VB= ;~(COS ;;,e l

251f
VB = 2j]~·,
>m the motion requirement of the follower,
l!£.
2/].,
= 0.667
Cams 189
from which /32 is obtained to be
b) Length of the follower face needed is
For the cycloidal motion
r
The maximum value of the term in brackets is 2. Therefore,
L
l = - x2
c f3
= 38.2 mm
For the harmonic motion
The maximum value of the term in brackets is 1. Therefore,

'?;'2 ~ v
lH = 1rL = -J-9+mm .
2/3
Con;paring the results for the two motion requirements, the minimum length of the
follower face required is
lmm. = 38.2 mm
6.8 Tangent Cam with Reciprocating Roller Follower
-·
A cam in which the flanks are straight and tangential to the base circle and nose circle
is known as a tangent cam. Fig. 6.28 shows a tangent cam with a reciprocating roller
follower. This type of cams are used in engine cam shafts to operate the inlet and
exhaust valves.
6.8.1 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Tangent Cams
a) When tlze roller is in contact with the straight flanks
Fig. 6.28 shows the roller having contact with the srraight flank. In its lowest position,
the roller center lies at B. When the cam has rotated through the angle the center of e,
the roller moves to C. i.e ..-for the cam angle the follower rise from its lowest position e,
is given by BC.
Roller Follower
,... --- -...
i
y : Flank
I
' I
I
I Pitch
/ I surface
I I
I I.
I
I L
I 1.1 r1 = roller radius
I I·
I r r2 = base circle
\ I radius
' \
\
~
I
I
/'( r3 =radius of the
nose
' '\.
'\. ' /
I
~ I ~
I ....._ ....._ I / Cam profile
I
I -... - - - L _ _...
,...
l
ii
Fig. 6.28 A roller follower in contact with the flank of a tangent cam
Cams 191
figure it can be noted that
i~ can be observed that OB = OG. Therefore,
(6.55)
OG
case (6.56)
- OG - OG - orJ 1 ~"__ 1]
cos() - v\ case (6.57)
OG = OE + EG, where OE =r2 , radius ofthe base circle, and EG =r1 ,

of the roller,
=R 0 (6.58)
.,Y = OG - OG = oJ_1_ - 1] = Ro(_1_ - 1] (6.59)

case \.J\ cos() cos()
·~·. '
/ r / ..... 1
' ...~... ' ., -
velocity of the follower is obtained by differentiating equation faJ with respect to
.
!!_{ - 1] }
1
v =y· = R(_
0 (6.60)
dt case
V-OJ _ R(- sine)

-
o ? (6.61)
cos-()
acceleration of the follower is given by
a - dv -_y.. -
_ - _-·d (c R
v sin()
- -)
0 (6.62)
dt dt co;e
Upon simplification, the acceleration is obtained to be
a = o/R (2 - coil e)
(6.63)
co~fJ
0
b) When tlze Roller is in Contact with the Nose
A roller follower in contact with the nose is shown in Fig.6.29. The roller center C lies
on the pitch curve. B is the center of the roller when it is in the top-most position.
.....
'"
"\ \
I
I \
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\ I
I
I
I
/
/
- !
-..--..J--
1
i
i
---~
/
/
Fig. 6.29 A roller follower in contact with the nose of a tangent cam
Cams 193
When the cam turns through an angle e, the displacement of the roller, measured from
the top position of the roller, is given by
y = BC = OB - OC (6.64)
But, OC = OE + E.C, therefore, the displacement of the follower is

y = OB - (OE + EC) = OB - (OKcose + CKcos({J) (6.65)
Noting that CK = L, OK = r
(6.66)
Again, from Fig. 6.29

I'
EK = L sin(({J) = r sin(8) . (6.67)
(6.68)
or,
(6.69)
Substituting the value of L cos({J, we get the displacement of the follower to be
(6.70)
•,
Differentiating equation (6.70) we obtain the velocity and acceleration equations,

. respectively,
--;:==r=s=in=(.=e=~====
2
v = wr sin(8) +
2L~ I ~) sin (e)

(6.71)
2
- (
rL 2 cos(28) + r 3sin4 (8)

a ' cos(8)
= w-r +
- ( ~)'sin re;W
H 1
2 (6.72)
PROBLEMS
6.1 A radial roller follower of a disc cam has a displacement-time characteristics given
/ by .
- rise of 19 mm with simple harmonic motion in a quarter revolution,
- dwell for an eighth revolution,
- further rise of 19 mm with simple harmonic motion in a quarter revolution,
- dwell for a sixteenth revolution, and
- return of 38 mm with parabolic motion in a quarter revolution followed by
- dwell for sixteenth of a revolution of the cam.
a) Draw the displacement diagram.

b) Layout the cam profile that would produce the desired motion of the follower.
6.2 Construct the displacement diagram and cam profile for a disc cam with an
oscillating flat-faced follower which rises through 30° with cycloidal motion in
1500 of clockwise cam rotation, then dwells for 600. Graphically determine the
necessary length of the follower face allowing 5 mm clearance at each end. Assume
a prime circle radius of 30 mm. The follower pivot is 120 mm to the right.
6.3/ A cam rotating at a uniform speed of 1000 rpm is required to give an off-set roller
follower the motion characteristics given by
- follower rise of 25 mm during 1200 of cam rotation,
- dwell for the next 600 of cam rotation,
- follower return to its starting position during the next 900 of cam rotation,
followed by .I
- dwell for the rest of the cam rotation.

'
The line of follower movement is off-set by 20 mm from the axis of the cam shaft.
Ifthe displacement ofthe follower takes plac~ with uniform and equal acceleration
and retardation on both the outward and return strokes, lay the cam profile and fmd
the maximum velocity and acceleration during the rise and return strokes.
6.4 Determine the relation between cam angles [3 1 [32 and rises L 1 L 2 to match a
1 1
harmonic curve H-1 with a-cycloidal curve C-2, and a cycloidal curve C-3 with a
harmonic curve H-4.
Cams 195
A follower is to have a cyclical motion according to the displacement diagram
shown in Fig. P6.5. The displacement and velocity requirements are as follows:
Point A : rise = L, v = · 0.
Point B : rise = 0, v = 0.
Point C : rise = L, v = 0.
Recommend the curves to be used for the displacement graph and the relation
between /] 1 and /]2 to match the accelerations at point Band at points A and C.
Yl
c
cam angle e
~I
Fig. P6.5
~ A follower moves with harmonic motion H-1 a distance of 25 mm in 9(]' of cam

rotation and then moves 25 mm with cycloidal motion C-2 to complete the rise.
The follower dwells and returns 25 mm with cycloidal motion C-3 and then moves
the remaining 25 mm with harmonic motion H-4 in 600. Determine the intervals
of cam rotation for the cycloidal motions and the dwell by matching velocities and
accelerations.
~. 7 ~e boundary conditions for a polynomial cam motion are as follows:

for e =0 ' y =0 , y' =0 ' y =0
- for B = fJ , y = L , y· = 0 , i =0
Determine the appropriate displacement equation and its first three derivatives and
sketch the corresponding diagrams.
6.8 A radial roller follower is to move through a tGtal displacement of 19 mm with

harmonic motion while the cam rotates through 300. Find the minimum radius of
the pitch surface to limit the pressure angle to 300.
6J A cam profile consists of two ci~~ular arcs of radii 24 mm and 12 mm, joined by
I straight lines, giving the follower a lift of 12 mm. The follower is a roller of 24 l]'lm
radius and its line of action is a s!faight line passing through the camshaft axis.
When the cam shaft has a uniform-speed of 500 rpm, find the maximum velocity
and acceleration of the follower while in contact with the straight flank of the cam.".
--
6.10 A disc cam rotates at 300 rpm and drives a translating radial roller foll
through a rise of 75 mm once each half revolution. Find the maximum velocity
and acceleration of the follower ifharmonic motion and a 35° pressure angle are
to be used. ~·
6.11 For the cam mechanism shown in Fig. P.ll , determine the acceleration ofthe
follower for the phase shown. m = 1Orc rad/s .
127mm
38lmm
I
~127min
.... ""
.)
.I
Fig. P6.11
- 6.12 A cam consists of a circular disc of diameter 75 mm with its center displaced
mm from the camshaft axis as shown in Fig. P6.12. The follower has a
surface in contact with the cam and the line of action of the follower u....--...-.,-.
Cams 197
The follower weighs 22.5 N and is pressed downwards
spring which has. a stiffness of 3. 4 Nlmm. In the lowest position, the spring
is 44 N.
·ve an expression for the acceleration of the follower)n terms of the angle
rotation from the beginning of he lift.
the camshaft speed is gradually increased, a certain speed is reached for

which the follower begins to lose contact with the cam surface. Determine the
ow'"•·~.... haft speed for this condition.
p
Fig. P6.12
Chapter 7
UNIVERSAL JOINTS
A universal joint is a connection between two intersecting rotating shafts which are
coplanar and are inclined at an angle with respect to each other. The angle between the
shafts may vary during the operation. This device is used to transmit rotational motion.
A schematic representation of a universal joint is shown in Fig. 7 .1. The joint consist_?
of two yokes connected to a cross-shaped member, which is t~e connecting link, by
means of pins. The yokes are also connected to the driving shaft and drivel! shaft, also
lm.own as follower as shown in the figure. For a constant angular velocity of the driver,
the velocity of the follower fluctuates between a certain maximum and a certain
mim.mum.
/
\8
\ Follower
B
./
Fig. 7.1 A schematic representatio_n· ofa universal joint
7.1 VELOCITY RATIO OF SHAFTS ~
Co~sider two shafts A and B which are the driver and follower, respectively. The axes
of the two shafts are inclined at an angle J from the plan view as shown in Fig. 7.2. If
observed from the direction of A, when the shafts rotate, A -A traces a circle while B-B
traces an ellipse. The ellip~e is a projection of the circle traced by b-b of Fig. 7 .1.
If shaft A turns through an angle 8 from AA to A 1A 1 , then the projection of BB will also
e
turn through angle to BIB1 • During this time the angle turned by shaft B is f3 as
observed from the axis of shaft B. The projections of B 1 and B2 onAA are C1 and Cr
Universal Joints 201
I i
I I
I I
Fig. 7.2 Plan and elevation of a cross-shaped universal joint
From the geometry of the projections
. oc
1
tan8 - - - (7.1)
C1B1
and
oc oc
tanf3 - - -2 - - -2 (7.2)
c~2 C1B1
Combining these two equations we get
tanB oc1 oc1

=--=-- (7.3)
tanfJ
From the plan view it can be observed that

oc1
= cos6 (7.4)
202 Mechanism oflt1achinery
Thus, the relationship between 8, the angular displacement of shaft A and,B, the angular
displacement of shaft B is obtained to be
tanB = tan.B ·coso (7.5)
Differentiating equation (7.5) with respect to time, the output shaft velocity can be
.·
related to the input shaft velocity.
sec28 dB = sec2d{J coso (7.6)

dt dt
where 8 is a constant.
(7.7)
and
(7.8)
The velocity relationship between the velocity of the two shafts is thus obtained to be
(7.9)
From trigonometric relations
sec?.8 = 1 + tan
2
,8
Substituting for tan.B from equation (7 .5),
sec2p = 1 + tan28
co~o
co~o + tan 28
=
co~o
Therefore, from equation (7.9) we obtain and equation relating the input and output
velocities . '
(7.1 0)
Upon simplification, the velocity relation is obtained to be
I - sin2&o~e
(L) A = COSO OJ B (7. 11)
Hence, the ratio of the angular velocities is given by
(L)B ::;: ______ COSO

(7.12)
wA 1 - sin2o·cos28
(VB
has a maximum value when cose = ± 1 , for which e = 0 or e = 1800
·or any multiple of 1800. For this condition,
1
( :ABl max
I.V
= _coso
1 - sirto coso
(7.13)
. . WB
(VA has a minimum value wl!en cos e
The ratlO - = 0, for which e = 900 ore= 2700,
... For
this condition, r
(:B) . =coso
A mm
(7.14)
7.2 POLAR ANGULAR VELOCITY DIAGRAM
The velocity of the driver and follower for a complete revolution of the joint is shown
on a polar angular velocity diagram. Since the angular velocity of the driver is
assumed constant, it is represented by a circle. The angular velocity of the follower is
shown as an ellipse, since its magnitude varies between a maximum and a minimum.
The ellipse crosses the circle at four points, in which case, during a cycle the angular
velocities of the driver and driven shaft are equal. For this condition
coso
=1 (7 .15)
Fig. 7.3 Polar angular velocity diagram
204 Mechanism ofMachinery
Equation (7 .15) yields
I - cosb
cos28 =
sin2b
I
= (7.16)
I + casb
upon simplification we obtain

sec28 = 1 + cos6 =1 + tan 28 (7.17)
Solving for tanBwe get
tane = ± ..jcosb .
(7.18)
Thus, the driver and follower have the same speed when
tane = ± ..jcosb
7.3 COEFFICIENT OF SPEED FLUCTUATION
The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds of the follower expressed
as a ratio of the driving shaft speed for constant angle 6 between the axes of the driving
and driven shafts is defined as the coefficient ofspeed fluctuation.
(7 .19)
(_I_l
.I
wA - (cosb)w A
_ cosb (7.20)
q
Or,
q = (- 1- - cosb)
cosb
2
- sin
- -b (7.21)
cosb
Fr0m equation (7 .21) the coefficient of speed fluctuation is obtained to be
q = sinb · tanb (7.22)
For small angle o, sino = o, and tano = o, hence, the coefficient of speed
fluctuation is given by
q ;:: o2 (7.23)
where o is in radians.
· Having obtained the coefficient of speed fluctuation q, the total fluctuation of speed is,
then given by
A>
Total fluctuation of speed = o2wA (7.24)
7.4 ANGULAR ACCELERATlON OF DRIVEN SHAFT
· Assuming coA to be constant, for a constant inclination o between the driver and
follower, the angular velocity of the follower is
coso
co8 = ·co (7.25)
1 - sin26 ·cos28 A
which is observed to depend on the angular position e. The angular acceleration of the
driven shaft is then obtained from
dw 8
-;jf
d( coso
= dt ] - sin 0 ·cos 8 ·co
2
)
2 A
(7.26)
which yields. the angular acceleration of the driven shaft to be

.
2 coso ·sin26 ·sin28
= -coA··
- - - - - -- (7.27)
2 2
(1 - sin o·cos 8/
For maximum angular acceleration, the acceleration term is differentiated with respect
to time t and set equal to zero to give the position for which the acceleration is
. .
mrunmum or mm1mum. 1.e.,
2
daB = .!.!._( coso·sin o·sin28 ) = O -· (7.28)
dt dt (1 - sin2o ·co~e)2
Upon simplification,
cos28 = sin2 o (2 - co~28) (7.29)

2 - sin2o
206( Mechanism ofMachinery
Forlsmall values of <5,
2sin2<5
cos20 = - - - - (7.30)
2 - sin2<5
Thus, having obtained the angular position for which the angular acceleration is ·
max1mum,
the angular acceleration is obtained by substituting for e
in the equation of the
acceleration.
7.5 DOUBLE HOOKE'S JOINT
In an automobile, if only a single Hooke's joint were used, either the speed ofthe engine
or that of the car would have to vary during each revolution of the drive shaft.
However, the inertia at both ends would resist this occurrence as a resuit of which high
stresses would occur on the transmission shaft and slippage on the tires. This problem
is solved by employing a double Hooke's joint which provides a uniform velocity
between the input and output ends, limiting the variation of speed to the intermediate
shaft.
If the driver and follower are inclined equally relative to the intermediate shaft, the
fluctuation of speed will be confined to the intermediate shaft alone. The intermediate
shaft can then be made short and light in order to reduce the inertia in the transmission.
Fig. 7.4 Double universal joint
For double Hooke's joint in which the forks.are in the same plane, the relation between
w2 , speed ofthe drive~, and w4 , speed of the follower, is obtained as follows. For angle
ewhich the driver turns through in a given time,
tane = tany ·coso (7 .31)
where y is the angle turned by the intermediate·shaft during the same time.
Also
tan(J = tany ·cosb (7.32)
Universal J oin ts 207
f3 is the angle turned through by the follower or the output shaft. From these
tana = tanf3 (7.33)
a =f3 (7.34)
tlie driving and driven shafts turn through the same angle in the same time.
(J)
4
= (J) '
- (7.35)
the forks on the intermediate shaft ar5! set at right angles, the speed of the follower w4
fluctuate between ' ~ an'd

cas-u 1
(1)
2· (1)
2· --.
colb
driving shaft having a uniform speed of 300 rpm is coupled to a driven shaft by a
Hooke's joint. Ifthe speed ofthe driven shaft must always be between 315 and 285
find the greatest permissible angle between the shafts. What will then be the
maximum and minimum speeds of the driven shaft?
Assuming th~ maximum speed of the driven shaft, we have
(1)
2 cos6
w 2 =speed of the driver, and

w3 = speed of the follower
max
cos6
6 = 17.75°
The corresponding minimum angular velocity of the follower is
208 Mechanism oflv/acfzinery
= 285. 7 rpm
Assuming the minimum speed of the driven shaft~ we have

(JJ 3;;?'
- -- = cosb
(JJ2
Therefore,
cosb
6 =18.19°
The corresponding maximum angular velocity of the follower is

1
co ] max = co · -- = 300·-- 1- -
2 cos6 cosl8.19
= 315. 7 rpm
Thus, the· maximum permissible angle is 6 = 17.75° and the corresponding speeds
co ]max = 315 rpm
co ] mm = 285.7 rpm
Example 6.2 .I
A Hooke's joint connects two shafts whose ·axes intersect at 1500. The driving
rotates uniformly at 120 rpm. The driv~n sfiaft operates against a steady torque of'
N-m and carries a flywheel whose mass is 45 kg with a radius of gyration of 150
Find the maxim~ torque which must be exerted by the driving shaft.
Solution
For the driving shaft
120
wA = - - x2;r = 4;r rad/s
60
wn acceleration of the driven shaft
•T.<>I I 1a."·U. .
== _sin__;
2
~(2
_ _- co~2fJ)
_ _.:._
f) = angle through which the driver turns, and

~= 300, angle of inclination between the driver and follower
/'
- 2 =0
for fJ, we obtain 2fJ = 74° or f) = 37° .
or f)= 37°, the angular acceleration of the driven shaft is
2 cos~·sin2~ ·sin2fJ
as == ~ ··- ------------
(1 - sin2 ~·co~fJ)
2
= -(47Tl· cos30 ·sin 30·sin74
(I - sin 2 30 ·co~37)2-
= 46.52 radls
To accelerate the mass,.,the torque required is
• Tm =fa = k 2ma
== O.J52 x45x46.52
= 47.1 N-m
The total torque T8 required on the driven shaft side is
TB ==Ts +Tm
TB = 150 + 47.1
= 197.1 N-m
where Ts = the steady torque on the driven shaft side.
To determine the torque exerted by the driving shaft we use the energy equation given
by
.•-
cos~
= ._ __c_o_s3_0_ _ _
120
I - sin230 ·cos2 37
= I23.64 rpm
Therefore, the torque requirement on the driving shaft side is

c.
T - T . ())B
A - s;;; A
= IB?.Jx I23.64
120
= 203.I N-m
Example 6.3
Two inclined shafts are connected by means of a universal joint The speed of the
driving shaft is I 000 rpm. If the total fluctuation of speed of the driven shaft is not to
exceed 12.5% of this speed, what is the maximwn possible inclination between the
shafts and what is the maximum acceleration of the driven shaft at this inclination?
Solution ./
For the driving shaft

wA = I 000 rpm = I 04. 72 rad/s
Maximum fluctuation of speed is
IOOOxJ2.5% = 125 rpm = 13.09 rad/s
Therefore, the coefficjent of speed fluctuation is
125 I - co~b
a = - - = - - --
• IOOO cos~
which yields
8 co~~ + cosb - 8 = 0
·lving for <5, we obtain
maximum acceleration
2sin26
2 - sirrb
2sin220
=
2 - sin220
,;. t
which 8 can be obtained to be 41.4°. Hence, the maximum acceleration of the
shaft is
? cosb ·sin2<5 ·sin28 /
a8 = -or·
(1 - sin2<5 ·cos28) ·.·
2
= -(J0 .
4 72/· cos20·sin 20·sin82.8
(1 - sin2 20·co~41.4)
= 1370 radls 2
PROBLEMS
6.1 Two shafts with an included angle of 20° are.connected by a Hooke ~s joint.
driving
.
shaft runs at a uniform ~speed of 1500 rpm. The driven shaft
. carries a
flywheel of mass 12 kg and radius of gyration of 100 mm. ·Determine:
a) the maximum -~d minimum speeds of the driven shaft;
b) the maximum angular acceleration and the corresponding angular speed of the
driven shaft;
c) the maximum torque required.
6.2 Two shafts are cmmected by a Hooke~s joint. The driving shaft rotates uniformly
./ at 700 rpm. If the total permissible variation in speed of the driven shaft is not to l$
exceed ::t:7% ofthe mean speed, determine the permissible angle between the sha(ts
and the maximum and minimum speeds of the driven shaft.
6.3 A Hooke's joint is used to connect two shaft which are inclined at 200 to each other. ·
.../ The driving shaft rotates at a uniform speed of 250 rpm. The driving shaft carries ':
a rotor of mass 15 kg with radius of gyration of 300 mm. Find the torque required
referred to the driving shaft.
6.4 A Hooke's joint c01mects two shafts whose axes of rotation intersect at an angle of:..
. / 200. The driven shaft carries a rotor of moment of inertia of 1.25 kg-m1 and is ·
subjected to a constant resisting torque of 2 75 N-m. Find the torque input to the .·
driving shaft at the instant when e = 300. The driving shaft rotates at a unifonn
speed of 500 rpm.
6.5 Two parallel shaft are connected by an intermediate shaft with a Hooke ~s joint at ·
each end. Show how the joints should be arranged to obtain a constant velocity -
ratio between the driving and driven shafts . . /
8
VERNORS
reciprocating engines, the turning moment on the crankshaft is subject to cyclic

................ ~~which result in periodic flu<i,tuaVon of engine speed. This flu~tuation of speed
·r egulated by the use of govef¥ors . among others. An engine governor is a
· · · bination of interacting element~ which automatically maintain engine speed within
·gned limits. For example, a mechanical governor is used to control the mean speed
adjusting the fuel supply b~ means of linkages thus restoring the speed to the one
A governor comprises a sensitive element that reacts to change in speed by
~.;,;r..u ...... ~I-> a corresponding sleeve linked to a control member thereby increasing the fuel
A ...
"""...............ly when the load increases and vice-versa.
8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNORS
are broadly classified into two categories, centrifugal governors and inertia
rs, depending on the controlling force acting on the governor. In the first type,
controlling force is due to the centrifugal force acting on the control element, while
in the later type the control is achieved by means of inertia force acting on the control
.
Centrifugal Governors
.,
(Loaded Governors)
Centrifugal governors are of two types: dead weight gove_rnors and spring loaded
. governors. These governors are shown schematically in Fig. 8.1.
(a) (b) '
Fig. 8.1 (a) Dead weight governor, (b) Spring-controlled governor
8.1.2 Governor Characteristics
To regulate speed, a governor must posses certain qualities. A governor has to maintain
the mean speed of the rotating member by floating in the mean position between
extreme positions. At the same time, it must readily respond to changes of speed. The
characteristics that are related to the proper functioning of a governor are stability and
sensitivity. These characteristics affect the controllingforce of the governor.
8.1.2.1 Controlling Force
The controlling force in centrifugal governors is the equivalent

. inward radial force that .
controls ball movement.. The controlling force, which is due to sleeve weight, spring
: ·~ ..
force, etc., is the constraining force acting on ·the balls thereby controlling ball
movement. The controlling force depends orl the-horizontal radial position of the balls
and it may be expressed as
F =f(r) (8.1)
Assume the governor to be rotating at a constant angular velocity w radls, and let r be
the radius of the circle in ':Vhich the balls rotate as shown in Fig. 8 .1. Neglecting the
effect of friction and the inertia forces of the links, the centripetal force acting on the
balls is
Governors 215
F = f(r) = controlling force

F
0 ~-------------------r--,_ _________________
r r
or
Fig. 8.2 Controlling force of a governor
.f\,t constant speed OJ, the centripetal force is plotted against r as shown in Fig. 8.2. The
graph of Fe cuts the graph of the controlling force at P, for which
F =f(r) = mrOJ2 (8.3)

1:
for a constant radial distance rand steady angular velocity OJ.
' .
~-~.2.2 Stability
f·.
~fa governor is stab

. le and the balls are slightly displaced from the equilibrium position,
~·~being constant, the balls have the tendency to return to the equilibrium position which
.is the configuration corresponding to OJ. .
f
-Let the balls be displaced from the equilibrium position by an amount Jr. The
•·
corresponding increment in the centripetal force Fe is -- '
oF
oFc = _Orc ·or = mOJ2or (8.4)
and the corresponding increment in the controlling force F is

dF
oF =-·or
dr
(8.5)
dF is the slope of the controlling force at point P and mar? is the slope of
dr
centripetal force F,.
,.
The restoring force on each ball is given by
or,
For stability of the governor, the restoring force has to satisfy the condition Fr >
i.e.
( ~ - rnw2 )dr > 0
Therefore,
dF >
mw2
dr
or,
dF > F,
dr r
But, at a radial distance r, F, = F as shown in ·Fig. 8.2. Therefore, the condition for . ·
stability is obtained to be .;
dF > F
dr r
i.e. slope of the controlling force must be greater than the slope of the centripetal force ,
as can be observed from Fig. 8.3.
For complete stability of the governor, the above condition must be satisfied at all.:
~.
speeds within the operating range of the governor.
Governors 217
Fig. 8.3 Conditionjor stability of a governor

. I
At equilibrium speed,
F = F c =mrw2 (8.12)
· from which we obtain
w =IF
~-;;;;:
(8.13)
A governor is stable if r increases as w increases; i.e. F must increase for increasing

r
r.
8.1.2.3 Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a governor is defmed as the change in level of the revolving balls

corresponding to a change of speed. For maximum and minimum governor speeds, w 1
and w 2 , respe.ctively, the coefficient ofsensitivity of a governor is defined as
wmean
·0g =
WI - (1)2
(J)I + w2
= (8.14)
2(w 1 - w)
Similarly, coefficient of insensitivity, is defined as

(J)/ - WI/
(8 .15)
where m1 - w 11 = range of governor speed in which the control member remains

stationary due to friction in ~e system;
218 Mechanisms oflv/achinery
8.1.2.4 Isochronous Governors
A governor is said to be isochronous when it is infinitely sensitive. This condition is

obtained when w 1 = w2 . For tfus case, the controlling force curve becomes a straight
line coinciding with the centripetal force. Therefore, the governor becomes isochronous
when OP1 and 0[>__2 coincide for which case
dF F
= (8.16)
dr r
For this condition, the balls immediately fly outwards for a slight increase of speed and
move inwards for a slight decrease of speed. It is worth noting that sensitivity is
obtained at the expense of stability.
/ r
I /
I /
1 //
r Spring loaded governors
Fig. 8.4 Stability ofspring-loaded governors
8.1.2.5 Power of a Governor
Power of a governor is the work done at the sleeve for a given change in speed. The
magnitude of the controlling force determines the ability of the governor to exert the
., ~
necessary effort at the sleeve to operate the control mechanism and to overcome
frictional resistance. When the speed of the governor rises from the minimum to its
maximum position, the work the governor can do against the external forces is the
capacity or power of the governor.
Power = total energy capacity
Power =2 £ Fdr
rl
2
= 2 £1(r)dr Nm (8. 17)

r,
Governors 219
Power = meari effort x sleeve movement (8.18)
Note that the definition of power here is inconsistent with the norm~ usage of the word.
8.1.2.6 Effort of a Governor
Effort of a governor is defined as the force exerted at the sleeve for a given fractional
change in speed of the governor. The effort is exerted on the sleeve to overcome the
resistance at the sleeve which opposes the sfeev~ motion.
8.1.3 The Porter Governor . ~..,\

fA~ _ g .
a"
The Porter governor is.. dead weight.
governor
.
and is illustrated in Fig. ..1:'6. As the
speed of the shaft increases, the balls move outward raising the sleeve height, and vice-
versa. The controlling load is attached to the sleeve.
Fig. 8.5 The Porter governor
Let m 1 be the mass of the sleeve and m 2 be the mass of each ball.
Due to the mass of the sleeve, the reaction at C is !...m 1g.

2
I
1
220 Mechanisms ofMachinery ·1J
This reaction, due to the central load m 1gcauses tension in the suspension links equal
~ j
I m1g
T - - - (8.19) :·~.·
2 case
ij
Resolving the te~ion at the center of each ball, ,::
the vertical component of T = !_m1g (8.20)

2
horizontal component of T = -21 m 1g · tanB =Q

- (8.21)
Each ball is thus subjected to
the vertical force m ~
the horizontal force Q,
tension T , and
centrifugal force F.
'
Taking moments about the pivot point B:
( m2g + m;g) r + ~m 1gh tan8 = m:ralh = Fh (8.22) .
tanB
Let tanB and r 1 = qr, where q - - - with q ~ I .
h .tanfJ '
./
Then,
·..··
Solving equation (8.23) for h,
mig(
- 1 + q) + m~
2 1 (8.24) -
h = ·-
Governors 221
For q = 1, where the pendulum arms and suspension links are equal and axes of the
joints at Band C intersect at the main axes, or at equal distance from the
axis,
h = (8.25)
The change in the level of the revolviug bflls is the same as the change in the height of
the governor. From equation (8.25),
/' (8.26)
where, C is a constant that depends on the type of governor and the varibus weights, and
n is the speed of the governor in revolutions per second.
Increasing the speed from n to xn, for x > 1, the height of the governor for this speed
IS
(8.27)
Therefore, the increase in height of the governor is
h
LJh =h-h I =h-
x2
=·h( X x~ 1)
1
LJh (8.28)
The change in the level of the revolving parts is a measure of the sensitivity of the
governor, thus the sensitivity is directly proportional to the height h.
For the Porter governor
(8.29)
where n is given in revolutions per second, rps.
8.1.3.1 Controlling Force of Porter Governor
Consider a Porter governor with all four links of equal length and pivoted at the axis of
the shaft rotating at some angular velocity ffi with the lower and upper limits of w 1 and
w 2 . From equation (.8.23) above) the controlling force is given as
F = (m1g + m~) ~ (8.30)
Substituting for h, F is obtained to be
The curve of the controlling force is obtained from this equation and it cuts the r-axis
at the origin as shown in Fig. 7. 7.
A vertical line is now drawn through any arbitrary radiusrr greater than the radius
corresponding to the maximum sleeve height or maximum speed of the shaft. On this
line values of the centripetal force F c = mrrw 2 for various w values, including w 1 and
w 2 , are marked. This line is the speed ordinate. Lines are then drawn joining the origin
0 and the various values of F c for the different values of w's marked on the speed
ordinate. These lines are known as speed lines.
00
.5
-
Q)
(.)
ol;::<-2'- Q)
c Cl:l
(.)
0 V)
(.)
"0
<!)
Q)
0..
V)
radius of rotation r [nun]

Fig. 8.6 Controlling force ofa Porter governor
The radius of the balls for intermediate values of w, wherew1 < w < w 2 are obtained
from the intersection of the appropriate speed lines with the controlling force curve.
This diagram is known as the characteristic diagram of the Porter governor.
If the effect of friction is considered in the above analysis, then the governor needs to
overcome the frictional resistance. Thus, the controlling force becomes
Governors 223
for rising speed,
for falling speed -
Noting that
(8.32)
the values of w for r )s obtained from
(8.33)
From equation (8.33 ), for rising speed of the governor, we obtain
(8.34)
and for falling speed
(8.35)
The curves corresponding tow; and w: are indicated by ab and cd, respectively. It
follows that the governpr speed will rise to a maximumw; > w 2 and will fall to
w:· w
< 1 for the extreme positions of the sleeve travel.
8.1.3.2 Effort of Porter Governor
The effort of the Porter governor is the force which it is capable of exerting at the sleeve
for a given percentage or fractional change of speed. From equation (8.25) we have
(8.36)
Let the speed be increased from w to xw and let a force Vbe applied at the sleeve in a
downward direction, Vbeingjust sufficient to prevent the sleeve from rising. This will
;nf'rP~<:P thf" rf"ntr::~ I load from m .f! to m ,f! + V . The centrifugal force on the two balls
IS
+ -l
m,g r
-
+ -mg
1
-·qr
2
}1 -
h
(8.37)
or, for q = 1,
F = 2m2oir = 2(m 1g + m 2g)·: (8.38)
At the increased speed xw,

FI ' ' = 21\ m ig
= 2mr-w-r + V + m .1g) .h
r (8.39)
Subtracting F from F 1 we obtain
F1 - F =2m,o/r(x
-
2
- 1) = 2V!._
h (8.40)
from which V can be evaluated as

V = m 2 w2h(x 2 - 1) (8.41 )
If V is made to diminish gradually to zero, the sleeve will rise until the height h is
obtained to be
(8.42)
and the average value of the effort on the sleeve during the rise will be ~ V, 1.e.
-1 V 1 or'h (x 2 - 1)
= P =-m 2 (8.43)
2 2
Substituting for w2 ,
I (;x 2 - 1)
P =-(m g + m g) -'---~ (8.44)
2 I 2 x2
P is the resistance of the sleeve which the governor is capable of overcoming with the
increase of speed from w to xw. For a decrease of speed from w to xw, for x < I, Pis
given by equation (8.45)
I (1 - x 2)
P =-(m 1g + m2g) - - ,_..:._ (8.45)
2 x-
acting in the opposite direction.
8.1.3.3 Power of the Porter Governor
Power of the governor is the amount of work which the governor is capable of doing at
Governors 225
•
the sleeve for a given fractional change of speed. This is expressed as
Power = (mean effort) ·(sleeve lift)

U = P·s (8.46)
where
. p ~ ~hg + m,g) (I :,x']

and
·, s =sleeve movement
s ~ 2-Ah ~ 2 ( x'x' 1 ]
Therefore, power of the Porter governor is given by
(8.47)
(8.48)
8.1.3.4 Effect of Friction on the Porter Governor
At a definite ~leeve height, the speed may vary from an upper limit OJ2 to a lower limit
OJ 1 without any chang~ of the sleeve height due to the presence of friction in the
sy~tem. Let the friction force be denoted by f Therefore,
(8.49)
(8.50)
From this we obtain the difference in the square ofthe speeds as:
(8.51)
Noting that
For any speed w, < w<

,- (1)2
, 2
co; - co 1 2f
= (8.52)
C02 (mi + m)g
Lettingcv1 + cv2 =2w for a small variation of speed, from the above equation we .
obtain
(8.53)
from which the friction force f can be evaluated to be
(8.54)
The above equation gives the friction force that keeps the sleeve height constant for the
change of speed fromcv 2 tow 1 or vice-versa.
cv2 - col
The ratio should normally be between 0.005 and 0.04.
co
Example 8.1
A Porter governor has equal arms each 250 mm long ~hich are pivoted on the axis of
rotation. Each ball has a mass of 5 kg and the mass of the central load on the sleeve
I
is 25 kg . The radius of rotation of the balls is 1'50 mm when the governor begins to lift,
and 200 mm when the governor is at maxiJ;.num speed. Find the maximum and
minimuni speeds and range of speed of the governor.
Solution
For this governor q = 1.
At minimum position h 1 = /0.252 - 0.152 = 0.2m
Governors 227
150
Fig. 8.7
For this position the angular velocity is given by
which yields an angular speed of
w1 = 17.16 rad/s., = 164 rpm
At maximum position
h :z.= Jo.252 - 0.2rY = 0.15m
w2 = 19. 80rad/s = 189rpm
Example 8.2
A Porter governor has equal arms all 300 mm in length and pivoted on the axis of
rotation of the shaft. Each ball has a mass of 750 g and the sleeve has a mass of 4.5 kg.
The radii of rotation of the balls, for maximum and minimum speeds of rotation, are
150 mm and 225 mm, respectively. J:?raw the characteristic diagram of the governor and
determine the minimum and maximum speeds of rotation.
Solution
For equal arms, the controlling force F is given by
F =f(r) = (m1g + m2g) r

Jz2 - r 2
from which the controlling force is drawn for values of r ranging from 0 to 250 mm:
The controlling force curve is shown in Fig. 8.8.
Set off the speed scale at a radius of rr = 250 mm. For this value of r th'e centripetal
force F c is obtained to be
FC = mrr oi
Fc is calculated for different values of w and the values obtained are marked on the
speed scale. The speed lines are then drawn by joining these points and the origin 0 as
shown in Fig. 8.8.
,_...,
b
t.l..c
00 60 Q)
c 1----~- 1 60 ]
= Q) - - -- .....-- Vl
ou
'- '- -o
cc.£ 30 ~--+-- 1 20 ~
0 a.
u Vl
0 150 . 225 250

'
radius of rotation r [mm]
The operating range of the governor is obtained by drawing lines through points P and
Q on the controlling force curve corresponding to the minimum maximum radii of ball
rotation. These lines are extended to intersect the speed scale at points A and B which
correspond to speeds
wA :::: 16.33 rad/s = 156 rpm
and
w8 :::: 18.85 radls = 180 rpm

Thus, the range of speed of the governor is
Governors 229
8.1.4. Hartnel Governor
A Hartnell governor is a spring loaded governor as shown in Fig. 8.9. The balls Bare
mounted on the vertical arms of the bell-crank levers which are pivoted at 0. The
pivots are fixed on the frame keyed to the shaft. The helical spring in compression
provides downward forces on the rollers through the collar of the sleeve.
Frame fixed to the governor spindle
Spring
y
ball crank lever
'
Sleeve
Fig. 7.7
Let m 1 be mass of the sleeve and m 2 be mass of each ball. The maximum and
minimum positions of the governor corresponding to the maximum and minimum
speeds are shown in Fig. 8.10(a) and (b), respectively.
For the maximum position shown in Fig. 8.10(a)

.-
= (8 .55)
and for the minimum position shown in Fig. 8. 10(b)
(8.56)
,
230 Mechanisms ofM:achinery
I axis of rotation !
~ ~
: - - - -....J._-----JI !
y Fll ! l
I I ihl
: -- ----T·----r ___.t_ -·-·- h
II
:: y, I !
I
!
I
i
I
I
(a) I (b)
Fig. 8.10 Governor positions for (a) maximum position, (b) minimum position
Adding equations (8.55) and (8.56) and simplifying,
(8.57)
y X
Letting h =h1 + h2
h = (r 1 - r :)y (8.58)
X
For maximum position, and taking moments about 0,

1
](mig +PI) YJ = mfi{I - r) +Fix!
2 .
m 1g + P1 = - ( m 2g(r 1 - r) + F1x 1) (8.59)
yl
For minimum position, again taking moments about 0,

1
](mig + P2) y2 = -m~ - r2) + F~2
2
m 1g . + P2 = - (-m2g (r - r;J + Fzx2) (8.60)
y2 .
.
Subtracting equation (8.60) from equation (8.59)
(8.61)
Governors 231
But
pi - p 2 = h·k (8.62)
where k = spring constant and Thus the spring constant k is
obtained from
(8.63)
Neglecting the effect of obliquity of th~s, we have
YI = Y.: = y. I
T~refure, r
PI - p 2 = 2(Fi - F2) X . (8.64)

y
and
(8.65)
8.1.4.1 Controlling Force and Stability of the Hartnel Governor
Assume the position of ann OR to be inclined at an angle of to the horizontal as . e

shown in Fig.8.11 corresponding to the speed w. Taking moments about 0,
. 1
Fxcose + m2g · ~sine = (P + mig) · ycose
2
F · = (P + mig) ;x - m2g · tane (8.66)
Let k be the stiffness of the spring and P 0 be the value of P for e= 0. Therefore,
P = P0 + kysin8 (8.67)
Neglecting sleeve weight
-·
Po Y ky 2
F - -- + -sine - m~ tane (8.68)
2x 2x
232 J1feclzanisms of Machinery
Fig. 8.11 Generic position of a ball ofHartnel governor
For small angle B, tanB :::: sinB, therefore, .I
2
F = PoY
2x
+ ( ky
2x
- gl sin8
m2 (8.69)
Noting that sin8 =r - c

X
PoY+ ( -,-m
F =-
2x
ky 2
2
g(r -c)
2x- x
l (8.70)
The slope of the controlling force F = f(r) is, therefore,
ky: _m gl
(2x- 2
x
Governors 23 3
Slope ofF ~;
i
i
I
i
I
I
i
I
P,y I I I /
2x
- --~ - F~--
Fig. 8.12 Controlling force ofHartnel Governor
and passes through the point for which

Po y
F = - - when r =c .
2x.
.
If points P and Q represent the limits of action,
PtP' ( Icy'
FI = - + - - m 2
2x 2x 2
!) (r 1 -c) (8.71)
F2 = 2x
PrP'
+.
( Icy' - m
2x 2 2 !) (r2 -c) (8.72)
Therefore, the increment in the controlling force is
F - F
2 I
= ( ky
2x2
2
- m
2x
gl (r
2
- r
f/
l (8.73)
234 jl-1echanism s ofMachinery
The equation
F = PoY
2x
+ (
2x-
gl
ky: - m 2 (r - c)
x
(8.74)
represents a straight line EF. The slope of this line is
·ky~
( 2x -
_ m2 gl
x
and the true curve of the controlling force is tangential to EF when e = 0.

The value of k is chosen so that a straight line OR is tangential to the "true curve" at the
outer limit of Rand the governor is stable elsewhere, see Fig. 7 .12(a). If w 2 is the speed
for this configuration, then the governor fails to regulate at any speed w > w2 . For this
condition, the governor isochronous at R where ca = w 2 forB = 82 and is stable for
e < er
If, on the other hand, EF passes through 0 as shown in Fig. 7.12(b), the governor is
isochronous at R0 when e = 0, and unstable everJWhere. The condition of isochronism
is obtained from
dF
(8.75)
dr
Example 8.2
The figure below shows diagrammatically a governor i!y.vhich the two control springs
are directly connected between the balls. Furthe.r particulars are:
tension in the spring= 300 N for the position shown,
mass of each ball = 3. 6 kg, "
mass of each bell-crank= 0.9 kg,
mass of sleeve = 2. 4 kg,
mass oflever = 3. 2 kg,
mass of operating link = 4. 5 kg.
.
Find the speed of the governor under these conditions.
Governors 23 5
375 150 125
Fig. 8.13
Solution
The free-body-diagrams of the lever, the bell-crank and balls are shown in Figs.
7.14(a), (b) and (c).
R/2 R/2
2.4g
L
pivot
l
4.5g
l
3.25g
t F
R/2
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8.14
Taking moments about the pivot point
4.5g x375 + 3.2g x lJO - 2.4g x J50 - RxJ50 =0
from which R is obtained to be R = 109.8 N.
For the bell-crank, taking moments about the fulcrum,
R x JOO - P x 75 + F x75 = 0
2
where -
R = reactiOn
. 10rce,
c
?
P = spring force, and
F = centrifugal force.
F = mroi = 526.48 N
Substituting, we obtain
526.4
(J) = = 34.22rad/s
3.6x0.125
Or,
n = 326. 7 rpm
Example 8.3
Fig. 7.14 shows an arrangement of a spring loaded governor. The central spindle A does
not move axially. The sleeve S has a mass of 18 kg and the frictional resistance to its
movement may be taken as 20 N. There are two right-angled bell-crank levers each
having a ball of mass 4 kg attached to its lower end. The spring has a stiffness
constant of 50 kN!m in compression. When the sleeve is in its lowest position, the balls
rotate in a circle of 100 mm radius, the ball arms are vertical and the spring force is 550
N. Calculate:
1. the speed at which the sleeve will begin to rise from its lowest position;
2. the range within which the speed must lie when the sleeve is 10 mm above its
lowest position.
150 mm
Fig. 8.15
. ......; .
., :--
Governors 23 7
equilibrium of the bell-crank lever is shown in Fig. 8.16(a) when it just starts to
69.3
I .
I ________.!\ _______.:i _ _!I _____________
: 10
9g + 275 + f
4g
t_,___.;_ 21.2
(b)
Fig. 8.16
aking moments about B:

(9g + 4g + 275 + f)x70 = mro/x150
which the speed can be obtained

.,
.. / = · (13g + 275 + f)x70
0
150
w = 21.94rad/s =209.5 rpm
b) When the sleeve has risen by 10 mm, the position ofthe governor is shown m
Fig. 8.16(b) ..
For this position, the radius of the balls increases from 100 mm·to 121.2 mm. Taking
moments about B:
( 9g + 4g + 275 + f )x69.3 + 4gx90.5 = mrw2 ><;148.5
from which the speed is obtained to be
w = 25.51 rad/s = 243.6 rpm
When the sleeve starts just to fall, the equilibrium is written with the sign of the friction
force reversed; i.e.
( 9g + 4g + 275 - f )x69.3 + 4gx90.5 = mro./x148.5
from which the speed is obtained to be

w =25.11 rad/s = 239.8 rpm
Therefore, the range of speed of the shaft is between 239.8 and 243.6 rpm when the
sleeve has risen by 10 mm.
Example 7.4
The rotating masses of a spring-controlled Hartnel governor aie each 1.8 kg and are
arranged on bell-crank levers as shown in Fig. 7.12 with a = 100 mm, and b ·= 87.5 mm.
The speeds of rotation corresponding to radii 120 mm and 130 mm are 296 and 304 rpm,
respectively. Determine the stiffness of the spring and derive the expression giving the
relation between the controlling force F and the radius of rotation r. Neglect sleeve
weight.
Fig. 8.17
Governors 239
Fl = mOJjr 1 =
,
]~ 2~~7t r xo 120 = 207.5
2
F2 = mw 2r 2 = 1 ~ 3 ~~" r xO.JJO = 237.1
spring force increment= 2b(F , - F 1) =LJP = 76.96 N

a -
sleeve displacement =(r2 - r1'ft:b . : iJ ~ = 0. 011 m
stiffness of spring = k - LJP =· 6997 kN/m

LJh r
The relation between the controlling force F and the radius of rotation r can be
expressed as
F = Ar + B
from which the following relations can be obtained.
F1 = Ar 1 + B
F2 = Ar2 + B
Substituting for F 1 and F2 we can solve for A and B to get
A = 3.02 B = -150.9
Therefore, the· relation between F and r is given by
F = 3.02r - 150.9
8.2 SHAFT GOVERNORS ·
Shaft governors are directly fitted on the main shaft of the engine and the masses
revolve at right angles to the shaft axis which in general is horizontal. Shaft governors
are classified into two as
a) centrifugal flywheel governors, and
b) inertia governors.
Both shaft governors operate by a combination of radial and transverse accelerating

forces.
240 Mechanisms of Jlfacltinery
8.2.1 The Centrifugal Shaft Governor (Flywheel Type)
In the centrifugal shaft governor, th~ effect of transverse accelerating forces is

neglected. Heavy links carrying masse~ are pivoted on the disc which is keyed to the
engine shaft as shown in Fig. 8.18.
iz
_
I
_!
Fig. 8.18 Flywheel-type centrifugal shaft governor
Let the tension in each control spring be P and the resistance due to the control
mechanism be R for a constant angular speed w. The two forces R acting at C constitute
a couple which operates on an eccentric collar loose on the shaft to regulate the intake
of the working fluid. The moment about the pivot A ofthe external forces on link:AC
is defmed as the controlling couple and is denoted by f: .
.I
L = Rb + Pa (8.76)
For constant w, the acceleration of the mass center G is directed towards 0 and
a G -- w 2 -QG (8.77)
The moment about A due to the inertia force is equal to the controlling couple; i.e.
L = mw2 -QG :A G ·cosy (8.78)
Noting that
OG·cosy = OH = OA -sine (8.79)
the controlling couple is obtained to be

L =Pa + Rb =mw2 -QA :AG·sine (8.80)
Governors 241
speed w 1 , the controlling couple is
-r e.b :: m~( - OA· A6 .sU: f}l
ma.....uu. ...... speed w2 ,

= mw;{)A -AG-sin82 (8.82)
the component of the controlling couple due to the resistance of the control
~....~· remains unchanged with the change in speed. Hence, from the above two
the following relation is obtained.
"" t
- P1 ) a = m{)A-AG (w;sin82 .- w;sin81 ) (8.83)
-'"_81 , the increment in the spring force is

(8.84)
Condition of Isochronism
-+o...,.... t-,'ating equation (8.80) with respect toe, we have
= mw2OA :A G ·case (8.85)
equation (8.84), noting thatdP = P2 - P 1 for small angular displacement
dP =lea (8.86)
dB
from the above two equations the following relation is obtained.
(8.87)
= AH, the spring constant k is given by
(8.88)
For successful regulation, the spring constant in an actual governor must be greater than
the the stiffness k given in the above equation.
8.2.1.2 Effect of Angular Acceleration
Suppose that the governor is subjected to an angular acceleration a in addition to the
242 Mechanisms of jltfaclzinery
angular speed was shown in Fig. 8.19.
"
Let Q be the angular velocity and J} be the angular acceleration of link AC. The
acceleration of the mass center G is
(8.89)
G
C --+-+-
1 ~~---r-t-+-----,. A
1
y~
l
~~ -~~
Fig. 8.19 Centrifugal shaft governor subjected to angular'acceleration
or,
(8.90)
where
(a)n = w20A
(a) 1 = aOA
(aGI)n = fY -AG
(aGI)t = Q-AG
j
in their respective directions as shown in Fig.7.20 __ From the acceleration polygon
(act = w2 0Acos8 + a0Asin8 - d -AG ~ (8.91)
(a~t = w2 • 0Asin8 - aOA case - r:l· AG (8.92)
The acceleration of G is, therefore, given by

aG = (act + (ac)Y (8.93)
Governors 243
I
- - -- - - ··- - ·· - - · · - -··(- -
Fig. 8.20 Determination o/acceleration ofpoint G

I'
"h"•... u·~· forces acting on link AC are ·

-the tension in the control spring P,
- the resistance due to the control mechanism R, and
-the reaction force at A, Ax and AY.
free-body-diagram of link AC is shown in Fig. 8.21 below, where the i~ertia force
inertia torque are included.
Fig. 8.21 Free-body-diagram of a link ofa centrifugal governor
From conditions of dynamic equilibrium:
-R + lma
~
) - P - Ay = 0
Gy
(8.94)
[lix = o]
(maGt =Ax (8.95)
R(b - AG) + mk{p - P (AG -a) - Ay:AG = 0
244 Mechanisms ofil1ac!tinery
mk~Q =AY· AG - R (b. - AG) - P (AG -a) (8.96)
where kG is the radius of gyration of link AC about the mass center G.
Substituting for Ay =(tna C/y

l - R - P, the moment equation can be written as
mk~Q = [m(aG)Y - R - P]:AG - R(b - AG) + P(AG - a) (8.97)
(8.98),
Again, substituting for (aG)Y, the controlling couple L becomes
L = Pa + Rb = mOA :AG{alsine - a.cose) - m~G 2 + k~ ) Q (8.99)
or,
L = Pa + Rb = mOA :AG{aisine - a.cose) - m ·kjQ (8.1 00)
where kA is the radius of gyration of link AC about A and is given by

2 2 2
kA =kG + AG (8.101)
At a steady w where both a. an<f.i are zero, and the controlling couple becomes
L = mOA :A G ·ulsine (8.1 02)
which is the same as equation (8.80) obtained for steady angular velocity OJ.
If an angular acceleration a is suddenly imparted to the shaft while rotating at a steady

angular velocity OJ, equation (8.1 00) is used to dete~ne &', the acceleration at which
the arms begin to move outwards. At this instant, both equations (8.80) and (8.1 00) are
satisfied simultaneously. Therefore, ~ ~
(8.103)
from which the following relation is obtained;
mOA :AG-acos8 = -m ·kjQ (8.104)

and
Q = OA:AG a.cose (8.105)
k2
A
Governors 245
in the direction of 8 increasing. From relative acceleration relations
(8.1 06)
+ 0. (8.1 07)
-
of the flywheel governor under changing speed
speed change from WI to W 2 '·equation (8. 100) holds. When the speed W2 is
/"
Q =0 (8.108)
link AC has an angular velocity e· relative to the governor frame which keeps 8
e
'"'.L"'•=~L>'. beyond the equilibrium position 2 The equation which governs this motion
(8.109)
small movements and further assuming that w2 = w at the same instant

~.., .........L.UF,
e2 = e, the term in brackets in equation (8.109) becomes zero; i.e.
(L - mOA :AGw;sin~) =0 (8.1 10)
an angle e slightly greater than e2, the term in brackets is given by

the controlling force - the centripetal couple increment =
ka 2cp - (mw20A :AG ·cosB)cp (8.1 11 )
.,
where cp is the small angular movem~nt measured from the equilibrium position 82 .
Thus, equation (8.1 09) becomes
(8.112)
Equation (8.112) is a differential equation in cp and can be written as

d2
_p_ + p2cp = 0 (8.113}
dt 2
where
= (ka 2
- mw~OA -A.Gcose2 )
2
(8.114)
mkA
This equation represents a simple harmonic motion about the equilibrium position e 2
ofperiod ·
2n:
T - -
r
p
or
mkA
T = 2n{ ka 2
- molOA
2
-AG ·cose2
(8.115)
2
For the case where
ka 2
-- mo/2OA -A G ·case 2
or
2 OA -AG
k = mw2 2
·case 2 (8. 116)
a
a condition of resonance is obtained for which case the governor becomes isochronous.
For stability of the governor, the spring must satisfy the condition
(8.117)
8.2.2 Inertia Governors
Inertia governors are operated by the rate of change·of speed instead of the finite change
of speed. A diagrammatic representation of the i11ertii governor is shown in Fig. 7.22.
As shown in the figure point A is a pivot point near the shaft axis. For some rate of
change of speed, the link carrying the two balls will start to move causing the spring to
deflect.
~a · - ·· -·-
Fig. 8.22 Schematic representation of an inertia governor

i
!
Governors 247
lets consider the displacement of the swinging link to be measured
ll"'•··--,
e
lnitial 1 where the speed is OJ 1 • Thus the link is just floating at the speed OJ 1
'-<Lu..,•- OAG = 900 is assumed.
t s :from the start of the angular acceleration o., referring to Fig. 7.23,
(90 + (/Jr (8.118)
angular velocity and controlling couple are

(8.119)
(8.120)
qJ is regarded as a small angle"and a. is constant.
(8.100) ;:;hows that the controlling couple is maximum when (J = 900 and it
(8.121)
J = mOA:AG ,
r Q = e· - 0.
equation.ofmotion can now be written as
• JAq,· + [r 1 + ka 2 rp . - .1(w1 + atj> - Ja-cos(; + (P)] ~ !Aa (8.122)
For small angle qJ, the equation of motion becomes
(8.123)
For the initial position at a steady speed OJ 1 , the control couple is
(8.124)
Hence, the equation of motion is
(8.125)
or,
(8.126)
Equation (8.126) may be written as
cp.. + p-' cp = nt-' + rt + q (8.127)
The general solution of the above equation is
cp = Bcospt nt 2
+ rt + q 2n ]
+
[ J
p-
- -
~
p"'
(8.12.8)
The first term in the solution is the solution of the homogeneous equation and the
second term is the particular solution. The particular integral gives the position of the
sv.tinging link at time t.
To determine the constant B, we inrroduce the initial condition q; = 0 when t = 0 which

yields
B + .!L - 2n =0
p2 p./
or,
B = (8. 129)
Therefore,
(/J = Jq - -2n]-cospt + [nt

2
+ rt + q _.2n] (8.130)
lP 2 p4 p2 /p4
(8.131)
- - 2n]·cospt +2n-
J
p-
where
Ja2
n =I - ,
A
Governors 249
q = a.
t =0 1 ffJ =q =a.
1 1
Fig. 8.23 shows an arrangement of a.governor where arms AB and A B are pivoted on
1
pins A and A attached to a plate O'Which rotates about its center. Each weight arm has
a mass of 250g and the centers of gravity G and G are 50 mm from the pivot centers A
1
1
and A respectively. Points Hand H at a distance of 25 mm from 'the pivots, are
1
, ,
connected by a spring. A linkage (not shown) ensures that 8 and 8' are equal. The
stiffness in the springs is 800 N/ m.
e
a) Find the tension required in the springs so that the angles and 8 shall be 3(f
1
when the governor speed is 300 rpm.
2. Ifthe governor, rotating in counter-clock-wise direction, accelerates at 50 radii,

find the relative angular acceleration rJ with which the arms begin to move
outwards. Foreacharrnkj = 2.2xJ0 -3 m 2.
c) If at maximum speed 82 = 45°, find the frequency of oscillation of the

governor at this speed.
Fig. 8.23
Solution
a)
w I= 300rpm = 101r rad/s
From this PI is obtained to be
= 0.250x(J07r/x 0.03 x0.05sin30

PI
0.025
PI = 7.40 N
b) Angular acceleration is given to be

a = 50 rad/s 2
from which the of the acceleration of the arm relative to the plate can be determined
Q = - OA~G acosei
k 2
A
0.03 x 0.05
=
2.2x1o-3
Q = -29.52 rad/s 2
,I
Hence, the acceleration of the arm is obtained to be .
(/ = Q +a = -29.52 +50 = 20.48 rad/s 2

~ <ff
c) To determine maximum speed at 82 = 45°, employ the relation

mw;oA ~Gsin82 =P2a
The controlling couple at maximum speed is
(/J = ]50
= 7.4 x0.025 + 2 x800 x0.0252 x]5 x _!!_

180
= 0.4468
Governors 251
from which the maximum speed can be obtained as
2 P2a
(J)2 = -~--
mOA -AGsin82
0.4468
= - - - - - - - - - - - = 1685.0
0.25 xO. 03 xO. 05 xsin45
Therefore, the angular velocity is obtaineg tope
w2 = 41.0 rad/s 2 = 392 rpm

/'
The period of oscillation about the maximum position 82 is
T = 2j mk J ]112
'~l2ka 2 - mw~OA -A.Gcos82
112
=
2
j 0.25 x 2.2x10-3 )
'"\ 2x800 x 0.0252 - 0.250 x J685.0x0.03x0.05cos45
T = 0.198 s
The frequency of oscillation is, therefore,

1
N = - = 5.05 rad/s
T
= 303.0 vibrations per minute.
~52 Mechanisms ofMachinery
PROBLEMS
-
8.1 The arms of a Porter governor are 300 mm long. The upper arms are pivoted on the
axis of rotation and the lower arms are attached to the sleeve at a distance of 40 mm
from the axis of rotatiQn. The load on the sleeve is 700 Nand the mass of each ball
is 10 kg. Determine the equilibrium speed when the radius of the balls is 225 mm.
What will be the range of speed for this position, if the frictional resistance to the
sleeve movement is equivalent to a force of 30 N?
8.2 Fig. P8.2 shows diagrammatically a centrifugal governor operating on a horizontal

shaft. The two balls are connected by two parallel and identical helical springs one
on either side. In the position shown, with the ball arms parallel to the axis of
rotation, the equilibrium speed is 900 rpm. Given are:
ball circle radius= 70 mm;
length of ball arm = 85 mm;
length of sleeve arm= 50 mm.
a) When the speed is increasing by 10% without any change of radius for the given
position, an axial force of 30 N is required at the sleeve to maintain equilibrium.
Determine the mass of each ball.
b) Find the stiffness and initial extension in the springs, if the rate of sleeve
movement, when in mid-position, is 20 mm for 480 rpm change of speed.
85mm
.,
70mm
85mm
Fig. P8.2
8.3 In a Porter governor all arms are 250 mm long and intersect on the governor axis.
The mass of each ball is 4 kg and the mass of the central load is 30 kg. In the
lowest position the arms make 27° to the axis. The lift of the sleeve is 50 mm.
a) Find the frictional force at the sleeve if the speed of ascent from the lowest
Governors 253
· position is equal to the speed at the beginning of the descent from the highest
'·'""'. .''"'"''. tion.
) What is the range of speed of the governor under these conditions?
·c) Determine also the power of the governor when the sleeve is in the lowest
· ,. position for 4% increase in speed above the minimum speed.
The main elements of a spring- controlled governor with an extenal auxiliary spring
adjustment are shown in Fig. P8.4. Two springs connect the rotating masses and
t .fb
the stiffness of each spring is 4.5 N/mm. The stiffness of the auxiliary spring is
13.5 Nlmm. The mass of each ro!atirrg ball is 3. 6 kg, and when the governor
operates, a force of 140 N act?· ,. on the lever as shown on the figure. If the
movement of the sleeve is 13 mm and the speeds of the governor when in its mid-
position are between 350 and 500 rpm, determine the initial tensions in the main
springs and the adjustable range for the auxiliary spring. Assume the initial tension
ofthe auxiliary spring to be 45 N. When the auxiliary spring is set so that the speed
of the governor is 500 rpm in its mid-position, find the range of speed.
90mm 90mm
• • ·'
55mml 55mm 140 N

I
L_~----~!t.~----~ I / ///,
I ~I I
1
• 60 mm .l w 120mm
'
I
·~------~~=---------~--~----~~==------
160 mm 100 mm
Fig. P8.4
254 Jlteclzanisms ofMachinery
8.5 a) For the Proell governor shown in Fig. P8.5, determine the speed ofthe governor
in terms of the governor height h.
b) For x percentage increase in speed, determine the effort and power of the
governor.
r--- - -- Governor axis
Fig. P8.5
8.6 A spring-controlled governorofthe Hartung type is shown in Fig. P8.6. The length
of the ball- and sleeve-arms are 100 mm and 125 mm, respectively. When the
sleeve is in its mid-position, the ball arms are vertical, the sleeve arms are
horizontal, and the radius of rotation of the mass centers is 150 mm. The balls have
a mass of 3. 6 kg each and are controlled by a compression spring of stiffness 10
Nlmm which is initially compressed 50 mm for the bottom position of the sleeve.
Determine the range of speed of operation of the governor for a sleeve lift of 25
.I
mm.
Fig. P8.6
Governors 255
inertia governor mounted on a a flywheel consists of an arm AB pivoted at C,
fixed on the flywheel rigidly attached to the engine shaft. Cis off-set from
u"'~"""'
shaft axis 0 by 75 mm. The arm AB is 350 mm long and is symmetric about
·i.e. AC = CB = 175 mm. A mass of 0.20 kg is attached to each end of the arm
· A an B, these masses being in the form of circular· discs, each 150 mm in
, with their axes parallel to the shaft. In the normal position, the arm A CB
at right angles to the radius OC. If the speed of the engine is increased by 15 rpm
s at a uniform rate, determine the torque about C needed to hold the arm
relative to the concentric disc. Neglect weight of the arm.
Chapter 9
GEAR TRAINS
A gear train is a combination of several gears arranged in a chain fashion such that the
follower of one combination is the driver of the next, and so on. In gear trains,·
therefore, some are drivers and others are followers. Gear trains are widely used in
many kinds of mechanisms whenever a change in speed or torque of rotating members
is required.
9.1 ANGULAR VELOCITY RATIO
Angular velocity ratio is the ratio of the output angular velocity to the input angular
velocity and it is designated by e.
(1)
e = (1)follower = output
(9.1)
(1) • .
anver (1) input
\ When gears are c·ombined to form gear trains, it is necessary to employ positive and
) from
negative signs for speed to indicate whether the speed is in the same o opposite sense
a preselected direction. Usually, the sign is placed by inspection.
\\
) In a simple gear train in many drive applic~ti~ns, an idle: gear is used to bridge ~ver ~e
1 space between the dnver and follower. Th1s 1dler gear does not affect the velocity ratio
I .
I of the system. ~ .v
l
\ The velocity ratio e in a gear train is determined in terms of the number of teeth of the
! .
\ drivers and followers in the chain. For the external gear train shown in Fig. 9.1(a),
ignoring the sense of rotation, the angular velocity ratio is
(1) ourpur
e = ---=--
(!)input
The diametral pitch of a pair of gears in mesh is defined as

p = number of teeth on the gear N
oitch diameter
Gear Trains 257
that the peripheral velocity at the point of contact to be
(9.4)
·ty can be determined in terms of the diametral pitch.

N, N
:: (/)2--
- p
= OJ3 - p3 (9.5)
(9.6)
..... t-.nr~ the velocity ratio is given by
(J) output = w3 N2
= r (9.7)
(J) input
N 2 =number of teeth on the driver, and

N 3 = number of teeth on the follower.
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.1 Simple gear trains (a) external gear train (b) internal gear train
. or the internal gear traiJl shown in Fig. 9.1 (b), the velocity ratio is given by
e = (J) output
(9.8)
, (!)input
..
~Noting that the veiocity ratio is given by the ratio of the number of teeth on the driver
··and driven gears, we can write that
(J)output
e = ---'--
(J) input
number of teeth on the driver

= (9.9)
number of teeth on the follower
N2
=
N3
where the sign is to be placed by inspection.
In general, for a gear train where some gears are drivers and others are followers, the
velocity ratio is given by
(J) OUI,OUI
e =-~-
(J) input
(9.1 0)
= product of teeth numbers of teeth on the driver
product of teeth numbers of teeth on the follower
For the gear train shown in Fig. 9.2, the velocity ratio is found as follows:
Fig. 9.2 Compound gear train
(1)3 N2
=- =-
(1)2 N3
= -
.. = -N3
(J),
m3 N.J
m6 N5
ej = - - -
m! N6
For the gear train the velocity ratio is
.I (9.11)
which, in terms of the teeth numbers, is obtained' to be
(9.12)
From the above velocity ratio equation, it can be noted that:

i) the idler gear 3 does not affect the velocity ratio, and
ii) the velocity ratio is given by
e = product of teeth numbers of teeth on the driver

(9.13)
product of teeth numbers of teeth on the follower
In analyzing· gear trains, it is convenient to express angular speeds in revolutions per

minute, rpm.
Gear Trains 259
TYPES OF GEAR TRAINS
trains are of three types.
A simple gear train is one in which only one gear is mounted on each shaft. In this
type of gear arrangement, the gears are in pure series connection. The gear ratio is
usually limited to the ratio 1 : 10. Otherwise, the gear set will become very large
and expensive. Fig. 9.1 shows examples
,.
of
i
internal and external simple gear trains.
A compound gear train is one in }Vhich more than one gears are mounted on the
gear shaft. The arrangement in this type of gear train is the parallel or parallel-series
connection instead of the pure series connection. A compound gear train is shown
in Fig. 9.2.
iii) A planetary or epicyclic gear train is one in which the mounting shaft of one or
more gears is not stationary relative to mounting shafts of other gears. i.e. planetary
gear shafts rotate about sun and I or ring gear shafts.
9.3 REVERTED GEAR TRAIN
When the axes of the first and last gears are co-axial, the gear train is known as a
reverted gear train. Such gear trains are used in automobile transmissions. Fig. 9.3
shows a reverted gear train.
Fig. 9.3 A revp_rtruf CTonv f"y,-.;.~
The circular pitch p is defined as

JT:d
p =- (9.14)
N
For the same diarnetral pitch P,
JT:d 7r
p =- = - (9.15)
N p
From this we obtain the relationship
Or,
(9.1 6)
and the velocity of the output shaft is given by
(9.17)
Example 9.1
Fig. 9.4 shows the pitch diameters of a set of spur gears which form a gear train.
Calculate the velocity ratio and the train value of the gear train. What is the speed and
direction of rotation of gear 5, gear 7?
./
0 380 0 225
0 760
,05
0 400
Fig. 9.4
Gear Trains 261
Solution
Gears 2 and 4 are driving gears.

Gears 3 and 7 are driven gears.
Gears 5 and 6 are idler gears . .
The angular velocity ratio is

ro7 N2 N4
e =----
By considering the diametral pitch _of the meshing gears, the number of teeth on each
gear is proportional to the pitch diameter. i.e.
e =- =
e = 0.259
Therefore, the output speed w 7 is obtained to be

'
Similarly,
ro5 D2·D4
=--
(1)2 D3·D5
.
from which we obtain ro . to be
" )
ro5 = 16.4 rpm
9.4 PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS
A planetary gear train is one in which the axes of some of the gears may have planetary
motion. A planetary gear train includes a sun gear, about which one or more planet
.-
gears rotate, and a planet gear carrier or arm. Figures 9.5(a) and (b) represent
planetary gear trains.
A planetary gear train is one having two degrees of freedom. In order to define the
motion of every element of the mechanism, the motion of two elements must be
specified.
262 M echanisms of Machinery
Planet carrier
(b)
(a)
Fig. 9.5 Planetary gear trains
9.5 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS .
There are three methods for the analysis of planetary gear trains:- (i) the formula
method, (ii) the tabulation method, at:J.d (iii) the instantaneous center method. The last
method has been treated in Chapter 3 and will not be treated here.
9.5.1 .Solution of Planetary Gear Trains by Formula Method
Consider the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 9.6. Gear 2 is the sun gear and arm 3
is the planet carrier. Gears 4 and 5, the planet gears fixed to the arm~ revolve about the
sun gear while also rotating about their own axes.
...
Fig. 9.6 A planetary gear arrangement
The velocity of gear 2 relq_tive to the arm 3 IS
(9 .18)
Also, the velocity of gear 5 relative to the ann is
(9.19)
Gear Trains · 263
Dividing equation (9.19) by equation (9.18), we obtain
(9.20)
Equation (9.20) expresses the relative velocity of gear 5 relative to gear 2 where both
velocities are taken relative to the arm 3. The ratio (w5 - w) I (w2 - w:) is the
same whether the arm is rotating or not, and is proportional to the tooth numbers. i.e.
the ratio is the angular velocity ratio of the gear train.
= e (9.21)
I'
Equation (9 .21) is expressed in a more convenient form as
e = (9.22)
(!)FA
where w F is the angular velocity of the first gear in the train,

w L is the angular velocity of the last gear in the train,
wA is the angular velocity of the arm or planet gear carrier,
is velocity ratio of last and first gears relative to the arm.
This ratio is equal to the product of teeth numbers of driver gears over
product of teeth numbers on driven gears.
Note: In applying equation (9.22) the following conditions must be satisfied.

(i) The last and first gears must be gears that mesh with the gear or gears that
have planetary motion.
(ii) The first and last gears must be on parallel shafts because angular
velocities must be parallel in order to treat them algebraically.
Example 9.2
Arm 6 and gear 5 of the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 9.7 are driven clockwise, as
viewed from the right end, at 75 and 25 rpm. Determine w 21 in magnitude and
direction.
4(28) 3(30)
- - - Moving axis of
rotation of
gears 3 and 4
/
-- Fixed axis
of rotation
of gear 2
5(20) and arm 6
Fig. 9.7
Solution
(wL - (J)) WLA

e = ---
(wF - (J)) . WFA
where wL = 25 rpm and mA = 75 rpm.
J8x28 21
=---
30x20 25
Therefore, w21 = 15.48 rpm
which yields w F = 15.48 rpm, i.e. w21 = 15.48 rpm. ·

./
Example 9.3
The bevel-gear train shown in Fig. 9.8 consists of the input gear 2 and the output from
gear 6, which is connected to the output shaft. The arm 3 turns freely on the output
shaft and carries the planet gears 4 and 5. Gear 7 is fixed to the frame. Determine the
output speed if gear 2 rotates q.t 750 rpm.
Gear Trains 265
Moving axis of
rotation of arm 3
Fixed axis of
rotation of
gear2
Fixed axis
of rotation 6(Ji5) f
of gear 6
)
7(6D)
./'
Fig. 9.8
:The known speeds are:

w2 = 750 rpm
())7 =0
Gear 4, acting to bridge between gears 2 and 7, is an idler gear.
The problem is solved in two steps:
First, we consider gear~ 2, 4, 7, and arm 3.
(J)F = ())2 = 750 rpm
(J)L = ())7 = 0
(J)A = ())3
Applying equation (9.22)
(J)LA (wL - (J))

=
(J)FA (wf - (J))
where
(J)LA N2N4 1
= =
CVFA N4N7 3
(J)
Substituting for ~ , we obtain .
(;)FA . 7
mA = 187.5 rpm
Now, consider gears 2, 4, 5, 6 and arm 3.
mF = 750 rpm
Applying equation (9.22) again
(J) LA ( (J) L - (J))

=----
(;)FA (mF -m)
8
35
Solving for mL, we obtain
Gear 6 rotates in the same direction as gear 2.
9.5.2 Solution of Planetary Gear Trains by Tabulation Method
Consider the planetary gear train composed ofjl sun gear 2, a planet gear
planet gear 4 and an internal gear 5 which is
·~ ·,
,in mesh with the planet gear as
Fig. 9.9.
Fig. 9.9 Planetary f!,ear arran{!ement with an internal gear

Gear Trains 267
Given certain values for the speed of the sun gear and the planet gear carrier, we want
to determine the speed of the internal gear. In applying tl;le tabulation method, we carry
out the following three steps.
i) First, lock the gears to the arm and rotate the arm one positive tum. This
causes the gears to rotate one positive tum with the arm.
ii) Next, fixing the arm, rotate one or more of the sun gears and apply the relation
for the angular velocity ratio. ~
iii) Tabulate the resvlting motio9- and add the turns of each gear in steps (i) and (ii)
to satisfy the given condi~ons of motion.
These steps are demonstrated by considering an example.

1
Example 9.4
For the gear train shown in Fig. 9.9 let w2 =100 rpm clockwise, and w3 =200 rpm
counter-clockwise. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of the internal gear.
Solution
Step (i) : Lock the gears to the arm and give the arm 200 turns in ccw direction.
This causes gears 2, 4 and 5 to tum through 200 turns in ccw direction.
#
Show this ~n a table. (See table below)
Step (ii) : Fix the arm so that its tum is equal to zero. Allow gear 2 to turn through
x turns. Using_ the angular velocity ratio, determine the corresponding
turns through which gears 4 and 5 must turn. Enter this on the table.
Angular velocity ratio between gears 2 and 4 is

.-

w4 = -2x (ccw)
Angular velocity ratio between gears 2 and 5 is

w .f = -o.5x (ccw)
Step (iii) : Show the result on the table and sum up the results to obtain the final
result to satisfy the conditions of motion.
Sten no. Ann3 Gear2 Gear4 Gear 5 .

1. Gears locked 200 200 200 200.
z_. &'r;
2 ..A.nn fixed 0 X -~ -ix
·z.,
3. Result 200 + X= -100 200 - gx 200 - 0.5x
' .
<200 orx=-300 I
= 800 =j~O
..' ..
r-, ~-.? 1 . ·. 1 ~
'rhe·-;eguir~d speed of the internal gear is

w 5 =j~o rpm, (ccw)
,.... #-.
_
Example 9. 5
9
Solve the problem of example,tJ by tabulation me,thod.
Solution
Step (i) : Fix gears 4 and 5 on the arm 3 and allow the arm to turn through x
revolutions per minute. Therefore, gears 4 and 5 will also turn through x
revolutions per minute.
Step (ii) : Fix the arm and allow gear 2 to turn through y rpm. Consequently, all
gears will turn as determined by the gearing ratio.
Step (iii) : Sum up steps (i) and (ii) to obtain the specified conditions of motion.
Show the results on a table.
Gear Trains 269
Step No. Arm3 Gear 2 Gears 4 and 5 Gear 6 Gear7
1. Arm rotating X X X X . X
20 20 16 20 40
2. Arm fixed, 0 y -y 40 -y 40 .35 -y 40.60
gear 2
rotating
"' ..
3. Sum X 750 .
. 0
r
For gear 2:
X + y = 750
For gear 7:
20 40 t~&~f~·v·~ ··
x-y--·-=0
40 60 .sr·· "f~
t~~;:;~,
Solving these equations for x andy, we obtain jJ·/) 000289 ; ·~::'~ ::?.~
t..:.· :.1
x = 187.5 rpm
and i~f{f<..
y = 562.5 rpm
For gear 6:
20 16
OJ6 =X - y ·40 .35
w6 = 58.9 rpm
9.6 AUTOMOTIVE DIFFERENTIAL
An automotive differential is a bevel gear differential which is a class of planetary gear

train used to add or subtract speed. When a car is making a turn, the wheel on the
outside ofthe tum makes more revolutions than the wheel with a shorter turning radius.
Unless this difference in speed is accommodated in some manner, one or both of the
tires will have to slide in order to make the tum. This difference is accommodated by
automotive differentials which are used for the purpose of differentiating the speed of
the front or rear wheels of a car. Fig. 9.10 shows a schematic representation of an
automotive differential.
Fig. 9.10 An automotive differential
Shaft A is driven from the engine by means of the transmission arrangement. To this
shaft bevel pinion 2 is meshing with a ring gear 3 fastened to the frame 7 , or
differential case. The ring gear is free to rotate on axles B to which gears 5 and 6, the
differential side gears, and the rear wheels are attached. The frame 7 carries gears 4
which are free to turn about their own axes.
When the car moves straight ahead, A drives 2 and all other gears revolve with 3 as a
unit without relative motion. But when the car makes a turn, say, toward the right, the
left hand wheel will move faster than the right hand wheel thereby causing the gears to
move relative to one another, the action being of a ~lartetary gear train. It is worth
noting that when one of the wheels is held stationary ajld the second is free to rotate, the
second wheel will turn at twice the speed of the rino- gear.
~ ~
To understand the operation of the bevel gear differential, let VP be the velocity of the
point of contact of gears 6 and 4, and assume gear 5 to be stationary. Thus, the velocity
of the center of gear 4, which may be considered as a point on the frame 7 extended,
. vp
lS - .
2
From this it can be concluded that

= vp (9.23)
m6 R
Gear Trains 271
.-;:,..~,.,,.p R is the radius of gear 6.
velocity of the frame is
= vp (9.24)
. 2R
.............~-- y, fixing gear 6 and assuming VQ to be the velocity of the point of contact
v
·between gears 5 and 4, the center of gear 5 will have a velocity of Q. Thus,
2
(9.25)
r (9.26)
Ifboth gears 5 and 6 are rotating, angular velocity of the frame 7 will be
w = vp +· vQ (9.27)
7
2R 2R
' if the gears are rotating in the same direction, or
w = vp _ vQ (9.28)
7
2R 2R
if the gears are rotating in opposite directions.
Assuming the direction can be placed by inspection from the direction of motion of the
gears, angular velocity of the frame or arm 7 is given by
(9.29)
This equation is the general equation of bevel gear differential. Note that ifcu5 and cu 6
are equal in magnitude and have the same direction, then
(9.30)
If(JJ 5 and cu 6 have the same magnitude but are opposite in direction, then
(L)
7
=0 (9.31)
In the automotive differential shown, if the ~ar is moving in a straight path, there is no
relative motion between gears 4, 5, 6 and the frame 7. Thus,
(9.32)
When the car makes a turn to the right, let's say, the outside rear wheel must increase
in speed and the inner wheel must decrease in speed by the same amount so that two
tires may not slip.
Assume that the wheel attached to gear 5 to be on a dry pavement wbile that attached
.·
to gear 6 is on ice. Tne wheel the dry pavement will be at rest wbile the wheel on ice
turns at twice the speed of the frame 7. The torques on the shafts attached to gears 5
and 6 must always be equal. Since there is no torque on the shaft attached to gear 5, the
torque on the shaft attached to gear 6 is practically zero. As a result, the car does not
move, it simply skids.
Example 9.6
Tne tooth numbers of the automotive differential shown in Fig. 9.10 are
The vehicle turns to the right at a speed of 54 km/h on a curve of radius 30m. Using a
1. 5 m center to center distance between the wheels, and wheel diameter of 650 mm
calculate:
a) the speed of the tires,
b) the speed of the ring gear.
Solution
a) Angular velocity of the car is
(J) =-
v .I
c R
where R is the radius of the curve. Thus,
~ "'
54 2n:
= - X-
3.6 60
= 0.5 rad/s
The radius at which the rig!lt wheel turns is
Rr =R - l.B = 29.1 m
2
Hence, the velocity of the right wheel is
Gear Trains 273
the angular velocity of the right wheel is then
vr 14.55
(J)r =R = 0.325
IV
= 44. 77 radls
= 427.5 rpm
~u.u.u...... y, for the left wheel

18
=R + · =30.9 m
2
the velocity of the left wheel is ·
/'
V1 = RfU = 15.45 mls
and the angular velocity of the right wheel is then
- v, 15.45
w, RIV = 0.325
= 47.54 radls
= 454.0 rpm
2. Considering the planetary gear arrangement, in using the formula method,
(J)r = (1)6 = OJF

w, = w5 =wL
.
and
OJ arm = (J) 7 = (J)A
The transmission ratio between the first and last gears in the train arrangement is
e =
.·
For the planetary gear arrangement in the differential,
e = -1
Hence,
454 - 0)7
e = =----
427.5 - 0)7
i.e. the speed of the ring gear is 440.75 rpm.
9.7 PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS WITH TWO INPUTS
A planetary gear train with two inputs and is shown in Fig. 9.11. The output
speed is obtained by superposing the output due to input speed , keeping
fixed, and the output due to , keeping fixed . Thus, the output sp.eed is
w
our
=w1 fe )
~ 1 cv 2 held fixed
+ w fe ,)
2 ~ - cu1 held fzxed (9.33)
and· are the gearing ratios for the conditions indicated. This procedure is best
explained by an example.
E D
- - - - --+- - :
Wj. v
./
A
Fig. 9.11 A planetary gear train with two inputs

~ '!'
Example 9.7
For the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 8.11, the number of teeth of the various gears ·
is given to be:
NA = 28, NB = 32
Nc =58, N D -- 48
N~
1:.
=50, N F =56
The two input speeds are
w1 = 300 rpm, w2 = 150 rpm
Gear Trains 275
Determine the speed and direction of the output shaft F.
Solution
Step!
Keep input speed and determine . Thus, the gear train becomes a simple train
where
) _ product of teeth numbers on driving gears
(1
e w: held fzxed product of teeth nuJ!lbers on driven gears
Or,
,.
28x58x50
=
32x48x56
= 0.944
Step II
Keep input speed and determine . Thus, the gear train becomes a planetary train
with one input and is solved for by tabulation method.
Arm Gear A Gears B, C Gears D, E GearF

Fix all 1 0 1 1 1
Gears on
arm
.
Fix ann 0 X
and allow 0
gears to
turn
resultant 1 0 58 50
1 +x- · -
48 56
.·
Noting that gear C is not turning, we get

J +X = 0
which yields . Thus,
58 50
fe)
~ 2w
= 1 +x-·-
1
held fixed 48 56
= · -o.0789
Thus, the output speed is
OJ out = OJ 1 (e 1)w held fixed

+ (J) 2 fe
~ w
2) held fixed
2 1
= 300x(0.944) + 150x( -0.0789)
= 271 rpm '•
.•· ...
..1
.
Gear Trains 2 77
PROBLEMS
9.1 In the gear train shown in Fig. P9.1 compound gears 1 and 2 can slide so that either
gear I meshes with gear 5 or gear 2 meshes with 3. In tne same manner, gear 13
meshes with gear 15 or gear 14 meshes with gear 16.
a) With gear 2 meshing with gear 3, determine the two possible spindle
speeds for a motor speed of 1800 rpm.
b) With gear 13 meshing with gear 15 and spindle speed of 130 rpm,
determine the number oft~ethc- for gears 1 and 5 if gears 1, 2, 3, and 5 are
standard and have the s?ille diametral pitch.
r
100 mm diam.
pulley
Sptndle
6(48) 9(23)
------- -
8(40)
Fig. P9.1
9.2 A conventional automotive transmission is shown diagrammatically in Fig. P9.2.

The transmission of power is as follows:
Low gear: Gear 3 shifted to mesh with gear 6, power is transmitted through
gears 1, 4, 6, 3.
Second gear: Gear 2 shifted to mesh with gear 5, power is transmitted through
gears 1, 4, 5, 2.
High gear: Gear 2 shifted so that clutch-teeth on an end of gear 2 mesh with
clutch teeth on end of gear 1 to result in direct drive.
Reverse gear: Gear 3 shifted to mesh with gear 8, transmission is obtained
through gears I. 4. 7. R. 3
A car equipped with this transmission has a differential ratio of 2. 9: I and a tire of
650 mm. Determine the engi~ speed of the car under the following conditions:
a) Low gear and car traveling at 30 km/h.
b) High gear and car traveling at 90 km/h.
c) Reverse ge.ar and car traveling at 6 kmlh.
Clutch teeth 2(21) 3(26)

1(15)
To engine
4(30)
Fig. P9.2
9.3 An aircraft propeller reduction drive is shown schematically in Fig. P9.3.

Determine the propeller speed in magnitude and direction if the engine turns at
2450 rpm in the direction indicated.
Fig. P9.3
9.4 The drive shaft of the automotive differential show in Fig. P9.4 turns at 1200 rpm.
The number of teeth on the various gears are given in the figure.
a) What are the wheel speeds if the car is traveling in a straight line on a
good road surface?
Gear Trains 279
b) Supposing the right wheel is jacked up and the wheel is resting on the
road surface, what is the speed of the right wheel?
To rear To rear
wheel wheel
Fig. P9.4
9.5 The automotive differential shown in Fig. P9.5 is used in a rear-wheel-drive

vehicle. The vehicle has wheels 650 mm in diameter. The drive shaft has an
angular speed of 2000 rpm. If the vehicle turns to the right at a speed of 50 kmlh
on a curve of radius 30m, calculate:
,a) the speed of each of the rear wheels,
b) the speed of the arm.
9.6 In the reverted planetary gear train shown in Fig. P9 .6, gear 2 is driven at 180 rpm
ccw while gear 6 is held stationary. Determine the speed of the arm.
What will be the speed of the arm if gear 2 were held fixed and gear 6 rotates at
12 rpm in the clockwise direction?
Fig. P9.6
9. 7 In the gear train shown in Fig. P9.7 gear 7 is fixed. If shaft 6 is turned through
revolutions, how many turns y..'ill shaft a make?
Fig. P9.7
9.8 For the planetary gear train shown in Fig. P9.8, the number of teeth of the various
gears is given to be:
NA = 28, NB = 32
Nc =58, No = 48
NE =50, NF =56
The two input speeds are
w 1 = 300 rpm cw, w 2 = 150 rpm ccw
Determine the speed and direction of the output shaft F .
E .I
0)2
(J) out
~ ~
---- - -
l%J ~
(J)
~
F c
~
A
Fig. P9.8
Chapter 11
FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY
In the design of machine parts, the

p
forces
{
and torques acting on individual elements,
however small, should be analyzed carefully. Bearings, pins, and other fasteners are
usually critical elements in machinery because of the concentration of forces acting on
them, hence the importance oj careful force analysis on machine elements.
11.1 INERTIA FORCE AND INERTIA TORQUE
Consider a rigid body in plane motion subjected to the action of external forces
F 1, F 2 , ...,F n as shown in Fig. 10.1. The resultant ofthese forces is
R =EF (11.1)
and produces the linear acceleration of the mass center a G and angular acceleration a
of the rigid body. The angular acceleration vector a need not be located at the mass
center G.
\c?¢G
R
Fig. 11.1 A rigid body in plane motion
Let P be any element of the body, the mass of P being dm. The ~cceleration of Pis
(11.2)
or,
(11.3)
where a G is the acceleration of the mass center G, and
aPIG is the acceleration of P: relative to G.
Multiplying a P by the mass dm,
(11.4)
But, (aP!Gt = ro/ and (aPic) = ro., where wand a. are the angular velocity and
1
angular acceleration of the rigid body.
The resultant of ap·dm is made up of:

i) the resultant of all forces like a cdm,
ii) the resultant of all forces like (a?let ·dm, and

iii) the resultant of all forces like (aPic)r ·dm .
All forces like acdm are all in the direction of the acceleration of the mass center G.
The resultant of these forces is
~"'a G ·dm = a G ·~
"'dm = ma G (11.5)
Forces like (a?let ·dm pass through the center of mass G and their resultant is given by
(11.6)
OJ being the same for all lines on the rigid body,
(11.7)
But, E rdm is the definition of the centrbid and E rdm = 0. Therefore,
(11.8)
Forces like (aP/c) ·dm have their resultant to be equal to

1
(11.9)
For the same reason as above, the resultant of these forces is
E (aP!c)t·dm = o.J; (r·dm) = 0 (11.10)

Hence, we conclude that the resultant of all forces acting on a body producing
Force A nalysis ofMachinery 309
acceleration of the body is
R = }; F =maG (11.11)
The resultant of all forces a G dm passes through the mass center and does not create
any moment. The forces (aP1G)n·dm pass through the mass center and do not create
any moment. But the forces (aPIG)r ·dm do not pass through the mass center but act
at a radial distance of r; hence, they produce a torque given by
E T =}; (aPIG)r·dmr
=}; ra·dm1·
/'
(11.12)
Knowing that the mass moment of inertia about the mass center IG is defined as
E r 2 dm = IG (11.13)
the torque due to the resultant of the forces like (aPIG)r -elm is given by
E T = lcf1 (11.14)
Hence, the effect of the external forces acting on a rigid body in motion is to produce
linear acceleration of the mass center G and an angular acceleration a of the rigid
body. The resultant force R and the torque T can be replaced by a single forceR acting
at a distance of e from the mass center where e given by
(11.15)
11.2 DYNANIIC EQUILIBRIUM
In dynamic analysis of machines, accelerations are usually known from kinematic

analysis. Thus the forces required to produce these accelerations can be determined
from Newton's law of motion
R = E F = ma 0 (11.16)
T = leG- (11.17)
Equations ( 11.16) and ( 11.17) can be written as
J;F - ma G =0 (11.18)
( 11.19)
From equation (11.18) we have that the sum of all external forces acting upon a body
plus the fictitious force -maG is equal to zero. The fictitious force -maG is called
inertia force, and has the same line of action as the acceleration ofthe mass center a G,
but opposite in sense. ··
Similarly, from equation ( 11.19) the sum of all moments of the external forces about an
axis through the mass center G and the external torques acting upon the body plus the
fictitious couple -!Ga is zero. The fictitious couple -lc;a is known as the inertia
torque. The inertia torque is opposite in sense opposite to the angular acceieration a:.
The addition of the inertia force and the inertia torque to a dynamic system transforms
it into an artificial state of equilibrium known as dynamic equilibrium wl}ich can then
be treated as if the system were static. In drawing the free-body-diagram of the system,
the inertia force and inertia torque are also included. This transformation of a dynamic
system into an anificial static system is known as D 'Alembert 's Principle.
Equations ( 11.18) and ( 11.19) can be rewritten as
Fe = -maG = -EF . (11.20)
(11.21)
where F e and T e are the inertia force and inertia torque, respectively. Gv
11.3 LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS
There are three methods of linkage force analysis: .I

a) Superposition Method,
'
b) Use of Transverse and Radial Components, and
c) Virtual Work Method. ~ "'
These methods which can be solved either graphically or an8.lytically, have their relative
advantages and disadvantages and they will be treated separately in subsequent sections.
11.4 Force Determination
In considering equilibrium of forces, the following points should be considered

carefully.
Force A nalysis ofM achinery 311
i) A rigid body acted upon by two forces is in equilibrium only if the two forces
are collinear, equal in magnitude and opposite in sense.
ii) A rigid body acted upon by three forces is in static equilibrium if the lines of
action of these forces are concurrent through a point.
iii) A rigid body acted upon by a couple is in static equilibrium if only it is acted
upon by another coplanar C.QUp\e equal in magnitude and opposite in sense.
11.5 Linkage Force Analysis by Superposition Method
In the superposition method, a linkage with several forces acting on it can easily be
analyzed by determining the effect of each force separately, one at a time, and then
combining the results to get the cumulative effect. The disadvantages of this method
are:
i) it is tedious because each link has to be analyzed several times, and
ii) it does not give accurate solution where friction has to be considered.
This method is best discussed by analyzing some examples.
Ex amplell.l
In the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 11.2, link 2 rotates about 0 2 at a uniform speed
of 10 radls cl~wise and link 4 oscillates about 0 4 . If link 4 is equivalent to a
uniform bar of rlhds 16 kg wiffi its mass center of gravity lying midway between B and
0 4 , find the magnitude and direction of the turning moment which must be applied to
the shaft at 0 2 to accelerate B 0 4 .
Given are: 13 = 0.12 kgm 2, m 3 = 4 kg

A C = 3 00 mm, where C is the mass center
0 0 225 mm, 0 y4 is vertical for the phase shown
AB___,: 600 mm
0 4B = 600 mm -
Solution
From geometry of the linkage,

{) _ 1 no 70
'l L
Jt" . T o3 B
IZ JJ
I I Fe4
~
YL X
T
150 G ~
l
900
Fig. 11.2
And from kinematic analysis of the linkage,
w2 = -1 Ok rad/s
w 3 = 2. 08k rad/s
w4 = - 3.86k radls
a 3 = 16.5k rad/s 2
a4 = 19k rad/s 2
aG = -2. 50i - 6.80j m/s 2
aG = -3.74i - 17.61j m!s 2
.I
From these accelerations, the inertia forces and inertia forques acting on links 3 and 4
can be computed. '
Fe3 = -m3·a c = -4( -3. 74i - 17. 6Jj) "
= 14.96i + 70.44j N
Fe3 = 72.0 N
T e3 = I3·a 3 = 0.12 x16.5k
Te3 = 1.98 N -m
F e and T e can be replaced by F e acting at an offset of e3 given by

3 3 3
TeJ 1.98
e3--
Fe; 12
'\
= 0.0275 m = 27.5 mm
Similarly, for link 4

Fe = -m 4 ·aG = -16( -2.50i - 6.80j)
4
= 40.0i +108.8j N #
F e; = 116.0 N
r
1
T e. = !4 "0.4 = -m ! 2a
12 4 4
= _}_ x16xO. 62 x19k

12
= 9.12k N -m
F e4 and T e4 can be replaced by F e4 acting at an offset of e 4 given by
9.12
116
= 0.0785 m = 78.5 mm
These inertia forces and torques are shown on Fig. 11. 2 in their respective positions:
F acts at P and P acts at 0.
e3 e4 C -
;rom the geome~ relations

AP = 300 - 27· 5 = 271.8 mm
cos13
78 5
BQ = 300 - · = 200.0 mm
cos38.3
u
To use the superposition method, the forces F e and F e are applied one at a time and
1 4
their effects are then summed up.
Step 1: Remove F e and apply F e

3 4
The free-body-diagram of link 4 is shown in Fig. 11.3(a).
k,
/I
I '
I ·.
\
I
(a)
Fig. 11.3 '--'
The direction of F eJ is known: at 200 to the vertical as indicated in the figure.

The force F';
4 i.e. the force on link 4 due to link 3 is along link 3, because link 3
becomes
a two-force member subjected to an axial force when F e; is removed. The direction
lines of F eJ and r';.,
intersect at k1 . Since link 4 is in equilibrium, the force ¥;"'on
link 4 due to link 1, passes through k1 .
Taking moment about 0 4 , ¥; 4 can be determined.
B04 xr;4 + Q04 xF e, = 0
( -600cos58Ji + 600sin58.~j)x(F~cosl3i + F;/iosiJj; +
( -3 78. 5cos58.3i + 378.5sin58.3j)x(Fe/!!;220i + Fe 4COs20j) =0
Substituting for F e and solving for

J
r; 4 , we obtain
~ ~
I
F 34 = - 60.6 N
Analyzing link 3, the forces r;

3 due to link 4 is equal to ~4 in magnitude but
opposite in sense. The force on link 3 due to link 2 is ~3 which is equal in magnitude
to r;
3 but opposite in sense. Therefore, v
I
F 43 = -F 34I = 60.6 N
and
F{; = -F~ = -60.6 N
Force Analysis of Machinery 315
or,
~3 = j 59.0i + 13.6j) N
Considering link 2, ~).s equal to ~3 in magnitude but opposite in sense.

Similarly, Fj2 is equal in magnitude to ~2in magnitude bu opposite in sense.
Therefore,
I I
F32 = -F23 = 60.6 N
and
I
F12 = -F32I = -60.6 N
To maintain equilibrium oflink2, a torquer; is required opposing the turning effect

of the couple formed by Fj2 . and ~2 . Therefore,
Ts = A02 xF3~
= {0.225jJx ( -59.0i - 13. 6j)
= 13.3k N -m
The free-body-diagrams of links 2 and 3 are shown in Fig. 11.3.
Step 2: Remove F e~
and apply F e .
3
The free-body-diagrams os links 3, 2, and 4 are shown in Fig. 11.4 (a), (b), and (c),
respectively.
.
2
I
I !
I ,'
1 I
I /
I :
I
I
I
I
I
(b)
(a)
-
Fig. 11.4
"
The magnitude~ direction of F e are known, at 12° to the vertical as shown in the
~~.. -~ Tl.o 17'~ 'f!n link 3 due to link 4 is directed along link 4, since link 4 is a
3
+'r>ri'P
!. j
two force member. The lines of action of Fe and ~ intersect at k2 . For

equilibrium of the acting forces, -~ acting on link 3 due to link 2 passes through k2 •
Taking moments about A, F~ can be determined.
BAx~ + PA'xFe3 = 0
(600cosl3.0i + 600sinl3.0j)x( -F:;cos58.3i + F:;sin58.3j) +
(272.5cosl3.0i + 272.5sin13.0j )x(Fe3sin12i +Fe3cos12j) = 0
Substituting for F e and ~ , and solving for ~'

3
~ = 31.4i + 43.8j N
Or,
~ = 53.9 N
acting at an angle of 54.4° to the horizontal.
Considering link 2 shown in Fig. 11.4(b), to maintain equilibrium,
Fj~ = -~~ = -(31.4i + 43.8j) N

Or,
II
F 12 = 53.9 N
acting at 54.4° to the horizontal line.
.I
To maintain equilibrium of link 2, rt is obtained from

,..,../1 - dl
1 s =A02X.f' 32 = 0
This yields
r; : : (0.225j x( -31.4i - 43.8j) = 0
r; = 7.07k N -m
Considering link 4,
d l = - F II
.1' 34 43
= -(-16.4i + 266j) N
II
F~, = 31 .1 N
To maintain equilibrium of link 4,
II
F 34 = 31.3 N
Step 3: Finally, the effects of F and F are summed up t o obtain the result.
e3 e"'
Therefore, the torque on shaft 2 is
;, r
Ts = Ts + T;
= 13.3k + 7. 07k r
T s = 20.3 7k N -m
The forces acting at the pin connections can be determined as follows:
F I2 = ~2 + ~~
F 12 = ~2 + ~
F 34 = ~4 + ~
F l4 = ~4 + ~~
Example 11.2
For the m~echanism shown in Fig. 11.5, determine the forces F12 and F 14 due to the
action of the inertia force F . Also determine the shaft torque Ts applied to link 2 at 0 2 .
• e"'
Given are:
0~ = 180 mm, F e-1 = -4500j N
y r-__ j_S.Q__---1 F
B
I e4
c.8:
X
/
~.1 250
.J
\..J Fig. 11.5

Solution
From the geometry of the mechanism, for the phase shown
e = 44°, rp = 106°, 0.,4 = 346.1 mm
The effect of the irrertia force F e. is obtained byconsi~ri~~ach link separately

starting from link 4. The free-body-diagram of each linl< m (!ynamic equilibrium is
shown in Fig. 11 .6.
Consider link 4. Introducing unit vectors i andj along the x- andy-axes, respectively,
F e-1 = -4500j N
The reaction due to link 3 on link 4 is perpendicular to link.4. Therefore,
Thelinesofactionof F e. and F 34 passthroughk. For dynamic equilibrium of the link,

the force F 14 should pass through k. Taking moment about 0 4 ,
C04 xFe. + A04 xF34 = 0

which gives
(207.8 cos30i +207.8 sin30j) x( -Fej) +
(346.1 cos30i + 346.1 sin30j)x(F3 ~in30i + F34cos30j) = 0
k
I ./
I : .,
I .,
I
I
I
I Fo4 F23 Ts
34
(b)
(c)
Fig. 11.6
Substituting for Fe~ and solving for F 34 yields
F 34 = 2340
From dynamic equilibrium of link 4 we have

F 14 - Fe~ j - F34 sin30i + F34 cos30j = 0
which yields
F 14 = 1170i - 2473.5j
F 14 = 2736.3N
Consider link 3.
r
= -11 70i + 2026.5j

F 23 = 2340 N
Considering link 2,
F 32 = -F23 = 1170i - 2026.5j

F23 = 2340 N
For equilibrium of link 2
F 12 =. -F23 = - 1170i + 2026.5j
F 12 = 2340 N
and
= -{0.180cos74i + 0.180sine74j )x(IJ70i - 2026.5j)

T s = 303& -m Q
.·
11.6 RADIAL AND TRANSVERSE COMPONENTS
In determining the forces between two links subjected to inertia forces, it is possible to
work simultaneously with the forces in determining their effect on the joint connecting
the links. In this case, the fordes are resolved into components perpendicular and
parallel the link to obtain the transverse and radial components respectively. Hence,
treating all the joints that connect two links, we can find the effect of all forces and
torques.
In force analysis of linkages it is often necessary to deal with a single force that acts
upo~ ~ two-j~int link with a line of acti.on crossi_ng thSJink~~ s~m.~~int between the
two JOmts. F1g. 11.7 shows a four-bar lmk.age w1th force F 3 actrng ' # between A and
B. F3 is resolved into components parallel and perpendicular to link 3. These
components are known as radial and transverse components with respect to A and are
designated by ~ and F;A ,
respectively.
'///// ~
I i
Fig. 11.7 Radial and transverse components acting on a link of a four-bar mechanism
By taking moment about A, the effect of the transverse component F;A

acting on link
3 is to produce a transverse force F;~ on link 4 at point B. The moments of these
forces about A are equal.
./
J{~· AB = J{A· AE (11.22)
.
From this equatwn F TA
can be obtained as
34
r;: = J{A · AE
AB
(11.23)
By considering similar triangles, JS~ due to F;A can be found graphically as shov.-n
in Fig. 11.7.
.
Having determined F~~ and imposi.11g certain conditions on F 34 , ~can be obtained
from which F 34 can be determined.
This method is best illustrated by way of an example.
parallel the link to obtain the transverse and radial components respectively. Hence,
treating all the joints that connect two links, we can find the effect of all forces and
torques.
In force analysis of linkages it is often necessary to deal with a single force that acts
upo~ ~ two-j~int link with a line of acti.on crossi.ng th9ink~~ s~m~~int between the
two JOmts. F1g. 11.7 shows a four-bar lmkage Wlth.force F 3 actmg' # betweenA and
B. F3 is resolved into components parallel and perpendicular to link 3. These
components are known as radial and transverse components with respect to A and are
designated by ~ and F;A ,
respectively.
F ig. 11.7 Radial and transverse components acting on a link ofa four-bar mechanism
By taking moment about A, the effect of the transverse component F;A

acting on link
3 is to produce a transverse force ~: on link 4 at point B. The moments of these
forces about A are equal.
~A - ~A .I
.t< 34 • AB = r3 • AE (11.22)
.
From this equation FTA
can be obtained as
34
(11.23)
By considering similar triangles, F;~ due to F;A can be found graphically as shoVvn
in Fig. 11.7.
.
Having determined FI~ and imposing certain conditions on F 34 , .PJ:can be obtained
from which F 34 can be determined.
This method is best illustrated by way of an example.
Example 11.3
Solve the problem of example 11.1 by considering radial and transverse components.
I
I
TA
F34
\I
I'
T
!
150
l __
(b)
900
(a)
Fig. 11.8
Solution
The mechanism and the forces acting on it are duplicated in Fig. 10.8
From the solution of example 11.1 , we obtain
F eJ = 14}6i + 70.44j N acting at P
F e-1 = 40.0i
•
+ 0
108.8j N acting at .._
The magnitudes ~f the inertivorces are
Fe = 72. 0 N and F = 115.9 N

3 e•
Considering F , relative td A:).t, is decomposed into

e; (_y
F':, 3
the radial component,
F;A, 3
the transverse component
where,
F_A
e3
= F e cos25 = 65.25 N
3
= -14.68i + 63.58j
Taking moments about A,
63L
AP
AB
where,
e3
C AP = 300 = 2 71.8 mm
cos13
271 8
= · . ( -14. 68i + 63.58j)
600
Or,
fl;: = -6.67i + 28.88j N
The radial component of the force F 34' which is .F;:, is unknown in magnitude but it
is perpendicular to fl;~ .
Consider again link 4 and the inertia force F e.J . This force has two components relative
04:
.J.O.
F e.J
_ '
the radial com'Ponent, .I
ro4
F e.J '
the transverse com'Ponent
ro. __
F e4 -Fe sin51. 7
4
= 91.0 N
= -14.68i + 63.58j
Taking moments about O.J,
=F43. 04B.
= F'"_0• . 0 4Q
e.J • O,j3
where
e4
0 4Q = 600 - = 400.0 mm
sin51. 7
F_A = -F;A
eJ J
(sinl3i -r cos 13j)
= -14.68i + 63.58j
Taking moments ab6ut A,
AP
AB
where,
e3
AP = 300 - = 271.8 mm
cos13
F TA = 271.8
34 . ( - 14.68i + 63.58j)
600
Or,
pTA
34 = -6.67i + 28.88j N
The radial component of the force F34' which is F';:, is unknown in magnitude but it
is perpendicular to ~~ .
Consider again link 4 and the inertia force F e~ . This force has two components relative
04:
_flO~
1'~ , the radial component,
~ ./
TO~
Fe , the transverse component
~
To.~
Fe ~ = -F sin51. 7
e~
= 91.0 N
= -14.68i + 63.58j
Taking moments about O.J,
where
= 400.0 mm
sin51. 7
= 400 x(77.42i + 47.82j)

600
=51.6i + 31.9j
components of F-13 , which is F;~~ is unknown in magnitude but it is

TO•
to F-1 3 .
the force on link 4 due to link 3 and F 43 is the force on link 3 due to link 4.
forces are actually action and re9-ction
,. forces on joint B. Therefore,
= -F.J3
TA .....RA TO• _./W-1

F 34 , 1' 34 , F 34
are shown in Fig. 11.8(b). - From these forces,
, 1'34
be found graphically or by vector algebra.
.....RA TO• _flO•
+ r 34 + F 34 + r·34 =O
= -6.67i + 28.88j
. perpend'1cular to
Is F TA and can b e written
. as
34
= F3~ (cosl3i + sinl3j)
= 0.974F3~i + 0.225F3~j
= 51.6i + 31.9j
• . . ro.
43 • ·1s perpendicular to F 43 and can be written as
_flO.;
p·43 = -F 43RO•cos58.3i +
RO
F 43 •sin58.3j
RO. RO•
= -o.525F43 'i + 0.851F43 j
.S~bstituting these values in the vector sum of forces yields
-6.67i + 4_.8.88j + 0.974F3~i + 0.225F3~j ;
0.525F~ i
04
0.851F4~ } = 0
0
51.6i + 31.9j - +
· fior
Solvmg .r_flO• J0-1
and 1'] , we get
43 4
324 Mechanisms ofMac!zinery
RA = - 74.04 N
F 34
~ = - 74.04cosl 3i - 74.04sinl3j
= -72.li - · 16.7j N
RO.
F.n · = -51. 75 N
...flO~
f< o~ 3 = 51 . 75sin31. 7i - 51. 75cos31. 7j
= 27. 2i - 44.0j N
From these forces we can determine the forces F 34 and F-13 as
F 34 = F;: + fl;:
= -6.67i + 28.88j - 72.li - 16.7j
= -78. 77i + 12. 18j
= 78. 77i - 12.18j
Considering link 3, which is in equilibrium under the action of forces F 23 , F eJ and

F 43 , we have
F23 + FeJ + F 43 = 0
Therefore,
F 23 + I4.96i + 70.44j + 78.8i - 12.1j =o·.I
F 23 = -93. 7li - 58.34j
The driving torque on link 2 is
T =- (F23 xr)
= - [(93. 7li - 58.34j ) x(0.225j)]
/
T = 21.lk N -m
11.7 LINKA..GE FORCE ANALYSIS BY VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
The virtual work method permits the treatment of the whole system as a unit, thus,
eliminating the link-to-link treatment of the previous methods. However, the physical
significance of forces is not easily visualized. The method is based on the principle that
if a rigid body is in equilibrium under the action of external forces, the total work done
)s zero for a small virtual displacement of the body. This small displacement is an
imaginary one, i.e. a virtual displacement and hence the name.
Consider particle A which is subjected to the force F. as shown in Fig. 11.9.
A~
Fig. 11.9 A point mass actecJI'upo'n by a force
If the particle moves from A to A ' by .rthe action of the force, the work done during the
displacement & is given by the dot product of vectors F and &
6U = F ·6s
(11.24)
= F& cosB
For a virtual displacement&, the virtual work done is zero; i.e.
6U =0 (11.25)
If the system is in equilibrium under the action of all external forces and torques as well
as
the inertia forces and torques, then
6U =I •
F n ·6s n +
Lr T n ·68 n +
Lr F en ·6sGr"'+ Lr T en ·6 8 n =0 (11.26)
Dividing each term by dt, ·we obtain

.
(11.27)
where
(11.28)
(11.29)
dt
(11.30)
and
(11.31)
Te w
11
n = -1na n ·w n (11.32)
In using the virtual work method, the required velocity and acceleration terms are
obtained from kinematic analysis of the mechanism and by substituting in the virtual
work equation the required quantities can be obtained.
Eaxample 11.4
In one phase of the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 11.1 0, the necessary data for
kinematic and dynamic analysis of the machine are given. Using the method of virtual .
work, find the external torque necessary to drive the machine at the required speed and
to overcome the force F 8 for the position given.
Given data:
0~ =50 mm, m2 = 0.25 kg
AB = 125 mm, m3 = 0.8 kg
AG2 =12.5mm, m4 = 0. 5 kg
AG3 = 37.5 mm, 2
12 = 0.002 kg - m
())2 = 2400 rpm, 13 = 0.0224 kg-m 2
Fig. 11.10
./
Solution
For the phase shown
50 ·sin30 = 125 ·sine/>
which yields
~ = sin-I( 50-sin30l = 11.5°

125
Given are
m 2 = 2400k rpm = 80rrk radls
a2 = 0
kinematic analysis of the mechanism the following results are obtained.
OJ' 3 = -88. 8k rad/s

a3 = 11332.8k rad/s
VG1 = -4.7li + 8.Jlj m/s
V G3 = -2050.9i - 1184. 4j mls
""
a G3 = -2938.8i - 1109.lj mls 2
2
a B = -3417.2i m/s I"
= T2 k and knowing that a 2 = 0, the virtual work equation is written

~- as
T 2 ·m2 + F 8 ·V B + F e ·VG
2 2
+ F e ·VG
3 1
+ F e.; ·V B +· Te w 3
3
=0
·
where
F B·V B = (-700i) ·(-8. 50i) = 5950 N -m
F e 1 ·VG2 = -m2a G2 ·VG2

= -{)-. 25( -2050.9i - 11 84.lj) ·( -4. 7li
~
+ 8.Ilj)
= -14.2 N -m
F e ·VG = -m3a GJ ·VG3
3 3
= -o.8( -2938.8i - 11 09.1j) ·( -6.95i + 7.6lj)
= -9587. 5 N -m
F e ·VG = -m4aG -vG
4 4 ./ ./
= -o.5( -3417.2i) ·( -8. 50i)

= -14523.1 N -m
Te "())
3 =-13a3w3
1
= -o.0224 (11 330.3k){ -88. 8k )
= 22537.3 N -rn
328 Mechanisms of l!1aclzinery
Substituting in the virtual work equation, we get, after simplification,
T2 = 17.4 N-m
11.8 ENGINE FORCE ANALYSIS
The principal loads or forces on an engine mechanism are the gas load P on the piston
and the inertia or dvnamic
. loads F ~ and F ~ acting on the connecting rod and
piston, respectively. The inertia force F e , on the crank is usually zero since the
counterweight on the crank shaft balances-the crank, i.e. 0 2 is nominally the center of
mass of link 2, or 0 2 = Gr For constant rotational speed of the crank, the inertia
torque is also equal to zero. Gravity forces are negligible as compared to the principal
loads.
Fig. 11.11 shows the location of the principal loads acting on the various links.
---- Connecting rod
/ \ \ \ _ Crank-pin bearing
\ L_ Crank
, '--- Main bearings
L Counter weight
Fig. 11.11 Principal loads on an engine mechanism
Engine forces are analyzed by superposition method solved analytically or by using

vector algebra.
11.9 DYNAMICALLY E QUIVALENT MASSES
Any rigid link in plane motion, having a mass m and mass moment of inertia I, may be
represented by an equivalent system of two point masses such that the inertia of the two
masses are kinetically equivalent to the inertia of the link. See Fig. 11.12.
F ig. 11.12 Dynamic equivalence of a rigid body and

its two point-masse representation
For the equivalence of the two point masses and the rigid link, the following conditions
must be satisfied.
1v. Assuming the mass of the rigid body to be concentrated at the mass center G, the
two point masses must be equivalent to the mass of the link. i.e.
(11.33)
ii) The position of the mass center G must remain unchanged. i.e.
(11.34)
iii) The sum of the moments of inertia of the poirit masses about G must be equivalent
to the moment of inertia I of the link. i.e.
(11.35)
ll.lO GAS FORCES
For a four-stroke cycle the variation of the gas pressure in the combustion chamber or
::ylinder for two revolutions of the crankshaft is shown in Fig. 11.14.
The magnitude of the gas pressure is detennined from thermodynamic analysis. The gas
force on the piston is the product of the pressure and the piston head area.
Expansion Exhaust I~take Compression

~---- ----r-- I
iI l
1
I I
i I I I
I I I
! I
I
- - - - - -;------· -----r--·
I I .i
I I
=-----~~------~~----~ 0
360° 540° 720
Crank Angle (deg)
Fig. 11.14 Gas pressure in four-stroke cycle engine
To analyze the effect of the force P on the whole engine we start by assuming that all ·
the moving parts are massless which reduces the inertia forces and torques to zero. At
the same time, we assume that there is no friction as well.
y!
I A
I
1
_Qz ___ Lro t = 8 ____ ___ _ p
X
Fig. 11.15 Gas force acting on an engine piston
The gas force P is a function of time varying with wt. The free-body-diagrams for a
particular phase of the mechanism, i.e. of the piston, connecting rod and crank are
shown in Fig. 11.16(a). Fig. 11 .1 6(b) shows the forces acting on the frame.
As can be noted from the free-body-diagram of the crank, the crank is in equilibrium by
the couple T; formed by F ~ and the frame force F ~ . This torque is opposed to the
crank torque T2 .
332 _Mechanisms ofMachinery
From the free_-body-diagram of the frame or engine block, the gas force P exerted upon
the cylinder is completely balanced by F 1~ which is a component of the force of the
crankshaft journal against the main bearings_ The couple formed F~ and F 1 is fi
opposed to and balanced by the crankshaft torque_
(a)
F, F' y
F'~"21
~
~41
(b)
Fig. 11.16 Free-body-diagram ofvarious engine parts due to gas force
For any position of the crank wt, the position x of the piston is given by
x = r ·coswt + l ·cosrp (11_41)
But,
r sinwt = l simp (11 _42)
Therefore,
x = r-coswt + I I - ( "7sinwt)' (11 _43)
Expanding the term in the radical sign by using the binomial theorem,
~I - ( -7sinwt r = I - ; ,si>?wt
2
1
(11.44)
and
1 - cos2wt
(11 _45)
2
Therefore,
2
x = r ·coswt + l - -r ( 1 - cos2wt)
(11.46)
2! 2
or,
r-
x =l - - '
41
+ r (
.
coswt +
r
-cos2wr
41
) (11.47)
The velocity and acceleration are obtained from the position equation and are given by
i = -rw( sinwt + ;/in2wt) (11.48)
x· = -ra (sinwt + ;tn2wt) - rw'( coswt + .ycos2wt) (11.49)
Force polygon showing equilibrium of the piston is shown in Fig. 11.17.
Fig. 11.17 Equilibrium of a piston under the action ofgas force

From the force polygon,
F; =P ·tampj
4 (11.50)
where tamp is given by
r .
-smwt
l
tamp = ~===========
(11.51)
~ 1 - ( .ysinwt)
2
Again by utilizing the binomial theorem,
I
= I
(11.52)
Therefore,
tan~ = 7sinwt ( 1 +
r- . ?
'
-sm-wt
21 2
) (11.53)
From the force polygon, F 3 / is obtained to be
(11.54)
=Pi - P tamp j
The shaft torque T 1 is obtained by multiplying the force F 1/ by x. i.e.
1j = ~4 · xk (11.55)
Substituting for x,
~ = Pfsinwt (I fcoswt) [1 ~ :;
+ +{ coswt + :r2wt) ]k (11.56)
Multiplying and neglecting higher orders of lr ,
~ = Pr sinwt (I + .ycoswt) k (11 .57)
11.11 INERTIA FORCES IN A SINGLE-CYLINDER ENGINE
11.11.1 Algebraic Approach
The inertia forces F e and F e acting at the crank.-pin and wrist-pin bearings are shown
1 4
in Fig. 11.18.
Fig. 11.18 Inertia forces of rotating and reciprocating parts of an engine
By using equivalent masses at the crank-pin and wrist-pin
(11.58)
(11.59)
where
m3 = m3A + m 3B (11.60)
(11.61)
Tne position vector of the crank-pin is

r = r coswt i + r sinwt j (11.62)
Differentiating the position vector twice yields the following relationship which is the
acceleration of point A.
a A = ( -ra sinwt - rw1 coswt) i + (ra coswt - rw1 sinwt) j (11.63)
The inertia force of the rotating part is then
F e1 = -mAaA
= mi (a sinwt + w2 coswt) i +mAr (-a coswt + w1 sinwt) j (11.64)
For constant angular velocity where a2 = 0, the inertia force of the rotating part
reduces to
(11 .65)
The acceleration of point B is
a 8 =[ -ra ( sinwt + ;/in2wr) - rw2 ( coswt + "7cos2w1)] i (1 1.66)
The inertia force of the reciprocating part is, therefore,
F e. = -mBa B
(11.67)
= [mifa ( sinwt + ;/in2wt) + mi"w2 ( coswt + "7cos2w1) ] i
For constant velocity of link 2 where a 2 = 0,
F,, = mifo/ ( coswt + "7cos2w1) i (11.68)
Adding F e and F e-1 gives the inertia forces of all moving parts.
1
Fe =Fe + F e-1
1
F, = [m/w coswt + mi"w

2 2
( coswt + "7coswt)] i + [mArw2 sinwt]j
(11.69)
The components of the inertia force along the x- andy-axes, respectively, are
F,, = mArw2 coswt + mi"w ( coswt + "7 coswt)

2
(11.70)
(11.71)
The portion of the inertia force occurring at w rad/s is referred to as the primary inertia
force and that occurring at 2w radls as the secondary inertia force.
The vertical component of the inertia force has only a primary component which varies
directly with the crankshaft speed. On the other hand, the horizontal component, which
is in the direction of the cylinder, has a primary component varying directly with the
crankshaft speed, and a secondary component which moves at twice the speed of the
crankshaft.
In determining the inertia torque, the inertia force Fe 1 has no moment arm about 0 2 ,
therefore, it produces no torque. To detennine the inertia torque, we need only to
conside:- F e. , the inertia force of the reciprocating mass. The inertia torque is
T = -F e•tanr!J• x k (11.72)
Substituting for x
,.-'
X ={ -[ 4f + r (coswt + ;/oscut) ]
and for tamp
tanrp = fsincut ( 1 + ;>n2cut]

and the inertia force F e.
F,, = mEf"'' (coscu t + 1r cos2wt) i (11.73)
the inertia torque is obtained to be
T = -m£fw2 ( coscut + fcos2wt) ·

[1 - :; + r (coswt + ;/os2wt) ]·
[fs inw{ I + ;//in2cut) ] k (11.74)
Multiplying and neglecting higher orders of !_the torque is obtained to be

l
T = -mgr-w
' 2sznw
. { -r + coswt + 3r
-cos2wt) k (11.75)
2! 2!
Substituting the identities
2sinwt cos2wt = sin3wt - sinwt

2sinwt coswt = sin2wt
the torque is obtained to be
T = mii' 2o/( _!_sinwt - sin2wt - Jr sin3wt] k (11.76)

21 21
This is the inertia torque exerted by the engine on the shaft. Negative inertia torque of
the same magnitude is exerted on the frame of the engine.
Note: Two errors are introduced in this analysis:
1) Moment of inertia of the assumed distribution of the mass of the connecting

rod is higher than the true value due to the point mass distribution on the wrist
and crank pins.
2) Higher powers of !.. were neglected.
l
r I
These two errors are quite small for the ratio of near and cancel out each
I 4
other.
11.11 Forces acting on the connecting rod, crank and frame
i) Due to the mass of the piston assembly
F14
it
F"
;? F"
12
F "~
14
fJ'J
.
~aa
(a)
(h)
Fig. 11.19 Free-body diagram of various engine parts due to inertia force
of the piston assembly
Consider the free-body-diagrams of the piston, connecting rod and crank as shown in
Fig. 11.19(a) and (b).
From the free-body-diagrams
~1 = - ~4 = -m~· tampj (11.77)
~ = - ( -m~·) i + ( -m~· tanqJ) j :::: m~· i - m~· tanqJ j (11.78)
~ =-~ (11.79)
ii) Due to the mass of the connecting rod concentrated at the wrist-pin B
F"'
32 F"'
14
F23ill
2 12
I
F'"
34
F'"
43 (a)
(b)
~ 41
Fig. 11.20 Free-body-diagram of various engine parts due to the inertiaforce

of connecting rod mass concentrated at the wrist pin
From the free-body-diagrams shown in Fig.ll.20,
r:l-
41 - - m rf. tamp j (11.80)
3
r:l
34 -
- pl!l (11.81)
41
Fill _
32 - - m3sx l - ( -m3gitancp) j (11.82)
iii) Due to part of the mass of the connecting rod concentrated at the crank-pin A
Consider the free-body-diagram shown in Fig. 11.21. The crank-pin force £i~ would
1
exist whether the mass is balanced or not. Hence, from dynamic equilibrium of the
crank, £i~ can be determined.
1
F.""
12
Fig. 11.21 Free-body-diagram of various engine parts due to inertia force

of connecting rod mass concentrated at the crank pin
(11.83)
The reaction force at the main bearing support is

r:/1 - F,l/1
21 - 32 (11.84)
The forces acting on the engine block due to the inertia forces are shown in the previous
F;
free-body-diagrams. The horizontal force 1 = -m8 a 8 is unbalanced and is termed
the shaking force, since it produces shaking of the engine block if it supported on
flexible supports. The torque x F 14 is also known as the shaking couple.
11.12 BEARING LOADS IN SINGLE-CYLINDER ENGINES
Knowledge of the forces acting on the crank and piston pins helps in the design of the
pin bearings as well as the main bearings.
From analysis of gas forces we have:
force exerted by the cylinder walls on the piston:
~1 = -r:4 (11.85)
rod force:
r;4 = - F43 = F23 (11.86)

force on crank:
F 11 = -F12 = F 23 (11.87)
couple formed by rod force and the frame force:
(11 .88)
The total force of the piston against the cylinder walls is
(11.89)
= [(m38 + m.:).:i" + P] tamp j
The total force on the piston pin is
F41 =(m_i· + P) i - [(m38 + m.t) ;{ + P] tamp j (11.90)
The total force on the crank pin is
F32 = [m3Ara/ cos(J)t - (m38 + m.t) ;{ - P]i +

(11.91)
[m3Ia/ sin(J)t - {(m38 + m.:) :{ - P} tanrp] j
Crankshaft torque delivered by a single-cylinder engine
Crankshaft torque delivered by a single-cylinder engine is obtained from the equation
T = -F41 . X k (11.92)
Or,
(11.93)
Example 11.5
For the slider-crank engine shown in Fig. 11.22(a), using the data given and equivalent
point masses for the cmmecting rod, determine the forces transmitted through the wrist-
pin bearing, crank-pin bearing and the main bearings for the phase when 8 = 60°.
Determine also the crankshaft torque T.
Given data:
crankshaft speed = 3000 rpm, clockwise
crankshaft length =50 mm, crankshaft is assumed balanced
length of cormecting rod = 200 mm
mass of connecting rod = 1.36 kg
moment of inertia of cormecting rod = 0.010 kg-m 2
AG3 = 50mm
mass of piston assembly = 0.9 kg
piston-head area = 4400 mm 2
gas pressure p = 1.428 Nlmm 2 for the phase 8 = 60°
Exhaust Intake CompresSioo
zE3.0 -I
-:~ I I
~ !.45
0
~~----~, s ~----~
J~
~----~s~4o~
o~--~n~
Crank Angle (des)
(b)
Fig. 11.22
Solution
From the given data:
m 3 = 1.36 kg
m.~ = 0.9 kg
l = AB = 200 mm
r = 0r4 =50 mm
AG3 =50 mm
By considering equivalent point masses for the connecting rod, m 3 is replaced by m 3A

and m 38 concentrated at A and B, respectively.
m 3A = BG m 3 = 1.02 kg
AB
Therefore,
rnA = m 3A = 1.02 kg
m8 = m4 + m 38 = 0.9 + 0.34 = 1.24 kg
The position of the piston relative to the main bearing at 0 2 is given by
r- r
x =I - - ? + r ( coswt + -cos2wt)
41 41
Substituting for rand/, we obtain
x = 0.196875 + 0.05 (coswt •" 0.0625cos2wt)
The acceleration of point B is given by
a8 =;t = -rw2 ( coswt + jcos2ait)
Again, substituting for r and l, we obtain
a13 = -4934.8 (coswt + 0.25cos2wt)
tamp = jsinwt ( 1 + ; ',sin1wt]

1
Substituting for r and l,
tamp = 0.25sinwt (1 + 0.03125 sin2wt)

Acceleration of A is
aA = rw2 = 4934.8 rn!s 2
For the phase when 8 = 60°, the total force on the piston pin is
= 4617. 7j
The total force on the crank-pin is
F 32 = [m 3Arw2coswt - (rn 38 + rn 4) ;{ - P] i +
[rn3Arw 2sinwt + (rn3B + m4) x· + P] j
F 32 = -1471.8 i + 5243.0 j
The total force on the main bearing is
The torque on the crankshaft is
T2 = [(m3B + m4) ;{ + P] x tamp

T2 = 194. 7 N -m
Example 11.6
Considering Example 11.5, the gas pressure on the cylinder shown in Fig. 11.22(b) is
tabulated as follows. Detennine and plot the inertia force Fe and the crankshaft torque
Ts versus the crankshaft angleB = wt for two cycles of the crank.
crank angle gas pressure crank angle gas pressure

[deg] P [N/mm2] [deg] p [N/rnm2]
0 4.252 480 0
5 4.416 500 0
10 5.509 520 0
15 5.424 540 0.048
20 4.796 560 0.048

40 2.320 580 0.054
60 1.428 600 0.078
80 0.900 620 0.124
100 0.672 640 0.225
120 0.481 660 0.403
140 0.396 680 0.714
160 0.334 700 1.389
180 0.248 720 4.252
Solution
From the preceding example, we know that
x = 0.196875 + 0.05 (coswt + 0.0625cos2wt)

;{ = -4934.8(coswt + 0.25cos2wt)
344 Mechanisms ofJ11aclzinery
tamp = 0.25sinwt (1 + 0.03lsin2wt)
T = (1.24:C" + P) x tamp
F e:r = 4934. 8 (2.46)coswt + 1529.8coswt
F ey = 5033.5sinwt
These values are tabulated for various wtvalues ranging from 0 to 720° As follows.
eo x [mj x [m!s 1] tan q; P [kN] T [N -mj F •• [kNj F <y [kN] F, [kN]
0 0.2500 -6168.5 0 18.709 0 12.682 0 12.682
5 0.2498 -6131.0 0.0218 19.430 64.4 12.682 0.439 12.62

5
10 0.2491 -6019.1 0.0435 24.240 181.8 12.421 0.814 12.45

2
15 0.2497 -5835.0 0.0648 23.866 267.2 12.097 1.303 12. 16

7
20 0.2463 -5583.3 0.0858 21.102 299.6 11.652 1.722 11.77

9
40 0.2357 -3994.5 0.1628 10.208 201.6 8.809 3.235 9.384
60 0.2203 -1850.6 0.2216 6.283 194.7 4.811 4.359 6.492
80 0.2026 302.4 0.2537 3.960 222.8 0.499 4.957 4.982
100 0.1853 2016.2 0.2537 2.957 256.6 -3.374 4.957 5.996
120 0.1703 3084.3 0.2216 2.116 224.2 -6.341 1 4.359 7.695
140 0. 1591 3566.0 0.1628 1.742 159.7 -8.278 3.235 8.888
160 0.1523 3692.1 0.0858 1.470 70.0 -9.308 1.722 9.466
180 0.1500 3701.1 0 1.091 0 -9.623 0 9.623
200 0.1523 3692.1 -0.0858 0 -59.8 -9.308 -1.722 9.466
220 0.1591 3566.0 -0.1628 1.742 -114.5 -8.278 -3.235 8.888
- 240 0.1703 3084.3 -0.2216 0 -144.3 -6.341 -4.359 7.695
260 0.1853 2016.2 -0.2537 0 -117.5 -3.374 -4.957 5.996
280 0.2026 302.4 -0.2537 0 -19.3 0.499 -4.957 4.982
300 0.2203 -1850.6 -0.2216 0 112.0 4.811 -4.359 6.492
320 0 .2357 -3994.5 -0.1628 0 190.1 8.809 -3.235 9.384
340 0.2463 -5582.3 -0.0858 0 146.3 11.652 -1.722 11.77

9
360 0.2500 -6168.5 0 0 0 12.682 0 12.68

2
380 0.2463 -5582.3 0.0858 0 -146.3 11.652 1.722 11.77

9
400 0.2357 -3994.5 0.1628 0 -190.1 8.809 3.235 9.384
420 0.2203 -1850.6 0.2216 0 -112.0 4.811 4.359 6.492
440 0.2026 302.4 0.2537 0 19.3 0.499 4.957 4.982
460 0.1853 2016.2 0.2537 0 117.5 -3.374 4.957 5.996

,,
480 0.1703 3084.3 0.2216 0 144.3 -6.341 4.359 7.695
500 0.1591 3566.0 0.1628 0 114.5 -8.278 3.235 8.888
520 0.1523 3692.1 0.0858 0 59.8 -9.308 1.722 9.466
540 0.1500 3701.1 0 0.207 0 -9.623 0 9.623
560 0. 1523 3692.1 -0.0858 0.207 62.53 -9.308 - 1.722 9.466
580 0.1591 3566.0 -0.1628 0.238 -120.7 -8.278 -3.235 8.888
600 0.1703 3084.3 -0.2216 0.343 -157.3 -6.341 -4.359 7.695
620 0. 1853 2016.2 -0.2537 0.546 -143.2 -3.374 -4.957 . 5.996
640 0.2026 302.4 -0.2537 0.990 -70.2 0.499 -4.957 4.982
660 0.2203 -1850.6 -0.2216 1.773 25.5 4.811 -4.359 6.492
680 0.2357 -3994.5 -0.1628 3.142 69.5 8.809 -3.235 9.384
700 0.2463 -5582.3 -0.0858 6.112 17.1 11.652 -1.722 11.779
720 0.2500 -6168.5 0 18.709 0 12.682 0 12.682
The required plots of Fe and Ts versus the crank angle e = mt are shown in Fig. 11.23.
11.13 MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINES
Multi-cylinder engines are designed in a variety of configurations with in-line

arrangement, V- arrangement, radial arrangement and opposed arrangement. The
simplest and most common arrangement is the in-line arrangement in which the
cylinders lie in a common plane as shown in Fig. 11 .24(a). The cranks are formed
together in a common crankshaft. Each cylinder's crank on the crankshaft is known as
the crank throw. These crank throws are arranged with some phase angle in relation to
each other so that the motions of the pistons are staggered in time. The optimum phase
angle between the crank throws depends on the number of cylinders and the stroke cycle
of the engine. For example, for a four-stroke four-cylinder engine, the crank throws are
at 00, 1800, 1800, 00 for an optimum arrangement.
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.24 (a) Multi-cylinder in-line engine, (b) V-engine
The V- arrangement in V-engines can be thought of as two in-line engines combined

together on a common crankshaft. The two in-line parts are known as the banks. These
banks are arranged with some V- angle between them, thus the name V-engine.
Opposed engines are essentially V-engines with the V- angle equal to 1800.
Radial engines have their cylinders arranged radially around the crankshaft in a
common plane. These engines are practically not used in today' s designs.
In this short treatment of multi-cylinder engines, the analysis of forces for in-line
engines and V -engines will be included.
11.13.1 In-line Engines
The arrangement of the crank throws is the first consideration that has to be decided in
the design of multi-cylinder engines. The phase angle between the crank throws is
determined so as to minimize the inertia forces in the engine. The convention for the
measurement of the phase angles is:
the front cylinder, which is the first cylinder, is numbered 1 and its phase angle is
zero. All other cylinders will be numbered from front to 'back and their phase
angles are measured in reference to the front cylinder.
For a conventional four-stroke, four-cylinder engine, the phase angles are:
(11.94)
Shaking Force in In-line Engines
The overall shaking force which results from the contribution ofthe individual cylinders
is obtained from
n
F
Pu
= m J?Oi .Ecos(OJ + q;) z (11.95)
i =I
n
F su = milo/!.. J;cos2(m + q;) i (11.96)
l i =I
where n - number of cylinders,

and ({J; = phase angle of ; th cylinder in which q; = 0 .
1
After simplifications,
(11.97)
(11.98)
The ideal value of the shaking force is zero.
Inertia Torque in In-line Engines
The sum of all inertia torques as obtained from the contribution of individual cylinders
lS
(1 1.99)
After simplifications,
Te = !_m!l' 2 w2 [ !_( sinwtt'cosq;i - sinwtt'cosq;il

2 2! i =1 i =1
( sin2wt J;cos2rp 1 - cos2wtJ;sin2rp1 l

Jr(sin3wtt'cos3q;i - cos3wtt'sin3q;ill k (ll.IOO)
2f i =I i =I
Shaking Moments in Inline Engines
The shaking moments due to the shaking forces are obtained from
M (1 L101)
Pn
M sn (11.102)
where F is the primary shaking force on each cylinder,

P;
FS ; is the secondary shaking force on each cylinder, and
zi is the spacing of each cylinder in reference to the first cylinder.
Substituting for FP;, Fs; and zi, we get the primary and secondary shaking moments
to be
2
MP" = m EfW [coswt J;z, cosrp1 + sinwt J;z , sinrp,] j (11.103)
(11.104)
Gas Torque in Inline Engines
Gas forces are created in the cylinders by firing the air-fuel mixture inside the cylinders.
In general, firing pattern among the cylinders is created in an evenly distributed manner.
That is, the firing order in the cylinders is evenly spaced in time, as otherwise vibrations
would ensue which are harmful to the engine. The power pulses created in the engine
depend on the stroke cycle. In four-cylinder four-stroke engines, there is one power
pulse in each cylinder every two revolutions. Thus, the optimum change in phase angle
of the crank throws to obtain evenly spaced power pulses in four-cylinder four-stroke
engines is given by
L1cp = 7200 (11.105)

n
where n is the number of cylinders.
From the above discussion, it follows that the power stroke angles llfi, the angles in the
cycle at which the cylinders fire, for example, for four-cylinder four-stroke engines is
(11.1 06)
n
or,
(11.107)
The gas torque in four-stroke in-line engines is obtained from the summation of the
contribution of each cylinder and is given by the following equation.
(11.108)
10.13.1 V- Engines
The principles applied to in-line engines are applied to the analysis of V -engines.
Defining the V -angle as 2y, each bank is off-set from the central axis of the crankshaft
by its bank angle y. See Fig. 11.25.
The shaking forces on the right and left banks, for a single cylinder, in the plane of the
respective cylinders, can be expressed in the following manner.
:~
I
I
I
I
I
\ (J)
•,
j y k
Fig. 11.25 Multi-cylinder V-engine
for the right cylinder:

Fpr, = m_ro}
ff
cos(e + y) er (11.109)
(11.110)
for the left cylinder:
FPI; = muoi cos(e- y) e , (11.111)
(11.112)
After simplifications, we obtain the following relations for the shaking forces acting at
the respective banks.
for the right cylinder
(11.113)
Fsr; = mifoi] (cos2e cos2y - sin2e sin2y) e r (11.114)
352 Mechanisms ojAfaclzinery
for the left cylinder:
Fp l.i = ml:r..ru:i (case cosy + sine siny)e 1 (11.115)
F sf , = m..ro/!:_
l:r /
(cos2e cos2y + sin28 sin2y) e 1 (11.116)
Taking into account the number of cylinders · in the arrangement, 8 is replaced by

(wt + q;i). Thus, after substitution and simplification, the shaking forces are obtained
to be:
For the right bank:

n
2
(coswt cosy - sinwt siny)_L'cosq;i
i =I
n
2
(coswt cosy + sinwt siny) L'cosq; i e, (11.117)
i =I
n
2
2
F sr = msrw !_ (cos2wt cos2y - sin2wt sin2y)_L'cos2q;i +
l /~
n
2
(cos2wt sin2y + sin2wt cos2y).J;cos2qJi e, (11.118)
i =I
For the left bank:
n
Fp/ = msroi (coswt cosy + sinwt siny) E COS(/) i -
i =.!!._ -I
2
n
(coswt cosy - sinwt siny) .E cosq;i e1 (11.119)
i =.!!._ -1
2
!1
Fst = mgw 2
!_
l
(cos2wt cos2y - sin2wt sin2y) .E cos2q;i -
i =.!!._ -1
2
n
(cos2wt sin2y - sin2wt cos2r) .E cos2q;i e1 (1 1.120)
i =.!!._ +I
2
Resolvin g the shaking forces on the banks along the axis of the crankshaft and
perpendicular to it, we obtain
(11.1 21 )
(11.122)
Shaking Moment in V- Engines
The shaking moment in V- engines is obtained from the shaking forces simply by
multiplying each term by the moment arm from some fixed reference. Thus, the shaking
moment is the sum of the moments which occur in each bank in a plane perpendicular
to the cylinder planes. For each bank, the equation of the shaking moment is given as
follows.
For the right bank
n
2
2
M pr = mJ!"w (coswt cosy - sinwt siny)};aFOS(jJi +
i =1
n
2
(coswt cosy + sinwt siny)};aicosqJi e r (11.123)
i =1
n
2
(cos2wt cos2y - sin2wt sin2y)L aFos2qJi +
i :1
n
2
(cos2wt sin2y + sin2wt cos2y)};aFos2qJi e r (11.124)
i =1
For the left bank
n
MP1 = mJ!"W 2
(coswt cosy + sinwt siny) .E aicosqJ i -
i=!!..~J
2
n
(coswt cosy - sinwt siny) E aFOS(/Ji e 1 (11.125)
i :!!. +I
2
n
(cos2wt cos2y - sin2wt sin2y) .E a;cos2(/J; -
i =!!..+I
2
n
(cos2wt sin2y - sin2wt cos2y) .E aFos2(/J; e1 (11.126)
i =!!..+I
2
where MP is the shaking moment due to the primary shaking force, and
Ms is the shaking moment due to the secondary shaking force.
The subscripts R and L indicate the right and left banks, respectively.
Inertia Torque in V- Engines
The inertia torques for the right and left banks are given by the equations:
For the right bank
r,, = ; m" 1cv1 [ ;l sin(cvt + y)!;cosrp, - sin(wt + y) j;cosrp,) -
( sin2(wt + y) j;cos2rp 1 - cos2(wt + y) j;sin2rp,]
Jr( sinJ(wt + yj_.t'cos3(/J; - cosJ(wt + y) .i;sin3qJ

21 i=l i=I
(11.127)
For the left bank
= !_mu 2w2 r !_(sin(wt - y).i;coS(/J; - sin(wt - '=nl COS(/);) -

Y) Lz
2 L 2/ i=l
( sin2(wt - y) j;cos2rp1 - cos2(cvt - y) j;sin2rp1)
Jr( sinJ(wt - y) l;cos3(/J; - cos3(wt - y) .i;sin3(/J;

21 i=l i=l
(11.12S)
Gas Torque in V- Engines
The gas torque in V- engines is given by:
For the right bank
(11.129)
For the left bank
(11.130)
where y is the bank angle and 1{/i is the power angle of each cylinder.
11.14 CAM FORCES
A typical cam and follower system is shown in Fig. 11. 26(a). It is analyzed by methods
developed previously.
Let
m4 = mass of follower plus load combined
m3 = mass of roller, usually m3 can be neglected
Fs = spring force
The pressure angle cp is the angle between line 0 2A. and line A.P which is the direction
of the force acting on the cam due to contact with the follower. Point Pis the common
instantaneous center of the cam and follower and is located on the line of centers joining
0 2 and 14 at infinity. Therefore,
V P3/P2 = 0 (11.131)
or
(11.132)
356 _Mechanisms ofldacltinery
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.26 (a) Cam forces (b) free-body-diagram of cam components
Designating the vertical component of the resultant follower forces on the cam by
F j 2 , then the torque T2 on the cam is given by
(11.133)
or,
(11.134)
Noting that
a tamp =L
(1)
the torque T2 is given by
T - y FY (11.135)
2 - (1) 32
It is worth mentioning here that when the follower is moving away from the cam center,
the inertia force on the follower maintains the contact between the follower and the cam.
However, when the follower starts to move toward the cam center, the acceleration of
the follower is toward the cam center and at this instant the inertia force on the follower
may be high enough to cause separation between the cam and follower. To avoid this
loss of contact, a spring with initial compression is provided to maintain the contact
between the two members at all times.
358 Mechanisms oflvfacltinery
PROBLEMS
11.1 In the four-bar mechanism shown in Fig. P 11.1 , the center of gravity of link 3
is coincident with the centroid of the rectangle shown. From the given
information, determine the inertia force on link 3 and show it as a vector in its
correct relationship to the mechanism in the phase shown.
Given data:
0_0 = 75 mm, 0 4B= 175 mm
AB = 300 mm, AD = 75 mm
m3 = 7.4 kg, 13 = 0.678 kg-m 2
350 mm
Fig. Pll.l
11.2 The four-bar mechanism shown in the Fig. P11.2 is driven at 0 2 at a constant
angular velocity of 500 radls. From the data given, make a complete dynamic
analysis including kinematic analysis, inertia force determination and force
analysis. Solve the problem using transverse and radial components.
Given data:
0.0 = 75 mm, m 2 = 2.3 kg
0 2G 2 = 25 mm, m 3 = 4.6 kg
AB = 300 mm, m 4 = 6.9 kg
AG3 = 100 mm, 12 = 1.356xJo-2 kg-m 2
0 4B = 150 mm, 13 = 2. 712 x 10 -2 kg -m 2
0 4G4 = 100 mm, 4 -;:. 1. 356 x 10 - 2
kg -m 2
250mm
Fig. P11.2
11.3 The link shown in Fig. Pll.3, rotating about the fixed axis 0 2 , is in motion in
such a way that the center of gravity is accelerating in the direction shown and
its normal component is 600 m/~. Using vector polygons, determine the force
F A and the reactive force at 0 2 that are producing the motion of the linlc
0~ = 250 mm, 0 2G 2 = 87.5 mm
m2 = 4.6 kg, 12 = 0.00339 kg-m 2
Fig. P11.3
11.4 For the linkage shown in Fig. P 11.4, if velocity of A is 12 m/s, constant,
determine the force F A which should be applied at A. Given are:
OB = 150 mm, OA = 200 mm, AG = 125 mm

m3 = 1.0 kg, !3 = 5.4x10 - kg-m
3 2
Fig. P11.4
11 .5 In the mechanism shown in Fig. P 11.5) o ;) is the crank rotating about 0 2 and
the slider B moves in the fixed frictionless guides. 0;) = 75 mm) AB = 175
mm, OC = 137. 5 mm, and Li0 2CB = 1100. For the phase shown, LiCO_cA = 65°)
and 0;) has an angular acceleration of 40 rad/s2) counterclockwise. If the
slider B has a mass of 6. 3 kg) determine the torque required on the crank 0;)
assuming an angular velocity of:
a) 7. 5 rad/s counterclockwise;
b) 7. 5 rad/s clockwise for the crank.
Fig. P11.5
11.6 Rework problem 11.5 assuming a coefficient of friction of 0.1 between the
slider and the guide.
11.7 In the mechanism shown in Fig. P 11.7, a circular cam C of 144 mm diameter
and eccentricity 0 2 0 = 36 mm rotates at a uniform speed about the axis 0 2 .
A follower F of mass 0. 8 kg is pressed against the cam by a spring of stiffness
10 kN/m. At a certain speed, the follower ceases to have contact with the cam
when the latter has moved through 120° from its lowest position. Find the speed
of the cam and the maximum height reached by the follower above the axis 0 2 .
The initial compression of the spring, for the position shown, is 30 mm. The
dead weight of the follower and the mass of the spring may be neglected.
Fig. P11.7
11.8 The phase of the engine linkage shown in Fig. Pl1.8 is nearing the end of the
expansion stroke. Determine the crankshaft torque, all bearing reactions and the
piston wall force for the phase shown (a) graphically, (b) analytically. Given
are:
w2 = 2000 rpm, 0~ = 60 mm, AB = 300 mm

m3A = 1.5 kg, m 38 = 0. 77 kg, m 4 = 2.0 kg
P = 1580 N
~-;-~P
Fig. P11.8
11.9 Fig. P11.9 shows a mechanism in which the crank 0r4 rotates about 0 2 at
180 rpm, constant. The crank carries pin A which slides in the slotted lever
0 4B. The lever, its shaft and associated parts are counter balanced so that the
center of gravity lies at the center of the shaft 0 4 . The total mass is 2. 7 kg
and the radius of gyration about 0 4 IS 100 mm.
0 20 4 = 125 mm ,0r4 = 50 mm.
For the phase when 8 = 30° , find the torque required on the crankshaft at 0 2
to overcome the inertia of the lever and associated parts.
Fig. P11.9
11.10 The linkage for a molding press is shown schematically in Fig. P11.1 0. The
crank 0 r4 rotates about 0 2 at a constant angular speed of 120 rpm . The
lever 0 4B is given an oscillatory motion about 0 4 through the rod AB. The ram
Cis operated by the connecting rod BC. Determine:
a) the stroke length of the ram C;
b) the velocity and acceleration of the ram for the position when e = 45°;
c) the force exerted by the ram for the position e = 45° when the torque on
the crank 0r4 is 560 N-m.
Neglect friction and inertia forces.
250 mm
375 mm
~-
I ! ~ i
I
I
I
I I
I
I
- - · ~ I
\\
'
~ --/ · A
Fig. Pll.lO
Chapter 13
FLYWHEELS
A flywheel is an energy-storage device which acts as a smoothing or equalizing element

in a mechanical power transmission circuit. A flywheel is a power filtering device,
which stores excess energy and delivers the excess energy when required.
13.1 FLYWHEEL SIZE
Fig. 13.1 shows a flat circular disk type flywheel attached to a motor shaft. Energy is
stored in a flywheel by speeding it up or energy is delivered by a flywheel by slowing
it down. The kinetic energy of a flywheel which rotates at w rad/s is
E = .!_Jw2 (13.1 )
2
Energy stored is linearly dependent on the flywheel mass moment of inertia I , and
quadratically dependent on angular velocity w.
Flywheel
Fig. 13.1 A motor-flywheel arrangement
Since a flywheel must change its velocity in-order to store or deliver energy, there must
exist a relation between the energy change and the velocity change. This relationship
is given by
I 2 2
LJE = E2 - E I = - (w?- - w 1) (13.2)
2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 designate the minimum and maximum conditions,
respectively.
The average speed of the flywheel, designated by wav' is
(13.3)
Defining the coefficient of speed fluctuation as
C = _w_2 _-_w_I
s (13.4)
(J)av
the energy change is now written as
I 2 2
= -(w2 - w ]}
2
= ~ (w2 + w) ·(w2 - w 1)
= lwalw 2 - w 1) (13.5)
Or, substituting for w 2 - w 1 in terms of wav, the energy change is given to be
(13.6)
From the coefficient of speed fluctuation the required moment of inertia I of the
flywheel can be determined.
In many practical applications, the required torque is time-dependent with a peak-

torque requirement only for a very short duration. Examples of this are to be found in
punch presses, molding machines, etc. In such applications, it is a waste to provide
motors that deliver the peak-torque requirement. It is a common practice to use motors
of smaller capacity by using flywheels alongside. The torque provided by the motor
is not enough during the actual working phase and is in excess during the non-working
interval. Hence, the excess energy delivered by the motor during the non-working
interval is used to speed up the attached flywheel, and the extra energy required during
the working phase is obtained from the flywheel by slowing it down.
13.2 ENGINE OUTPUT TORQUE
An engine shaft output torque variation, in four stroke engines, for 7200 of the crank
angle B is shown in Fig. 13 .2.
The resisting torque which the engine is driving is represented by Tav where Tav = TL, TL
being the load torque. Without the gas forces, Tav = 0, and this is due to the inertia
forces.
Flywheels 387
Torque
T-
8
Crank angle,S
Fig. 13.2 Engine output torque diagram
The shaded area under the T-8 curve represents the work which either increases or
decreases the kinetic eriergy of the system by causing decrease or increase in the
crankshaft speed. The increase or decrease of the crank speed depends upon the inertia
of the system. The moment of inertia of all rotating masses reduced to the crankshaft
mainly consists of the inertia of the flywheel; in general, about 90% of the inertia of the
rotating masses is due to the mass ofthe flywheel. Thus, control of the crankshaft speed
is obtained from the flywheel.
The flywheel, acting as a reservoir of energy, stores energy during the period when the
supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases energy when the required
energy is more than the supply. For a flywheel mounted on the drive shaft or crankshaft
as shown in Fig 13.2, from Newton's law of motion
Er =fa (13.7)
Or,
T - TL =fa (13.8)
where I is the moment of inenia of the flywheel, and
T- TL is the excess torque available in case of T > TL, or

torque to be supplied by the flywheel in case T < TL.
Noting that
ad8 = wdw (1 3.9)

equation ( 13. 8) can be written as
dw
T - TL = Iw- (13.1 0)
d8
388 Mechanisms of.~aclzinery
Or,
(13.11)
Integrating between certain limits el and 82, we obtain
;:~(!'
e,
- TJ dfJ = I (co~
2
- wfJ (13.12)
/e.fB (J - T )dB
1
The term represents the shaded area under the T-8 curve which
L
I
is normally evaluated graphically.
Positive areas of the torque versus crank angle diagram represe!lt regions in the engine
cycle where work is done to increase flywheel speed, and negative areas represent the
energy taken away from the flywheel thereby decreasing the speed of the flywheel.
The locations of the maximum and minimum speeds, w2 and w 1 respectively, can be
determined by inspection from the torque diagram. For the torque diagram shown in
Fig.ls.), the location of w 2 indicated as 82 is at the end of the first loop and the
location of WI indicated as fJ I is at the beginning Of the seventh loop between which
positions the value of (T - TL) is maximum. e
Form the T-8 diagram we have
LJE = E2 - E1 =A = -I (w 22 -
2
wj) (13.13)
2
or,
2
A = C s ·J·wav (13.14)
where A is the area under the T-8 curve between eI and e2.
Representing the crankshaft speed in rpm,
? 2
A =C {· 4-;rn
s 6rY
;::: _!_c ·J-rz2 (13.15)
91 s
Therefore, for a given average speed of the flywheel in rpm, the inertia of the flywheel
is determined from
91A
1- - - (13.16)
Flywheels
\X
389
Flywheels are usually of two types: disc type and rim type.
For the disc type flywheel,
(13.17)
where W = mg, and d = 2r.
For the rim type flywheel,
(13 .18)
where, k is the radius of gyration of the rim. Usually, k can be taken as the mean radius
of the flywheel rim, in which case
2
Wdm
(13.19)
4g
Example 13.1
For the torque fluctuation shown in Fig.13 .2, given the data below, determine the mass
moment of inertia of the flywheel required.
Given:
Maximum fluctuation of speed = 40 rpm;
mean speed of flywheel = 3300 rpm;
position of maximum speed m2 : end offirst loop;
position of minimum speed m1 : beginning ofseventh loop;
area of first loop A1 = + 4. 916 em 2 ;
area of seventh loop A7 =+ 1.710 cm 2 ;\
area of eighth loop A8 = - 0.045 cm 2 ;
torque scale = 6400 N-cmlcm
angular scale = 1.1 radlcm.
Solution
Net area between the positions of maximum and minimum speed is
A = A 1 + A 7 + A8 = 6. 581 em 2
The area scale factor is
I cm 2 = 6400xJ.l = 7040 N -em

The work done is given by
390 ,}fecfzanisms ofiWac/rinery
E2 - E1 = A = 1040x6.581
= -16330.2 N -em
= -/63.3 N -m
The coefficient of speed fluctuation is
40
3300
Therefore, the mass moment of inenia is obtained as

A
I= 91·- -
Cs n 2
= 9I ' 6_3_.3__
x _ _4_
__!!}_ x330rY
3300
I = 0.3 91 kg -m 2
Example 13.2
p._ machine has to carry out punc!-ling operation at the rate of 10 holes/min. It does 6 N -
m of work per mm2 of the sheared area in cutting 2 5 mm diameter hole in 20 mm thick
plates. A flywheel is fitted to the machine shaft which is driven by a constant torque.
The fluctuation of speed is between 180 rpm and 200 rpm. Actual punching takes 1. 5
s. Frictional losses are equivalent to 116 of the work done during punching. Determine:
a) the power reqt!ired to drive the punching machine;
b) the weight of the flywheel required if the radius of gyration of the wheel is
450mm.
Solution
a) Tne work done by the machine to punch a hole is
wl =sheared area xwork per mm 2
= 9424.8 N -mm
Flywlzeels 391
Frictional losses are equivalent to the work given by
Frictional losses = !_ xthe work done during punching

6
= !_ x9414.8 = 1570.8 N -m
6
Total work required for punching a hole is
Work required = 9424.8 + 1570.8 = 10995.6 N -m
Work-done required per minute is given by

work done per minute =
work done per punching operation x number of holes per minute
Le.
work done per minute = 10995.6 x 10 = 109956 N -:m

Therefore, the required power of the machine is
N = work done per minute

time
= 109956 N -m = 1832. 6 W
60s
N = 1.83 kW
b) The change in energy during a punching operation is given by

1 2 2
E2 - El =- l(OJ2 - OJ 1)
2
In punching operation, the speed of the flywheel changes from co2 to co 1 in-order to
release the energy required to make up for the difference.
Energy released by the motor = Nxt

= 1832.6x1.5 = 2748.9 N -m
Energy required the flywheel = 10995.6 - 2748.9
= 8246.7 N-m
Hence,
1 2 2
E2 - E 1 = I(OJ 2 - OJ])
2
= 8246.7
Noting that
from the change in energy, the moment of inertia I ofthe required flywheel is obtained
to be
I =
2{£,
\ - - EI}
(w2 - wJ
8246. 7 x2
I = 2 2
w2 - WI
I = 198.3 kg -m 2
Mass of the flywheel is obtained from
I= mk 2
where
I
m -- - 198.3
- -2
k2 0.45
m = 979.4 kg
Example 13.3
A certain machine requires a torque of 1400 + 200sinB N -m to drive it, where() is the
angle of rotation of its shaft from some reference. The machine is directly coupled to
an engine which produces a torque of 1400 + 250 sin2fJ N -m . The flywheel attached
to the shaft has a mass of 320 kg with a radius of gyration of 400 mm. Tne mean
speed is 160 rpm.
a) Sketch the load torque and input torque versus the crank angle B. On the
sketch, indicate the locations of the maximum and minimum speeds of the
flywheel.
b) Calculate the percentage of speed fluctuation.
c) Calculate the maximum angular acceleration of the flywheel.
Solution
5. When e = 0 and e =71:' •
Flywheels 393
The sketch of TL and T inpur versus the crank angle 8 is shown in Fig. 13.3.
T
[N-m]
1650
1600
1400
1200
1150
' 1
0 0.5 1'C 1t 1.5 1t ' 2.0rc
1.63rt
Fig. 13.3
b) The other location where TL = Tmpur is obtained from

1400 + 200 sinB = 1440 + 250 sin2e
Substituting for sin2e = 2 sine case , we obtain
1400 + 200 sinB = 1440 + 250 x2 sine case

Solving for 8,
e = 66.4° = 0.36971: rad, or e = 293.6° = 1.6371: rad
Assuming u, to be the kinetic energy ofthe flywheel due to the load-torque TL , and u2
to be the kinetic energy of the flywheel due to the input torque T inpur' the change in the
kinetic energy is
where wav = 160 rpm = 16. 755 rad/s
U1 = frr: '· 63 1
rr:(l 400
)
+ 20 sine) dB
= (I 400 e - 200 cas8)/~' 631

rr:
= 2495.3 Nm
Similarly,
U2 = f;r
1 63
. lir(l400 + 250 sin28) dB
= (1400 B -125 cos2B)j~· 63 lic
= 2985.3 Nm
I = mk 2 = 320x0.42 = 51.2 kg-m 2
Therefore, the coefficient of speed fluctuation is
u2 - u1
xJOO%
'
!CJ-av
= 2985.3 - 2495.3 xJOO%
5J.2 xJ6.7552
= 3.40%
c) To determine the maximum angular acceleration of the flywheel~~ - TL) is set

equal to zero, from which B can be obtained for which the acceleration 1s
. .
mrunmum. 1.e.,
.!!_rt - TL) = 500 cos28 - 200 case = 0

de'
Solving for e, we obtain
e = 4.04 rad
To determine the angular acceleration of the fly wheel
(T - TL)e = -+.o4 = 400 = fa.

which yields
2
)
a. = 7.815 radls
Flywheels 395
PROBLEMS
13.1 The crankshaft of a small punch press rotates at I 000 rpm, with the shaft
torque fluctuating between 0 and I 000 N-m according to the curve shown in
Fig. P 13 .1. The press is driven by a I200 rpm motor through a reduction unit.
Neglecting frictional losses, what motor power is theoretically required with:
a) a flywheel adequate to minimize speed fluctuations;
b) no flywheel.
Crankshaft
torque
[N-m]
Tmnl!\
0 0.5
1\
1.0 1.5
I
2.0 Crank angle
[rad]
Fig. P13.1
13 .2 In the steel flY'Nheel of the rim type shown in Fig.l2.4, the hub and arms add
10% to the inertia of the rim. How much does the flywheel deliver in slowing
from 1880rpm to 1700 rpm if the diameter of the flywheel d = 500 mm ?
Density of steel is 7850 kg/m3 .
0.8d d
I:
Fig. P13.2
13 .3 An engine develops 60 kW at a mean speed of 1800 rpm. The maximum

variation of energy per revolution is 27% of the mean energy, and the
allowable coefficient of speed fluctuation is 0.02. Assuming that the rim
provides 95% of the needed flywheel effect, determine the mean diameter and
the mass of the rim required for a mean speed of 43 mls of the flywheel rim.
13.4 A machine tool, fitted with a flywheel of mass 200 kg ad radius of gyration
3 96 1l1echanisms ofMachinery
of 0. ..f m, does work intermittently. It runs at a speed of 400 rpm bet-ween

operations. The machine is driven continuously by a motor and each operation
takes 8 seconds. When the machine is doing work, the speed drops to 250
rpm. Determine:
a) maximum power of the motor when there are five operations
perfmmed per minute;
b) the energy expended in performing each operation.
l
13.5 The areas, under the turning moment versus the crank angle, above and below
the mean torque line are 5.5, 3.3, 3.8, 4. 7, 1.8, 3.6, 3.5, a.11d 2.8 em 2 • The
turning moment diagram is drawn to a scale where 1 em = I 0, 000 N-m on the
torque axis and 1 em= 6(]' for the crank angle. The mean speed of the engine
is 150 rpm and the total fluctuation of speed must not exceed 0. 035 of the
mean speed. Determine the diameter and mass of a rim type flywheel
assuming that the rim provides 93% of the total energy. The peripheral
velocity of the of the flywheel is 15 m/s.
Chapter 14
BALANCING OF ROTATING AND RECIPROCATING MASSES
In many moving parts of machines which have rotary or rec.iprocating motion, inertia
forces cause shaking of machine members. These forces may induce unwanted
vibrations. If such vibrations occur at frequencies near the natural frequencies of
t1exible members, amplitudes of vibration may become excessive causing discomfort
and failure of parts. Even if the amplitudes of vibration are not so large as to cause
failure of parts, they may cause fatigue which eventually leads to failure. It is, therefore,
very essential that all rotating and reciprocating parts be compJetely balanced as far as
possible. Balancing is a technique of correcting or eliminating unwanted inertia forces,
thereby neutralizing or minimizing unpleasant and injurious vibratory effects.
Balancing of inertia forces is effected by introducing additional masses or by removing
some mass to counteract the unbalanced forces.
The procedure ofbalancing divides itself into two categories: balance of rotating masses
and balance of reciprocating masses. These procedures are discussed in this chapter in
some detail.
14.1 STATIC BALANCE
Static balance is a balance of forces due to the action of gravity. Consider the disc and
shaft combination shown in Fig. 14.1.
X
t '/1.'/111
z /.'1 Z'/!.
Fig. 14.1 Static balance of a single disc
398 l~tfeclwnisms ofMacftinery
The shaft~ which is assumed to be perfectly straight, rests on hard and rigid rails and
rolls without friction. A reference system, x-y-z, is attached to the disc. Roll the disc
gently by hand and allow it to come to rest. Then, mark the lowest point of the
periphery of the disc. Repeat this four or five times and observ·e the location of the
marks. If the marks are placed randomly, the disc is balanced. On the other hand, if the
marks are concentrated in the same area, then the disc is statically unbalanced; i.e. the
axis of the shaft and center of mass of the disc do not coincide. The position of the
marks indicates the position of the unbalance but not the magnitude. The correction
of the unbalance is effected by trial and error and this is done by either drilling out
material at the mark or by adding mass to the periphery opposite to the location of the
marks.
For a rotor with different masses shown in Fig. 14.2, the requirement for static balance
is that the center of gravity of the system be at the axis 0-0 of rotation. From this w~
conclude that moments about the x- andy-axes must be zero, for which condition we
the relations
5T!Vr ·s ine =0 (14.1)
rwr·cose = 0 (14.2)
8 I
X
Fig. 14.2 A rotor with different masses
14.2 STATIC BALANCING MACHINES
Static balancing is a weighing process in which the part is acted upon by gravity force
or a centrifugal force. The purpose of a baiancing machine is to indicate the position
and magnitude of unbalance whenever it exists.
The balancing machine shown in Fig. 14.3 is essentially a pendulum ·which can tilt in
any direction. When the unbalanced specimen is mounted upon the platform of the
machine, the pendulum tilts. The direction of the tilt gives the direc~ion of the
e
unbalance while the angle gives the magnitude of the unbalance.
Balancing of Rotating and Reciprocating Masses 399
Unbalanced piece
Pendulum
\
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.3 (a) Balancing machine (b) unbalanced piece
A universal level shown in Fig. 14.4 is mounted on the platform of the machine. In
balancing, the position of the bubble gives both the location and magnitude of the
correction. The periphery ofthe universal level is calibrated in degrees while the radial
distances are calibrated in N-m. The position of the bubble indicates both the location
and magnitude of the unbalance.
0 60
Fig. 14.4 A universal level
14.3 DYNAMIC UNBALANCE
Consider the rotor, shown in Fig. 14.5, with masses m1 andm 2 placed at opposite ends
of the rotor at distances r1 and r2 , respectively. The rotor, assumed to be weightless,
is statically balanced in all angular positions if m 1 = m2 and r1 = rr
Fig. 14.5 Dynamic balance
If the rotor is caused to rotate at w rad/s, then centrifugal forces m 1r 1w2 and m I 2w2 act
at masses m 1 and m 2 , respectively. These forces produce different reactions on the
bearings at A and B. The entire system of forces rotates with the rotor at the speed of
w rad/s, thus, causing the reaction forces to vary with it. Therefore, a statically
balanced member may be dynamically unbalanced.
The requirement for dynamic balance is the balance of forces due to the action of inertia
forces.
14.4 BALANCING OF DIFFERENT lVlASSES LYING

IN THE SAME TRANSVERSE PLANE
Consider the rotor carrying masses m 1 , m 2 and m 3 at radial distances r 1 , r 2 , and r 3 ,

respectively, as shown in Fig. 14.6(a).
F~\
m I F2
I
/F3
m
3
0 0
e
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.6 A rotor carrying different masses in a single transverse plane
For balance of the rotor, the vector sum of all forces, including the balancing mass, must
be equal to zero~ i.e .
.EF = 0 (14.3)
EF = Em i\fw .xw .xr )

C I I I
= 0 (14.4)
In scalar terms, equation (14.4) is written as
EF = Em I.o.lr.
C I I
=0 (14.5)
keeping in mind that the term Em,.w;r ,. is along r,. away from the center 0 .
Letting
W.I
m,.- - (1 4.6)
g
2.
(J) '
and since is constant, equation ( 14.5) can be re-written
g
as
(14.7)
2;
Since !!}___ cannot be zero for some finite value of w, the above equation reduces to
g
where Wlt is a vector in the direction of the inertia force.
For balance of the rotor, equation (14.8) must be satisfied. The value Wt ,. is tabulated
and Wereof the balancing mass is determined so as to satisfy equation (14.8). If the
mass me is set as the magnitude of the balancing mass, the radial position of the
balancing mass re can then be calculated, or vice-versa.
Equation (14.8) is solved either graphically or analytically.
Example 14.1
The system shown in Fig. 14.7 rotates at 600 rpm. Determine the bearing reactions at
A and B. If the system is to be balanced by a mass located at a radius of 300 mm,
determine the magnitude and angular location of this mass.
Given are:
m, = 1.8 kg, r, = 150 mm, 8, = 90°

m2 = 2.2 kg, r2 = 200 mm, 82 =]50
m3 = 0.9 kg, r3 = 250 mm, 83 = 45°
402 Mechanisms of Jl1achinery
I F.
v! ,
.i
r Y
mr
250mm l50mm
rl
m.
------·'---------<--)
F, ~.,.-=---~o~x --
....;---vm. - r.•
Fig. 14.7
(a) Analytical Solwion
w = 600 rpm = 20;r radls, w = 20irk radls
The inertia forces are:
= 1065.9j N
F2 = -m2 {wxwxr2 ) = -2.2(20][kx20][kx ( -0.20cosl5i - 0.20sinl5j))
= - 1677.9i - 449.6j N
= 628.li - 628.lj N
Ta..lcing summation of moments about A: and noting that
flv[A = 0
we obtain
Or,
Substituting forF1 , F 2 and F 3 , we have
( -1049.8i - 11.8j )x0.25k + R 8 x0.40k =0
from which the reaction forces R 8 is obtained to be
R8 = 656.li + 7.4j N
Taking summation of forces in the y-direction ,[ FY = 0, the reaction force at A is

obtained to be
R A = 393.7i + 4.4j N
Since the masses lie in a common transverse plane, for balance of the system the
condition that must be satisfied is
Keeping in mind that W,.r, are vector quantities, we get:
= 2.65j N-m
W;-2 = m~r2 ( -cos I 5 i - sinl5 j )
= 2.2x9.8J x0.20 ( -cosl5i - sinl5j )

= -4.17i - 1.12j N-m
W3r 3 =m3gr3 (cos45i - sin45j )
= 0.9x9.81 x0.25 (cos45i - sin45j )

= t l.56i - 1.56j N -m
Substituting for W,.r/s in the equation
where Were is due to the balancing mass me and re is the radial distance of the
balancing mass from the axis of the rotor. From the above equation we obtain
wle = -(2.65j - 4.17i - 1.12j + 1.56i - 1. 56j)
= 2.6li - 0.03j
Since r e is given, we can determine the mass and its location.
The angular location of the mass is obtained from the horizontal and vertical
components. The angle Be which the vector Were makes with the horizontal is
e = tan-](- O.03 ) =-0.66°

2.61
The magnitude of the mass is given by
/ Were / = J2.61 2 + 0.03 2

r~ 0.30 x9.81
me = 0.89 kg
The position of the correcting mass me is shown in Fig. 14.7.
(b) Graphical Solution
To determine the correcting mass me located at re graphically, we proceed as follows.
First, draw the positions of all the given masses as shown in Fig. 14.8(a). Then,
calculate the W/; 'sand indicate the as shown in the figure. From this, we can draw the
vector diagram shown in Fig. 14.8(b) to a certain scale.
)wm
IDI
wm
R
(b)
(a)
Fig. 14.8
The resultant of the vectors is equal to Were in magnitude but opposite in direction.
From direct measurements, we can calculate the magnitude of the correcting mass.
I WI 2 I = 4. 32 Nm
Fig. 14.8(b) shows the vector diagram of W,r/s. R is the resultant of W 1r 1 , WI 2 and
W3r 3 . Due to the balancing mass me,
Were = Re = -R
Or,
The balancing mass is, thus,
Were 2.63
me - - - =
gre 9.81 x 0.3
me = 0.89 kg
14.5 BALANCING OF DIFFERENT MASSES ROTATING

IN DIFFERENT PLANES
If the rotating masses lie in different transverse planes as shown in Fig. 14.9(a), to
achieve balance of the rotor, first, the equation
(14.9)
must be satisfied. In addition, balance of moments due to the inertia forces is also
required.
Ft
• :were ae
I I
I I
I I
mt :I
I I
I I
I I
!t
(b)
(a)
Fig. 14.9 Masses lying in different transverse planes
For balance of the rotor, the following conditions must be satisfied.

i) The sum of the inertia forces must be equal to zero, including those due to the
balancing masses; i.e.
(14.10)
ii) Moments of the inertia forces, including those of the balancing masses, about
an arbitrary axis must be equal to zero; i.e.
(14.11)
where ai 's are the moment arms of each mass about the arbitrary axis.
In general, where unbalanced masses lie in different transverse and different axial
planes, the resultant of the unbalanced forces and the resultant of the unbalanced
moments are in different planes, in which case a single balancing mass would not satisfy
both equations (14.10) and (14.11).
The inertia force of the balancing mass, given by Re, can be obtained from
(14.12)
where Wi are the weights of the unbalanced masses and ri are their respective
distances from the axis of rotation.
The moment due to the inertia of the balancing mass is
(14.13)
The moment arm of the balancing mass fro me the arbitrary axis is obtained from
= L' (wrpi) (14.14)

E (wri)
Equations (14.1 0) and ( 14.11) can be solved either analytically or graphically.
Example 14.2
For the rotating system shown in Fig. 14.1 0, determine the magnitude and location of
the correcting mass, if it is to be located at a radial distance of 200 mm. Given are:
m1 = 2.3 kg, r1 = 175 mm
m2 = 4.6 kg, r2 = 125 mm, a2 = 125 mm
m3 = 4.6 kg, r3 = 250 mm, a3 =300 mm
m,l;grym
, Q
( )
m. al
.,
' rJ
re :
''
I
'
I
az
r:
0
m 0
.
!
qig. 14.10
Solution
Masses m 1 , m 2 and m3 lie in the same axial plane as shown in Fig. 14.10. The
resultant of the unbalanced forces and unbalanced moments are in the same plane, and
hence, only a single balancing mass is suficient to satisfy the equations
E(Wt) = 0, E(Wtp) = o
The resultant of W/i 's of the three masses is
R = Wlr 1 + W7 2 + Wf 3
= g (2.3xJ75 - 4.6xJ25 + 4.6x250

= 9589 N-mm
Therefore, the equilibrant due to the unbalanced mass me is
Re = -R = -9589 N -mm
Taking moments about A, where the locations of mass m 1 is taken as the reference,
M = W7p2 + WIPJ
=g('tl. 6 x 1251---+ 4. 6 x250fJt0Y}
= 2679356 N -mm 2
The equilibrant moment is

Me = -M = -2679356 N -mm 2
And, the location of(Jl,e is given by
Me
ae = - = -2679356 = 279.4 mm
Re -9589
408 Mechanisms of l'rfaclzinery
The magnitude of the balancing mass at a radius of 200 mm is
Re 9589
me = =
gre 9.81 x200
me = 4.89 kg
The location ofthe balancing mass me is shown in Fig. 14. 10.
Example 14.3
For the rigid rotor shown in Fig. 14.11 with three mass, determine the magnitudes and
angular locations of the balancing masses rna and mb in planes A-.4 and B-B which will
put the rotor in dynamic balance for a rotor speed of 500 rpm. The masses are to be
placed at a radial distance of r a = 150 mm and r b = 250 mm , respectively.
Given are:
ml = 2.3 kg, rl = 200 mm, el = 30°

m2 = 4.6 kg, r2 = 300 mm, B·'(j, = 30°
m3 = 4.6 kg, rJ = 125 mm, e~ = 53°
a2 = 325 mm, a, = 125 mm, .) ab = 250 mm
AI
I
I
mt
az
0 "
r·
+---~--~-----·~!~'
,,
a-
--x~o
a;,
'
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Omb
Bl
Fig. 14.11
Solution
Since masses m 1 , m2 and m3 lie in different planes as shown in Fig. 14.11, the
resultant force and moment are in different planes, and to satisfy the conditions
L
r (Wr.a
\II I
.) = 0
two corrections masses are needed. The location of these masses are in planes A -A and
B-B. To determine the magnitude and angular location of these masses, we proceed as
follows.
First, take summation of moments including the correction masses about some point.
For our case, taking moment about A-A eliminates the moment due to the correction
mass m a. For balance,
must be satisfied; i.e.
W2r 2a 2 + W3rp 3 + Wbrbab =0

This equation can be evaluated graphically or analytically. Below is shown a graphical
solution.
W;-p2 = 4.6x9.81 xJOOx325 =5399785 N -mm 2
W 3r p 3 = 4. 6 x 9. 81 x 250 x 125 = 141 018 7. 5 N -mm 2
(b)
Fig. 14.12
From the polygon shown in Fig. 14.12(a),
Wbrbab = 4450000 N -mm 2
and the angle eb with the vertical is
410 jl-fecfzanisms ofMachinery
Given that ~ = 250 mm,
4450000
= =I7800 N -mm
250
Therefore, the correcting mass in plane B-B is
_ Wbr b _ 17800 _ ,
7
1 76
mb - gr b - 9. 8 I x 250 - ·- kg
Secondly, take the summation of W,r, 's including the correcting masses at A-A and B-B.
For balance,
Or,
where
Wf rl =2.3 x9.8I x200 = 45I2.6 N -mm

W....r.,-
~
= 4.6x9.8I xJOO = I 353 7.8 N -mm
w/3 = 4.6x9.8I x250 = 11281.5 N -mm
Wbrb = 178000 N -mm
The equation .E (Wt,) = 0 isshowninFig.l4.L2(b).

From the polygon, by measurement,
Wara = 3000 N -mm
along the vertical.
Therefore, the correcting mass in plane A -A is
3000 = 2. 04 kg
9.81 x150
The location of the correcting masses ma and m b are sho·wn in Fig. 14.11.
14.6 BALANCE OF RECIPROCATING MASSES
As already noted in Chapter 11 , the inertia of the reciprocating masses of an engine

piston F ~, known as the shaking force , causes shaking of the engine block. The
vertical component of the bearing force also produces a couple T = xF.n, called the
shaking couple. The shaking force and the shaking couple change in magnitude and
sense during an engine cycle, thus, imposing forced vibrations on the engine block.
The shaking forces result from the inertia forces of the reciprocating masses whereas
the shaking torque results from both inertia forces of the reciprocating masses and the
gas forces. The shaking torque is equal to the output torque in magnitude but opposite
in sense, thus, the variation of shaking torque is similar to the shaft output torque
variation.
To smoothen the running of an engine, balance of the reciprocating masses is essential.
14.7 BALANCE OF SINGLE-CYLINDER ENGINES
In a single cylinder engine, the reciprocating masses cannot be completely balanced by

using a simple counterweight. But it is possible to modify the shaking forces by
unbalancing the rotating mass. The rotating part of the rod and crank are assumed to
be balanced. From previous analysis (Chapter 11 ), the inertia forces ofthe reciproc~ting
parts is
FRE = -m 8 a 8 =mlfa/(coswt + !:..cos2wt)i

l
= (mJ?w 2coswt + mgw2!...cos2wt)i (14.15)
l
For clarity the inertia forces due to the reciprocating masses are duplicated in Fig. 14.13.
The shaking force has primary and secondary parts, rotating at w and 2w rad/s,
respectively. These vectors are shown in Fig. 14.14 by rotating vectors of lengths
r
m If'W 2 and m J?W 2 - .
l
The total shaking forces is the algebraic sum of the horizontal projections of the two
vectors; i.e.
F RE = OA I + OB 11 (14.16)
It is possible to modify the shaking forces by unbalancing the rotating masses by adding
a counterweight opposite the crank pin, whose mass exceeds the rotating mass by, for
instance, one-half the weight of the reciprocating masses. i.e,
4 1?
1- j1,1ech an isms ofMachinery
- -- -X
Fig. 14.13 Inertia forces of engine reciprocating par:s
Fig. 14.14 Primary and secondary shaking forces
(14.17)
where me = mass of counterweight.
The inertia force due to this mass is
Fe = -mcu:/ coswti - me(!/sinwtj (14.18)
where the negative sign indicates that the counterweight is opposit:e t.1.e crank pin. Or,
substituting for me, the inertia force of the counterweight is given by
Fe = {rnA + ~ m8 ) rw2coswti - ( mA + ~m 8) rw2sinwlj (14.19)
The inertia forces due to all moving parts, rotating and reciprocating, is
FA.B =[ (rnA + m8 ) rw 2coswt + m,rw27cos2wt] i + [m,rw2sinwt] j (14.20)
Adding the inertia force of the counterweight
F =FA.B +Fe
= .!_mgu/(coswti - sinwtj) + mgw2cos2wti (14.21)

2
The vector .!_m Ef"W2 (coswt i - sinwt j) has a magnitude .!_m EfW 2 and rotates
2 2
backwards with an angular velocity w rad/s. The secondary component has a
magnitude of m Ef"W 2 !.. and rotates forward with an angular velocity of 2w rad/s.
l
Maximum inertia occurs when wt =0 . Therefore,
2 r 1
F max = mBrw (-l + - ) (14.22)
2
Before the addition of me, the maximum inertia force was
(14.23)
Comparing equations (14.22) and (14.23), it can be observed that the effect of the
counterweight is to reduce the maximum shaking force by 50% of the primary inertia
force and comparing equations (1 4.15) and (1 4.21 ), the other effect of the counterweight
is to add vertical inertia forces where non existed before. The variation of the inertia
force F with the addition of the counter weight is indicated in the diagram shown below
in Fig. 14.15.
14.8 BALANCE OF MULTI-CYLINDER IN-LINE ENGINES
The general relationships for balance of multi-cylinder engines can be developed from
the analysis of two-cylinder in-line engines. Consider a two-cylinder in-line engine
having cranks 1800 apart as shown in Fig. 14.16. Assume the rotating parts to be
balanced by counterweights.
Fig. 14.15 Variation of inertia force in q single-cylinder engine with

an additional counterweight
lFs l Fs
XI
~'@i
I
! FP
~
I
I
I
~CD I I
~
I
I
I I
I I FRE
I
I
I I
/ I I
Y/ I I II
., a
I
I "-..
b I
~z
Fig. 14.16 Arrangement ofa two-cylinder engine
The inertia forces of the reciprocating masses are:

for cylinder 1:
'
F 1 = m E!arcoswt + m E!W~'r- cos2wt (14.24)
l
for cylinder 2, for which the angular position is wt + iC,
(14.25)
or,
F 2 = -mE!w2coswt + mE!w2 !..cos2wt (1 4.26)

l
where cos(wt + 71:) = -coswt and cos2(wt + 71:) = cos2wt.
From these two forces F 1 and F2 , we can observe that the primary forces are opposed
to each other and that the secondary forces are in the same direction. Thus, there is an
inherent balance of the primary forces.
In general, for an in-line engine with n cylinders, in which each cylinder is at angle of
((J n from the first cylinder whose angular position is specified to be wt, i.e. taking the
first cylinder as the reference, the primary inertia force is obtained to be
(1 4.27)
and the secondary inertia force is given by
(14.28)
The conditions for balance are, therefore,
}; m E!W2cos(wt + ({J n) = 0 (14.29)
and
(14.30)
From these two equations, the conditions to be satisfied for balance of the inertia forces
are:
}; cos(wt + ({J n) = 0 (14.31)
and
}; cos2(wt + ({J n) = 0 (14.32)
Expanding equation (14.31), we have
E (cascvt casq;n -sinwt simpn) = o (14.33)
Generally, coscvt and sinwt are not zero. Therefore, equation (14.33) requires that
L cosrpn = 0 ·}
(14.34)
L sinrp11 =0
Again, equation (14.32) can be expanded to give
(14.35)
from which we conclude that
=0 }
(14.36)
=0
Noting that
sin2q;n = 2sinq;n ·cosqJn

the other set of conditions to be satisfied is
r 2 2
(cos qJn - sin qJn) =0 }
(14.37)
E COSqJ11Sinq;n =0
Equations (14.34) and (1 4.37) are two sets of conditions for balance.
Next, designating an as the distance from the dh cylinder to ru'1Y selected transverse
plane, the moment of the primary inertia force of the dh cylinder is
(14.38)
The balance cf primary moments, following similar methcd to that of the primary
forces, requires that
r QnCOSqJn = 0 }
(14.39)
};ansinq;n =0
The secondary moment of the inertia force of the nth cylinder is
(14.40)
The balance of the secondary moments requires that
L 1
a/cos <pn - sin
1
cp) = 0 }
(14.41)
E a nsin<pn·cos<pn =o
If an engine is not balanced, one or more of equation sets (14.34), (14.37), (14.39) and
(14.41) will not be zero. The resulting forces and moments are:
(14.42)
(14.43)
(14.44)
Example 14.4
Investigate the balance of a four-cylinder in-line engine having the crank spacing of 00,
1800, 1800, 00. Use a unit distance between the cylinder axes.
Solution
The problem is solved by the tabulation method as demonstrated below.
From the table the resultant inertia forces and torques are obtained to be:
Primary inertia force:
F p =0
Primary inertia torque:
Tp =0
-+ 18 ldeclzanisms of/v!ac!zinery
C rank
I
Term
1 12
..,
.J
I
!4 I
I
Sum
I
<On I 0 180 I 180 I 0 I

I I
an 0 I I I 2 I 3 I
I cos(/Jn 1.000 I -1.000 -1. 000 I 1.000
I
0 I
II
Sin (/Jn 0 I 0 0 I 0 I 0 !
ancosrpn 0 II -1 I -2 I 3 I 0
'I
I
a nsznrp n I 0 I 0 I 0 I 0 I 0 !I
'
cos -(/Jn 1.000 I 1 1 I 1 4 I
'
szn-(/Jn 0 I 0 I 0 I
I
0 II 0 I
I
I
'
cos-? (f)· n - szn-
• '
<0
•n 1.000 1.000 1.000 I 1.000 I 4.000 I'
i
s: n cp ~cosrp;, 0 0 0 I 0 I 0 i
a n(co.!cpn - sin: q; J 0 1 2 I 3 I 6
I ( I
I a
'l
sin<O• ·l coscpn 0
I 0
I 0 I 0 0 I
Secondary inertia fore~ :

,r
F5 = mii'or- [cos2wtx4 - 2sinwtxOJ
l
~ r
= 4m If'OJ- -cos2wt
f
Secondary inertia torque:
From this, it is seen that the secondary force and moment are not balailced.
Tne resultant inertia force occurs at
Ts -
aR = - = 1.J uniTs
Fs
from the reference, which is the first cylinde~.
Example 14.5
A conventional six-cylinder in-line engine has the cylinders in the position indicated in
Fig. 14.17, 120° apart. Investigate the balance ofthe engine where the cylinder and
piston arrangements are identical. Assume the cylinders to be a unit distance apart.
1,6
Fig. 14.17
Solution
The problem is solved bytabulatingthe results of equation sets (14.34), (14.37), (14.39)
and (14.41 ).
Crank
Term Sum
1 I 2 3 4 5 6
(/Jn 0 120 240

I 240 120 0 -
an 0 I I 2 3 4 5 -
cosq;n 1.0 -0. 5 -0.5 -0. 5 -0.5 1.0 0
sinrpn 0 0.866 -0.866 -0.866 0.866 0 0
anCOS(/Jn 0 I -0.5 -1. 0 - 1.5 -2.0 5.0

I 0
a nsimpn
,
I 0 -0.433 0.433 0.433 -0.433 0 0
COS"(/) n
,
I 1.0 0.25 0.25 0.25 I 0.25 1.0 3.0
,
sin-cpn
,
0
I 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0 3.0
cos-q;n - sin-q;n 1.0

I -0. 5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 I 1.0 0
simpncosq;n 0 -0.433 0.433 0.433 -0.433 0 0

. ,
an (coilq;n - Sln-(J) •n
) 0 I -0.5 -1.0 - 1.5 -2.0 5.0 0
a nsinq; nCOS(J) ~ n
0 -0.433 0.866 1.299 -1.732 0 0
From the table and applying the formulae for primary and secondary inertia forces as
well as torques, we have
Fp = Fs = 0
TP = Ts = 0
Therefore, the engine is completely balanced.
14.9 BALANCE OF V-ENGINES
The balance of V- engines is analyzed by treating each oank as an in-line engine and
then adding vectorially the results obtained. This is demonstrated by way of an
example.
Example 14.6
Fig. 14.18 shows the crank arrangement in a 90° V-8 automotive engine. It is assumed
that the engine has five equally spaced main bearings and typical data for 105 mm bore
and 82.5 mm stroke four-cycle engine are 171.5 kWat 4400 rpm, 1. 00 kg reciprocating
mass per cylinder, and 15 6 mm long connecting rod.
a) Investigate the balance of this engine.
b) If there is any unbalance, choose suitable correction planes and specify the
magnitude and location of the correction mass.
26 [j
4,8
Fig. 14.18
Balancing ofRotating and Reciprocating Masses 421
Solution
a) For this engine, each bank is analyzed separately for balance or unbalance. The
crank angles are the same for each bank and therefore, the summation shown in the
table apply to both banks. Any unbalanced force or torque of a given bank is in the
axial plane in which the masses reciprocate in the cylinders. The resultant
unbalance of the complete engine is determined from the vector sum of the
unbalance ofthe two banks.
The relative positions of the cylinders in the engine are:
q;I= CfJs =0
qJ2= q;6 =90

q;3 = q;7 = 270
q;-l=q;8 = 180
The summations are represented in the table below, assuming unit distances between
cylinders. The reference plane is taken at cylinder I.
C r ank
Term Sum
1(5) 2(6) 3(7) 4(8)
q;n 0 90 270 180
an 0 I 2 3
coscpn I.OOO 0 0 -1.000 0

sinqJn 0 I -1 0 0
ancosq;n 0 0 0 -3 -3
a nsinq;n 0 1 -2 0 -1
cos 2cpn I.OOO 0 0 1.000 2.000
. 2q;n
szn 0 I I 0 2.000
2 .2 I.OOO -I.OOO -I. 000 1.000 0
cos q;n - szn q;n
sin q;nCOS(/Jn 0 0 0 0 0
a n0os2q;n - sin2q;n) 0 -I.OOO -2.000 3.000 0

a nsincp ncosq;n 0 0 0 0 0
422 1l1ecftanisms of Machinery
For the left bank:
F PL = mr!'o/(coswt E cosrpn - sinwt .E sinrpn)

=0
= 0
= mr!'o/ (-3coswt + sinwt)
= 0
As can be noted from the above equations, the unbalance in the left bank is due to the
primary torque TP .
L
Similarly, for the right bank where the crank angle of the first cylinder is -( wt- 900),
or (mt-900), the unbalance due to the primary torque is
TP = mr!'w2 [ -Jcos(wt - 90) + sin(wt - 90)]

R
2
= m?W ( - 3sinwt - coswt)
Introducing unit vectors i,j, k, along the x-, y -, and z-axes as shown in Fig. 14.19, where
the origin is taken at the first cylinder, the unbalanced primary torques for the right and
left banks can be written, respectively, as
Tp =meoi( -Jcoswt + sinwt)i

L
Tp =-mr!"w1 ( -3sinwt + coswt)j

R
The resultant torque is obtained from
= mr!'w2 [( - Jcoswt + sinwt) i - (Jsinwt + coswt) j]
v
/ '
'Right
/ Bank
/
/
" X
Fig. 14.19
The magnitude of the resultant torque is given by
= m El'a/ J( -3coswt + sinwr)2 + ( - 3sinw t - coswt)2
Or, after simplifications,
T = flO m Ef'W1
Assuming that the direction of the resultant torque, given by angle fJ, leads the first
cylinder by some angle a,
fJ = w +a
tan/] = tan(wt + a)
Or,
-3sinwt - coswt
tan(wt + a) =
-3coswt + sinwt
= sin(wt + a)
cos(wt + a)
sinw ·tcosa. + coswr ·sina.
= (i)
cosw ·tcosa. - sinw ·tsina
= sin(wt + a)
tan(wt + a) (ii)
cos(wt + a)
424 J1ecl!anisms of ilt!ac!tinery
Dividing the numerator and denominator of equation (ii) by T, we obtain
3 . . 1
---sznwr - --coswt
ran (wr + O.) = --'V-fJO
1 \/TO
v_ _ __.:...._ __ (.")
\ lll
3 1 .
- - -coswr + --smwt
fT6 v 10
By equating equations (i) and (iii), we get
3
coso. = a = 161.6°
fJO
1
sina = - - - a = - }8. -/0
flO
From this we conci ude that the resultant shaking force leads the first c~ank by 161. 6n.
b) The correct position of the unbalanced resultant torque T with respect to the first
c~ank is shov.n in Fig. 14.20(a).
I
@
,n
l
I II '
- --~- !-[[
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.20
The engine can be completely balanced by the introduction of a balancing torque Te,
which can be inuoduced in the form of two countenveights as shown in Fig. 14.20(b).
The magnitude of the unoalfu'1Ced torque is
'G1e couple formed by the equilii:m:u'1.t forces Fe forms the equilibrant torque Te .
Balancing ofRotating and Reciprocating Masses 425
Assuming the masses me to be placed half units from the cranks I and 4, the length
le = 4 . Therefore,
Te = F el e
= m eroil
e e
But, Te =T , i.e.
mr
e e
Knowing that
82 5
m8 = 1.00 kg, r = · = 41.25 mm
2
= jTO xJ.OO x4I.25

4
= I30.44 kg-mm
Setting the radius re, we can determine the equivalent mass me.
Assuming
I
r = -r
e 2
the correction mass me is obtained to be
me = 0.395 kg
14.10 BALANCE OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGES
In the four-bar linkage, the rotating and oscillating links, the crank and rocker, can be
easily balanced as described in the previous sections. But, the coupler which undergoes
general plane motion is more difficult to balance. Hence, balance of four-bar linkages
is undertaken by an indirect method described below.
For static balance of the four-bar linkage, the global mass center of the linkage must be
rendered to be stationary resulting in.E F = 0 including the balancing mas to be added
on the rotating links. This will, however, create the condition that.E M may not
necessarily be zero. Thus, this condition on the resultant moment has to be dealt with.
426 1l1eclzanisms ofMachinery
Consider the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 14.21. The mass centers oflinks 2, 3, and
4 are located at G2 , G3 andG4 , respectively. The global mass center ofthe linkage
is located at G.
Fig. 14.21 Four-bar mechanism
Introducing global coordinate system X - Y as shown in Fig. 14.22, the global position
vectors of the mass centers G 2 , G 3 andG4 are given by R2 , R3 and R4 ,
respectively; and the position vector of the global mass center G is R. Again,
introducing local coordinate systems x -yon each of the links 1, 2, 3, and 4, the lengths
of the links are defined by the local position vectors r 1 , r2 , r3 and rr The angular
positions of the local position vectors r 1 , r2 , r 3 andr4 with respect to the global
coordinates are defined by angles 81 , 82 , ()3 andB4 , respectively.
The position vectors of the mass centers G2 , G3 andG4 with respect to the local
coordinate systems are A 2 , A 3 and A 4 , respectively. Position vectors A 2 , A 3 and A 4
make angles of cp2 , cp3 andcp 4 as measured with respect to the local position vectors
r2 , r 3 and rr
The total mass of the linkage is

(14.46)
The mass moment of the linkage about the origin of the global coordinate system is
(14.47)
From equation (14.47), the location of the global mass center can be determined as
= mjl2 + mjl3 + mfl4
R (14.48)
m
Fig. 14.22 Global and local position coordinates of the links

of a four-bar mechanism
Using complex notation

rp;)
R2 = a2e i(8,· +
= a2e i8,·e itp 1
iB,. i(8; • rpJ i81 ·e .

R3 = r2e + a3e = r 2e + a 3e 1 3e 1'P3 (14.49)
R4 = rI e
iB1
+ a4e
i(84 + 'P)
=r I e
iB1
+ a e I·e'e lfiJ,
.
4
Substituting for R i 'sin equation (14.47) yields
~
0e
mR = m a e iB2e itp2)
2 2
+ m
3 2
iB,
· +
: a e iB3e itp3)
_ +
. )
m
4 0e
I
1
1 + ae e
4
84
1
up,
(14.50)
Rewriting equation by grouping like terms in e; 's
(14.51)
428 Mechanisms oji¥1acltinery
In equation (14.51) the time-dependent terms are those that contain theei terms, all the
terms in parentheses being constants.
From the loop closure of the linkage, the vector loop equa!ion is v.Titten as
(14.52)
(:' ;83
Solving 10r e
i8 1 i8, iB
e 183 = r 1"o -
r2e - + r _.,e J
1 .::1 -.-, )
1 . . ).)
(
r3
Substituting fore iB; in equation (1 4.5 1)
Collecting like terms,
:8,
e - +
(1 4.55)
e e
Since I is fixed, the two time-dependent variables are 2 and 4. To force thee
condition that the global mass center remains stationary·, the terms containing 82
e
and 4 in the expression for the position vector R must be zero. Therefore, t~e condition
for balance of the linkage is
(1 4.56)
Rearranging equation (14.56),
(14.57)
r.f If/! 3
= -ma-e
3 3
r3
Equation (14.57) is a set of two equation which involves three links. In this equation,
the parameters of one link are assumed and then all other parameters of the remaining
two links are solved for. In the four-bar mechanism considered, links 2 and 4 are
rotating or oscillating and are easy to balance by adding counterweights. Therefore, it
is preferable to assume the parameters of link 3, which in effect are obtained from the
synthesis of the linkage, and solve equation (14.57) for the parameters of links 2 and 4,
the unknowns being
- mp2 and rp2 for link 2, and
- m .fl-1 and rp -1 for link 4.
In the local coordinate system of each link,
( r,
(m2a2t = m3 a3-cosrp3 -r,]
r3
r2 .
(m2a2)Y = m3a 3-sznq; 3
r3 (14.58)
r4
(mfl.~t = -mp 3-cosrp 4
r3
r4 .
(m.P.~t = -m3a3-sznrp4
r3
The set of equations (14.58) is solved for the unknowns m~2 and rp 2 , m.fl-1 and rp .r
Having determined the unknown parameters, the components of mR required for
balance of the four-bar linkage can be determined from equation (14.55).
,3 14 0.5 m
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I L
I
__, - - - I
0.5 m
Fig. P14.3
14.4 A 3. 6 m long shaft carries three pulleys, two at its ends and a third at the mid
point. . The two end pulleys have masses of 7. 0 kg and 6. 0 kg and their centers
of gravity are 3 mm and 5 mm from the axis of rotation of the shaft, respectively.
The middle pulley has a mass of 5. 0 kg and its center of gravity is 8 mm from
the shaft axis. The pulleys are so keyed to the shaft that the assembly is in static
balance. The shaft rotates at 300 rpm in two bearings 2. 4 m apart with equal
overhang on either side. Determine:
a) the relative angular positions of the pulleys, and
b) dynamic reactions at the two bearings.
14.5 Investigate the balance of the reciprocating masses of the two cylinder engine
shown in Fig. 13.23 in which the cranks are 9(! ' apart. Determine the shaking
force and the shaking torque for mr(J/ = 8900 N , !.. = !_ , and a = 100 mm.
l 4
14.6 A four-cylinder in-line engine running at 750 rpm has successive cranks 144°
apart, the distance between the cylinder center lines being 375 mm. The piston
stroke is 225 mm and the ratio of the connecting rod to the crank is 4. Examine
the engine for balance of primary and secondary forces and torques. Find the
maximum values from the central crank at which these maximum values occur.
The reciprocating mass for each cylinder is 15. 0 kg.
432 jVJecfzanisms ofil1acflinery
III
Fig. Pl4.6
14.7 The arrangement of cranks in a 2y = 900 V-8 engine is shown in Fig. P 13.7. The
rpm of the engine is 2400. Tne total reciprocating eight per cylinder is 13.35 N.
Length of crank is 125 mm. Crank 1 makes an angle 8 1 , clockwise, with the
center line of left bank of cylinders, viewed in direction of axis of crankshaft.
a) Assuming that the quantities mro/ and distances between cranks are each
equal to unity, determine the unbalanced forces and couples.
b) Determine the magnitude of the unbalanced resultant couple for positions
of el from 0 to 36(/' imerval and plot the polar diagram.
Fig. P14.7
Chapter 15
GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopic motion arises whenever the axis of a rotating body is caused to change
direction i.e whenever the axis about which a body is spinning is itself rotating about
another axis. Examples of gyroscopic motion can be found in the rotor of a turbine
which is pitching in a ship, in the wheels of a vehicle turning around a bend, in an
airplane taking a tum, in gyroscopic instruments, directional control devices, etc.
15.1 PRECESSIONAL MOTION
Consider the disc spinning about the z-axis with an angular velocity w as shown in Fig.
15.1.
z'
z'
Fig. 15.1 Precessional motion ofa rotor
Assuming that the spin axis is rotated through an angle of L18 to z '-axis in time At and
that the spinning velocity changes to w + Jw during the same time, the angular
acceleration of the disc is found to be
dw
a =- + w.n (15.1)
dt
where
d8
a-- (15.2)
dt
The angular velocity n is the angular velocity of the spin-axis z about an axis
434 !Weclzanisms ofMachinery
perpendicular to the zoz ' plane. The angular velocity of the spin axis Q is known as the
angular velocity ofprecession. The axis about which the spin axis turns is known as
the axis ofprecession, and the angular motion about the axis of precession is known as
the precessional motion.
15.2 GYROSCOPIC COUPLE
Consider the disc of polar moment inertia IP which is spinning about its axis, the z-axis,
at w rad/s. If two forces Fare applied to the rotor axle as shown in Fig. 15.2 so as to
· form a couple M whose vector is directed aiong the x-axis, it will be observed that the
rotor shaft will rotate in the x-z plane about they-axis. The sense of rotation is indicated
in the figure . The velocity of rotation Q about they-axis is relatively slow and is
k..11own as the precession velocity.
Y ,
I
,....._1'1/
~d(Iw)
~ X
Fig. 15.2 Gyroscopic couple
Thus, it can be observed that the spin axis, the torque axis and the precession axis are
at right angles to each other, where the right-hand rule identifies the sense of the
rotation vectors.
For a high rate of spin wand a low and steady precession velocity Q about they-axis,
the angular momentum is represented by the vector
H = lw
p (15.3)
where IP = Izz and the small angular rr:omentum about they-axis which accompanies
the precession is neglected.
Noting that
Gyroscopes 435
M = Ii (15.4)
we have
Mdt = dH (1 5.5)
i.e. the application of the moment M for time dt causes a change in the angular
momentwn of dH in the direction of M given by
(15.6)
Therefore, the vector 1/JJ has rotated through the angle dB in time dt. In the limit as t
approaches zero,
d(l m)
dB = P
fp(J)
Mdt
= (15.7)
]p(J)
dB
M=l - m (15.8)
p dt
or,
M =!!lev
p (1 5.9)
In vector form, the above equation can be represented by the cross-product
M=f!lxm
p (15.10)
The Couple producing the precession is directed along Ox. The reaction to this, i.e. The
couple exerted by the shaft Oz on its bearing is opposite in direction to the applied
couple, as shown in Fig. 15.2.
Effect of the precession velocity on the angular momentum relations
To determine the influence of the precession velocity Q on the momentum relations

consider a steady precessional motion where the magnitude of the precession velocity
Q is constant. Due to the spin velocity and precession velocity, there are two momentum
components acting which are
Hz =Iw
p (15.1 1)
and
(15.12)
The total angular momentum His shewn in Fig. 15.3. The change in the angular
momentum H, dH = Mdt , still remains as in the previous case, and the precession
during time dt is
i'4dt A1dt
de = = (1 5.13)
H_ ~/iJ
Therefore, the above equation is valid as long as the spin axis is perpendicular to the
axis about which precession occurs.
y
l
I .
Cl_.)f"2=8
I
H
dH = d(Iw )
v
Fig. 14.3 ·'
15.3 :PRECESSIONAL MOTION OF A THIN ROD ROTATING

IN THE VERTICAL PLANE ABOUT A HORIZONTAL
AXISTHROUGHITSCENTER
Consider the thin rod which spins around the Ox axis with angular velocity w, and
rorntes about the Oy axis with an angular velocity Q as shown in Fig. 15.4. The thin rod
is an idealized case of a two-blade propeller.
A particle of mass dm located at P has a velocity of wr perpendicular to its a.,"'(is Op. wr

has two components:
parallel to Oz
wr sinB = wy (15.14)
parallel to Oy
wr cose = w:;J (1 5. 15)

v.J:C
Gyroscopes 437
y y
I
nc_:)
y
y
Fig. 15.4 Precessional motion of a thin rod
Thus, P is moving to the right with velocity wy along a line parallel to Oz which is
rotating at Q, therefore, P has an acceleration 2wyQ perpendicular to the yz plane. The
accelerating force acting on the particle is
dF = dm 2wy Q
= dm 2wQ rsin8 (1 5.16)

The moment of this force about the A -A axis is
di\.1 = dm 2wQ r 2 sin8 (15.17)
The total moment on the rod about A-A axis is
= 2wQ sin8 fAA

(1 5.18)
For a thin rod f4A = I , the polar moment of inertia about the axis of rotation, thus the
moment M is given by
M =2 I wQ sin8 (15.19)
M may be resolved about the Oy and Oz axes to give
(15.20)
Moy = 2JwQ sin8 cos8 (15.21)
438 il1echanisms ofil1achinery
15.4 GENERAL CASE: A body rotating and accelerating simultaneously

about each of the principal axes
Consider a body which is rotating and accelerating simultaneously about the principal
a.:-ces of the body, OX, OY and OZ axes which are themselves rotating as shown in
Fig. 15.5. Consider also coordinate axes Ox, Oy and Oz which are coincident with the
OX, OY, and OZ axes, respectively.
I
y· y
~ Qz, (J)o, az
z
z'
~x' v
"
Fig. 15.5 General precessional motion of a rigid body
Let Q x , !1 Y , Q •, respectively, be the angular velocities ofthe axes Ox, Oy and

Oz and
let m:c , wY , w = be the angular velocities of the body about the x, y and z axes,
respectively. 1:c , JY , I= are the moments of inertia of the body about the respective
axes X, Y, and Z.
The moment about OX has three components which can be obtained as follows.
i) The angular momentum about OY is I/JJY and is being precessed about the Oz
CL'{is at the rate of Q=. The moment required is IywyQ: in the direction parallel
to Ox axis with sense in the direction of w:c .
Gyroscopes 439
ii) The angular momentum about Oz is 1/vz and is being precessed at a rate QY. The
couple required is 1=w,py the direction parallel to the Ox axis and sense opposite
to that of wx.
3. To produce the acceleration ax. a couple is required about the OX axis, which is
Jxax.
Therefore, the total moment about the Ox axis is:
MX =fa
XX
+ ]())Q
yyz - ]())Q.
z:y (15.22)
Similarly, the moments about the OY ' and OZ ' axes, respectively, are:
MY = !yay + lzOJzQx - Ixwx.Q: (15.23)
Mz = l_a_ + IX OJXQ y - IyOJyQ X (15.24)
Noting that
(15.25)
(15.26)
(15.27)
and
d d
lxax = -(! OJ) = -H (15.28)
dt X df X
d d
!yay =-(I OJ l = -H (15.29)
dt y y' dt y
d d
l_~az = - (1 w) = -H_ (15.30)
dt z - dt •
the moments about the OX, OY and OZ axes can, respectively, be written as:
dHx
Mx = + HQ
y z
- Hz.Qy (1 5.31)
dt
dHY
MY = + HZQX - HQ
X Z (15.32)
dt
dHz
M_ = + HxQy HyQx (15.33)
dt
These equations are known as Euler's Dynamical Equations.
440 1l1echanisms of Jl1acltinery
15.5 TYPICAL EXAl\1PLES OF THE APPLICATION OF PRECESSIONAL

MOTION
T.11e effect of precessional motion can be observed in any rotating object that is changing
the direction of the spinning axis. Such cases are commonly fol;lnd in motions like
steering of a car along a carved path, pitching and steering of a ship, changing direction
of an airplane flight, etc. In tr.is section we will consider typical motions in which the
effect of precessional motion has to be accounted for appropriately.
15.5.1 Effect of Gyroscopic Motion on a Four-Wheel Drive ~loving along a

Curved Path
Consider a car of mass m taking a left tum as shown in Fig. 15.6. Wheels A and Care
the inner wheels, wheels B and D are the outer wheels. When the car takes a right turn,
wheels B and D become the inner wheels and wheels A and C become the outer ones.
The center of gravity of the car is at a distance h vertically above the surface of the road.
)
I
G~-------~-------
y
Fig. 15.6 Gyroscopic motion of a four wheel drive
Let r be the radius of each wheel and R> > r be the radius of curvature of the curved
path. Let also w be the spin velocity of each wheel about its own a.'l:is and we be the
angular velocity of the rotating engine parts.
Gyroscopes 441
Assuming that the location of the center of gravity and the geometric center of the car
to be the same, the road reaction on each wheel is
I
P
\Y
= -mg
4
[N] (15.34)
To consider the influence of the precessional motion, the precessional velocity must be
determined.
Velocity of each wheel is (J) rad/s , and the velocity of precession is

v
Q=- ( 15.35)
R
Hence, the gyroscopic moment due to the wheels is
M\Y = 41wQ(J) (15.36)

The gyroscopic moment due to the rotating parts of the engine is
Me = 1eQ(J)e (15.37)
or, considering the velocity ratio of the wheels and the engine rotating parts to be
(J)
VR = _ e ( 15.38)
(J)
the gyroscopic moment due to the engine rotating parts is

Me = 1/ VR)Q(J) (15.39)
Therefore, the total gyroscopic couple is
(15.40)
where the gyroscopic couples are additive for same direction of spin for the wheels and
the engine rotating parts. If the direction of spin of the engine parts is in the opposite
direction to that of the wheels, the gyroscopic couple is
(15.41)
The gyroscopic couple M creates vertical road reactions on the wheels which are
vertically upward on the outer wheels and vertically downward on the inner wheels.
The reaction force on each wheel is, therefore,
P
g
= -M
2c
= -2I [41w + I (VR) ]Q(J)
e
-
c (15.42)
Apart from the load and gyroscopic couple, centrifugal force acts on the car taking the
tum at a velocity v. The effect of this force is to cause overturning of the car which
must be balanced by venical reaction forces on the wheels. The moment due to
centrifugal force that causes the te:1dency to overturn the car is
v -?
}..1 = m-h (1 5.43)
c R
Therefore, the vertical reaction of the wheels is
_ A( _ 1. v 2 h
P, - - - - m- - (15.44)
2c 2 R c
P, is vertically upward on the outer wheels and ve:tically downward on the i!U1er
wheels.
The total ve:tical reactions on the wheels due to the dead weight, gyroscopic couple ar:.d
centrifugal forces is :
on the outer wheels
Po = pw + pg + pc (1 5.45)
1 v2 h
P0 = }_mg + }_l"41 "" IJVRJ] Qw + -m-- (1 5.46)
..f. 2 IV C 2 R c
on the inner wheels
P. =p
I \Y
- Pg - PC (15.47)
1 v2 h
P . = lmo - i2Lf41w + Je(VRl l Qw - - m - - (l 5.4S)
I 4 0 ;_ c
2 R c
When the car takes a turn to either side, for stability of the car the reaction forces on the
i!ll1er wheels must be zero or positive. Hence, the condition for stability of the car is
pi 2 0 (15.49)
from which we deduce that, for stability of the car
(15.50)
Example 15.1 .
A I 000-kg car is traveling around a track of 80 m radius. Each wheel ha a diameter of

0. 5 m, a mass of 16 kg and a radius of gyration of 250 mm. The center of gravity of the
car is 0. 5 m above the road surface. The width of the car is 1. 6 m. The rotating pans
Gyroscopes 443
of the engine have a moment of inertia of 0.85 kg-m 2. The car is a rear engine with the
engine ~"'is parallel to the rear axle and the engine rotation is in the same sense as the
rotation of the wheels. The gearing ratio of the engine speed to that of rear wheels
is 4. Determine the limiting speed of the car around the horizontal curve which will
ensure contact of all four wheels with the road surface.
Solution
The car negotiating the curve is represented in Fig. 15.7.
GO----+------
y
Fig. 15.7
Let the speed of the car be v m/s. The angular velocity of each wheel and the angular
velocity of precession are, respectively, given by
v v
w - - = - - rad/s
r 0.25
v v
Q =- = - rad/s
R 80
Since the direction of rotation of the wheels and the engine rotating parts is the same,
the gyroscopic couples due to the wheels and the engine are additive. Therefore,
M = [4Iw + 1/VRJ).acv
where
and
Thus, the gyroscopic moment of all rotating parts is
" v v
A1 = 1-lx] + 0.85x4]- X--
l 80 0.25
= 0.37v 2
The reaction force on each wheel due to the gyroscopic couple is given by
j\;f 0.37v 2
pg - - =- - -
2c 2xJ.6
= O. JJ56v 2
The centrifugal couple is

v ~
.,
Nfc = m- h
R
from which we obtain the vertical reaction on each wheel to be
A1
pc- _ c
2c
v 2 0.5
I
PC = -X!OOOX-X-
2 80 1.6
= 1.953lv 2
The force on the wheels due to the dead weight of the car is
Pw = !_mg = 2452.5 N
4
The limiting condition for maintaining contact of the with the road surface is
p g + p c =p\V
from which the limiting velocity can be determined. i.e.
0.1156v 2 + 1.953lv 2 = 2452.5

From which the velocity is obtained to be
v = 34.43 mls = 124 km/h
Gyroscopes 445
Example 15.2
A motorist is negotiating a banked curved path of radius of curvature R which is

inclined at an angle of a to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 15 .8. The rider and the
motor cycle have a combined mass of m kg and the center of gravity is h m above the
surface. The wheels and the engine rotating parts have the same direction of rotation
and the velocity ratio is VR. Determine the banking angle a that is necessary to
maintain a speed v of the motor cycle. The diameter of the wheels is r.
_g. -
Fig. 15.8
Solution
Let the moment of inertia of the wheels and the rotating engine parts be I and Ie,
respectively.
The spin velocity w of the wheels is
(J) = -v
r
and angular velocity of the engine rotating parts is
v
w
e
=w(VR) = -(VR)
r
For the inclination a. of the road surface, the velocity of precession in the plane of the
wheel axis is
v
Q = - cosa
R
For the same direction of rotation of the wheels and engine parts, the gyroscopic couple
due to the wheels and engine parts are additive, hence
M = (2Iw + I/JJ e) Q
= [2Iw w + I e (VRJw ] !...coso.

R
v2
= [2Iw + I e (VRJ ] -coso.
rR
446 Meclzallisms ofMachinery
Or, substituting for w, the gyroscopic couple is obtained to be

7
M = r21 + I rvRJ] ::.:_cosa

- w e• rR
The centrifugal couple is

v-'
?vf
• c
= m-h
R cosa
Thus, the total overturning moment is
Fig. 15.9
To maintain the speed v without overturning of the motor cycle, the balancing torque
must be equal to the overturning moment. From Fig. 15.9 we have the overturning
moment to be
mgh sina = [ (21, + I,(VRJ) ~ + mh ] ~ cosa
and the permissible banking angle a can be obtained from
tana = [ (21w + 1/VRJ) -I

r
+ mh l 2
v ,
Rmgn
14.5.2 Effect of Gyroscopic lYiotion on a Ship during Steering and Pitching
During steering a ship is turning right or left in the horizontal plane while moving
forward. Pitching motion is the rotation about a transverse axis in the vertical plane.
In the first case, the plane ofprecession is the horizontal plane, while in the second case,
precessional motion takes place in the vertical plane. The other possible motion of the
ship is rolling motion which takes place about the axis ofthe ship and has no gyroscopic
Gyroscopes 447
effect, since it takes about the axis of spin.
Consider the ship turning left while the rotor of the turbine spins in the clockwise
direction when viewed from the stern (rear end) of the ship. Let w be the spin velocity
of the turbine and Q be the precessional velocity. For the case in consideration, the
gyroscopic couple is
M = !Qw (15.51)
where I is the mass moment of inertia of the turbine. The direction of the angular
moment is indicated in Fig. 15.1 0. As can be observed, the reactive gyroscopic couple
created by steering to the left has the effect of raising the bow (front end) and lowering
the stern.
x'
Fig. 15.10 Precessional motion of a turning ship
In the case of pitching motion of the ship, shown in Fig. 15.11, the axis of precession
is the transverse axis and the precessional motion is assumed to be simple harmonic
motion.
·
____£ ~
U · ~- - - · -
1 velocity of
precession
axis of spin
Fig. 15.11 Pitching motion of a ship
To determine the angular velocity of precession, let the ship pitch through a total angle
of 2rp, rp being the amplitude of the swing. Angular velocity of the simple harmonic
motion is
2n
p - - (15.52)
t
where tis the period for the simple harmonic motion. The angular displacement of the
spin axis is given by
e = qJ sin(pt) (15 .53)
The angular velocity of precession is, therefore,
Q = -dB = qJp cos(pt) (15.54)

dt
The maximum angular velocity of precession is
27r
Q = qJp = qJ- (15.55)
max (
The gyroscopic couple due to pitching motion is, thus, obtained to be
(15.56)
Due to the gyroscopic couple , when the bow of the ship rises, the momentum vector
Ox moves to Ox', the change in momentum being represented by xx '. See Fig. 15.11.
Thus, the moment of precession required is clockwise and the reaction of the rotor is
opposite looking upward. Hence, the ship turns towards the starboard (to the right)
looking forward.
Example 15.3
The turbine rotor of a ship has a mass of 3000 kg with a radius of gyration 300 mm and
rotates at 3 000 rpm in the counter-clockwise direction as viewed from the rear end.
a) Determine the gyroscopic couple on the bolts holding the turbine if the ship
makes a turn to port (left) with a 500 mm radius at a speed of 20 knots ( 1 knot
= 1.852 km/ h) . What tendency of motion does the ship exhibit? Evaluate the
support reactions on the bearings if the turbine is supported symmetrically on
two bearings 1. 5 m apart.
b) Determine the maximum gyroscopic couple on the bolts holding down the
turbine if the ship pitches through a total angle of 15° in reference to the
horizontal. The pitching motion is assumed to be simple harmonic motion
with a period of 10 s. What is the tendency of the ship axis during pitching?
Gyroscopes 451
port (left)
eLM
I
z starboard (right)
Fig. 15.13
15.5.3 Effect of Gyroscopic Motion on an Aircraft during Change of Course
As in the case of steering a ship, the change of direction of the course of a plane in the
horizontal plane creates a gyroscopic couple which tends to raise the nose and lower the
tail of the aircraft.
Example 15.4
A small air compressor for an aircraft cabin consists of a 3.50-kg turbine A that drives
a 2. 40-kg blower B at a speed of 18000 rpm. The shaft of the turbine assembly is
mounted transversely to the direction of the flight and rotates as shown in Fig. 14.14,
as viewed from the rear of the aircraft. The radii of gyration of turbine and the blower
are, respectively, 80 mm and 70 mm. Calculate the forces exerted on the bearings at C
and D if the aircraft rolls in the clockwise direction at 2 rad/s as viewed from the rear.
Neglect the moments caused by the rotors.
Solution
The spin velocity of the compressor shaft is )

OJ = 18000 rpm = 6007l: rad/s
Rolling motion is rotation of the aircraft about its longitudinal axis and the angular
speed of rolling is given as
Q =2 rad/s
452 lvfecizanisms ojivtaclzinery
Forward
Re:1r c.:_:)
M
Fig. 15.1~
The gyroscopic couple is given by
M=IQw
where I is the combined moment of inertia of the turbine and blower.
I = m)(4? + mB'~B
'
= 3.50x0.080: + 2.40x0.07rY
= 0.0339 kg-m 2
The::-efore,
M = 0.0339x2x600n:
= 12 7.8 Nm
The reactive couple is
M =Fe
from which the forces on the bearings are obtained to be
M 127.8
F--
c 0.15
F =852 N
Gyroscopes 453
PROBLEMS
15.1 A slender rod of mass m and length 1 rotates about the y-axis as an element of
a right circular cone with an angular velocity of co. Determine the angular
momentum of the rod with respect to the x-, y- and z-axes when the rod makes
an angle e with respect to the y-axis.
Fig. PlS.l
15.2 A uniform 5-kg circular disc, 150 mm in diameter, is supported centrally

between two bearings which maintain the axle in a horizontal plane. The disc
spins at 1000 rpm, while the axle precesses uniformly about the vertical axis at
60 rpm. The distance between the bearings is 100 mm. Determine the reactions
in the bearings.
15.3 A wheel of mass 2.8 kg rotates about OX axis at 100 rad/s. The moment of
inertia of the wheel about the OX axis is 0.018 kg m 2 and that about the
diametral axis y 1 - y 2 is 0. 011 kg m 2 .
a) What are the torques required about the OX, OY, and OZ axes for steady
precession of20 rad/s about the OZ axis in the direction shown?
b) What would the torques about the three axes be if the precession of
20 rad/s is accelerated in the same direction at 10 radls 2 ?
c) What are the torques if the acceleration is in the opposite direction?
454 Mechanisms of 1l1aclzinery
z precession a-xis
I~ ~
Fig. P15.3
15.4 A motor cycle has a total mass of 225 kg, including the motorist. The center of
gravity of the motor cycle is 0.6 m above the groW1d level. Bmh front and rear
wheels are 0.6 m is diameter with a moment of inertia 1. 00 kg m 2 . The engine
crankshaft rotates in the same sense as the wheels at 5 times the speed of the
wheels. The engine rotating parts are equivalent to a flywheel whose moment
of inertia is 0.20 kg m 2 .
Determine the heel-over angle required when the motor is traveiiing at 100 kmfn
is a curve of 60 m.
15.5 The turbine rotor of a ship has a mass of 20000 kg and a radius of gyration of
0.6 m. The ship pitches 10 ° above and 10 ° below the horizontal, the motion
assumed to be simple harmonic with a period of 12 s. The rotor turns at 3000
rpm in a clock-wise direction when viewed from aft. Determine:
a) the ma'<imum angular velocity and ma'<imurn angular acceleration of the

ship during pitching;
b) the maximum gyroscopic couple.
Gyroscopes 455
15.6 The rotor of an airplane is supported by bearings as shown in Fig. P15.6. The
rotor including the shaft, compressor and turbine, weighs 8000 N and has a
radius of gyration of 225 mm. The center of mass is located at G. The rotor
turns at 10000 rpm clock-wise when viewed from the rear. The speed of the
airplane is 1000 km/h and is pulling out of a dive along a path 1500 min radius.
Determine:
a) the magnitude and direction of the gyroscopic forces which the shaft
exerts against the bearings;
b) the magnitude and direction of the forces exerted by the shaft on the
bearings due to the centrifugal force acting on the rotor.
I
Turbine I
Compressor
-
i
I
A
- B
'
I
i
- v= 1000 k.mlh '--J
1000 mm
- 1250 mm
Fig. P15.6
15.7 Fig. P 15.7 shows the propeller of an airplane. The propeller rotates at 2400 rpm
in the clock-wise direction when viewed from the rear and is driven by an
engine through a reduction unit. The airplane, flying horizontally, is making a
tum to the right at 0.2 radls when viewed from above. The mass of the propeller
is 30 kg and has a radius of gyration of 900 mm.
Determine the gyroscopic forces which the propeller shaft exerts on bearings A
and B. The bearings are 150 mm apart.
Reduction
unit
A
B~ Engine shaft
1=1=::J
Fig. P15.7
15.8 For the propeller of Problem 15.7, determine the gyroscopic forces which the
propeller shaft exerts if the airplane makes a horizontal turn at 0.2 rad/s to the
right when viewed from above. The rotation of the rotor as viewed from the
rear is in the clock-wise sense.
Reduction
unit
A B
Engine shaft
Fig. P15.7
15.8 For the propeller of Problem 15.7, determine the gyroscopic forces which the
propeller shaft exerts if the airplane makes a horizontal turn at 0.2 rad/s to the
right when viewed from above. The rotation of the rotor as viewed from the
rear is in the clock-wise sense.
In determining mP and mQ, we solve equations (11.33) and (11.34) ~uu.ww
from which we get
lQ
mP = m ·---=--
lp + lQ
lp
mQ = m·
lp + lQ
Then, substituting into equation (11.35), we obtain
m lP lQ = I
which yields
In the above analysis, it can be observed that there are four unknowns and
equations. Therefore, one of the quantities must be set arbitrarily. Usually,
or lQ is set.
In applying equivalence of masses to an engine mechanism, the mass of the collmecu

rod is concentrated a portion on the wrist-pin and a portion on the crank-pin. In
mQ on the wrist-pin B, we are setting G3B = lQ. Once lQ is set, we can evaluate
other unknowns from the three equations given above. And it will be found
lP ~ Gy4 , as shown in Fig. 11.13 . But with the introduction of a small error, lp
assumed to be equal to Gy4 for the purpose of analysis.
Fig. 11.13 Equivalent point masses of a connecting rod
If the mass of the crank is not balanced, simplification is obtained by placing an

equivalent mass m 2A m 2A at the crank-pin such that
(11.39)
rc
m 2A -- m 2-;
· (11.40)
Chapter 4
ACCELERATION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES
4.1 Acceleration Analysis by Vector mathematics.
Referring to Fig. 3.1, duplicated below lfor convenience, the acceleration of a point P
moving in the x-y-z system relative to the X-Y-Z system, is obtained by differentiating
.the velocity equation
VP = V 0 + V + wxR (4.1)
y
p
Fig. 4.1 Position coordinates of a moving point
Differentiating equation (4.1) yields the acceleration equation
(4.2)
Each term on the right hand side of the acceleration equation is evaluated as follows:
(4.3)
V. = -d (..
Xl
..
+ YJ + z"k)
dt
(4.4)
= (xi + v; + zk) + (xi + vi + zk)
Mechanisms of Machinery
A.lem Baz?-zew
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Technology, Addis Ababa University
July 2001
lV Mechanisms ofMachinery
Chapter 7 UNIVERSAL JOINTS .............. . ......... . .......... . .... 200
7.1 Velocity Ratio of Shafts 200

7.2 Polar Angular Velocity Diagram 203
7.3 Coefficient of Speed Fluctuation 204
6.4 Angular Acceleration of Driven Shaft 205
6.5 Double Hooke's Joint 206
:hapter ~ GOVERNORS ...... . ......... . ............... . . . ............ 213
8.1 Classification of Governors 213

8 .1.1 Centrifugal Governors (Loaded Governors) 213
8 .1.2 Governor Characteristics 214
8.1.2.1 Controlling force 214
8.1.2.2 Stability 215
8.1.2.3 Sensitivity 217
8.1.2.4 Isochronous Governors 2 18
8.1.2.5 Power of a Governor 218
8.1.2.6 Effort of a Governor 2 19
8 .1.3 The Porter Governor 219
8.1.3.1 Controlling Force ofPorter Governor 222
8. 1.3 .2 Effort of Porter Governor 223
8.1.3 .3 Power of the Porter Governor 224
8.1.3 .4 Effect of Friction on the Porter Governor 225
8.1.4. Hartnel Governor 229
8.1.4.1 Controlling Force and Stability of the Hartnel
Governor 231
8.2 Shaft Governors 239
8.2. 1 The Centrifugal Shaft Governor (Flywheel Type) 240
.I
8.2.1.1 Condition of Isochronism 241
8.2.1 .2 Effectof Angular Acceleration 241
8.2.2 Inertia Governors 246
tpter 9 GEAR TRAINS ........ . ............ . .. . ... ....... . .. . . . . . . .. 256
9.1 Angular Velocity Ratio 256

9.2 Types ofGearTrains 259
9.3 Reverted Gear Train 259
9.4 Planetary Gear Trains 261
9.5 Methods of Analysis of Planetary Gear Trains 262
9.5 .1 Solution of Planetary Gear Trains by Formula Method 262
9.5 .2 Solution of Planetary Gear Trains by Tabulation Method 266
Contents
PREFACE
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ..... :-: . . . .. .... . . . . . ......... . . . .... . ..... . .. 1

I"
1.1 Basic Defmitions 1

1.2 Motion 3
1.2.1 Types of Motion 3
1.2.2 Transmission of Motion 3
1.3 Coordinate Systems 4
1.3 .1 Independent Coordinates 4
1.3 .2 Dependent Coordinates 5
1.4 Degree of Freedom 5
Chapter 2 LINKAGES ................ ..... .. .... . . . ..................... 6
2.1 Four-Bar Linkage 6

2 .1.1 Transmission Angle 7
·2.1.2 Motion of a Four-bar Mechanism 8
2.1.3 Variations of the Four-Bar Linkage 9
2.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism 9
2.2.1 Inversion of the Slider-Crank mechanism I0
2.3 The Scotch Yoke 11
2.4 Quick-Return Mechanisms 12
2.4.1 Crank-Shaper Mechanism 12
2.4.2 Drag Link 13
2.4.3 Whitworth Mechanism 14
2.5 Toggle Mechanisms 15
2.5.1 Stone Crusher 15
2.5.2 Punch Press 16
2.6 Straight Line Mechanisms 18
2.6.1 Watt Mechanisms 18
2.6.2 Evans' Linkage 18
2.6.3 Tchebicheff's Mechanism 19
2.6.4 Peaucillier lnversor 20
2.6.5 TchebicheffCombination of Watt and Evans mechanisms 20
2.6.6 D - Drive Mechanism 21
Contents v
9.6 Automotive Differential 269

9.7 Planetary Gear Trains with Two Inputs 274
Chapter 10 INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS . ...... , .................... 281
10.1 Graphical Dimensional Synthesis of a Four-Bar Function-Generating

Mechanism 281
10.1.1 Pole-Technique 281
10.1.2 Overlay Method .~ 285
10.2 Synthesis of a Four-Bar Mec~anism Using Analytical Method 289
l 0.2 .I Freudenstein 's Equation 289
10.2.2 Synthesis of a Four-Bar Linkage to Coordinate Three Positions
of Input and Output Links Using Freudenstein's Equation 290
10.2.3 Synthesis of a Function Generator Using the Least Square
Method 292
l 0.2.4 Spacing of Accuracy Points for Function Generation 295
10.2.3 Synthesis of a Four-Bar Mechanism for Instantaneous Values
of Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration 298
Chapter 11 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY ......................... 306
11.1 Inertia Force and Inertia Torque 306

11.2 Dynamic equilibrium 308
11.3 Linkage Force Analysis 309
11.4 Force Determination 309
· 11.5 Linkage Force Analysis by Superposition Method 310
11.6 Radial and Transverse Components 318
11.7 Linkage Force Analysis by Virtual Work Method 323
11.8 Engine Force Analysis 327
11 .9 Dynamically Equivalent Masses 328
11.10 Gas Forces 330
11.11 Inertia Forces in a Single-Cylinder Engine 333
11.11.1 Algebraic Approach 333
11.11 Forces Acting on the Connecting Rod, Crank and Frame 336
i) Due to the Mass of the Piston Assembly 336
ii) due to the mass of the connecting rod concentrated at the
wrist-pin B 337
iii) Due to Part of the Mass of the Connecting Rod Concentrated
at the Crank-Pin A 337
_11.12 Bearing Loads in Single-Cylinder Engines 338
11.13 Multi-Cylinder Engines 346
347
l
2.7 Parallel Mechanisms

2. 7. 1 The Pantograph
2.7.2 The Drafting Machine
2.8 Intermittent Motion Mechani~ms
2.8. 1 Geneva Mechanism
2.8.2 Locking-Slide Geneva
21
21
22
23
23
23
I
2.8.3 Ratchet Mechanism 24
2.9 Steering Gear Mechanism 25
2.9. 1 Ackerman Steering Gear 26
Chapter2.J ~LOCITY ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES . . . . . ... . .. . ..... . .. ... .. 28
/ 3.1 Velocity Analysis by Vector Mathematics 28

3.2 Velocity Analysis by Using Equations of Relative Motion 32
3.2.1 Velocity of Points on a Common Link 32
3.2.2 Velocity of a Block Sliding on a Rotating Link 36
3.2.3 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles at the Point of Contact
of Rolling Elements 41
3.2.4 Relative Velocity of Crank and Connecting Rod 45
3.2.5 Algebraic Solution of the Slider-Crank Mechanism 47
3.3 Velocity Analysis by Complex Numbers 50
3.4 Analysis of Velocity Vectors by Instant-Center Method 56
3 .4.1 Types oflnstantaneous Centers 57
3.4.2 The Arnhold - Kennedy Theorem of Three Centers 59
3.4.3 Determination of Velocity 63
Chapter 4 ' ACCELERATION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES .. . . ..... . .. . . . . .... 79
4.1 Acceleration Analysis by Vector Mathematics 79

4.2 Acceleration Analysis by Using Equations ofRelati_ve'Motion 94
4.2.1 Acceleration of Points on a Common Link 94
.
4.2.2 Acceleration Analysis of a Block Sliding
., on a Rotating Link
4.2.3 Relative Acceleration of Coincident Points at the Point of
98
Contact of Rolling Elements 105

4.3 Acceleration Analysis by Using Complex Numbers I 06
Chapter 5 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER METHODS FOR

KINEMATIC ANALYSISOFMULTIBODYSYSTEMS ... . ...... 117
5.1 Types Pairing Elements 117

5.2 Coordinate Systems 118
5.2.1 Independent Coordinates 118
5.2.2 Dependent Coordinates 119
i) Relative Coordinates I 19
Vl Mechanisms ofMachinery
10.13.1 V- Engines 349

11 .14 Cam Forces 354
Chapter 12 INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPUTER .METHODS FOR

THE DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF MULTI-BODY SYSTEMS ....... 363
12.1 Equations ofMotion 364

12.1.1 Unconstrained Multi-Body Systems 364
12.1 .2 Constrained Multi-Body Systems 366
12.2 Planar Equations of Motion 368
12.3 Vector of Forces 369
12.3.1 Gravitational Force 370
12.3.2 Single Acting Force 370
12.3.3 Single Moment Acting 371
12.3 .4 Translational Springs 372
12.3.5 Translational Dampers 373
12.3.6 Translational Actuators 374
12.3.7 Torsional (Rotational) Springs 375
12.3 .8 Rotational Dampers 376
12.4 Reaction Forces of Constraints 376
12.4.1 Revolute Joints 377
12.4.2 Revolute-Revolute Joint 379
12.4.3 Translational Joint 381
12.5 Equations of Motion for Planar Multi-Body Systems 381
12.5.1 Unconstrained Systems 382
12.5.2 Constrained Systems 382
Chapter 13 FLYWHEELS .......... . .. . ... . ... .............. ..... .. .... 384
13.1 Flywheel Size ./ 384

13.2 Engine Output Torque 383
Chapter 14 BALANCING OF ROTATING AND RE<::IPROCATING MASSES . 394
14.1 Static Balance 394

14.2 Static Balancing Machines 395
14.3 Dynamic Unbalance 396
14.4 Balancing of Different Masses Lying in the Same Transverse Plane 397
14.5 Balancing of Different Masses Rotating in Different Planes 402
14.6 Balance of Reciprocating Masses 408
14.7 Balance of Single-Cylinder Engines 408
14.8 Balance ofMulti-Cylinder In-Line Engines 410

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Contents lll

5 .2.2 Dependent Coordinates 119

Chapter 15 GYROSCOPES ........ .... . .. ... . . . . . . ...... . -.............. 430

15.1 Precessional Motion 430

REFERENCES ......... .. ...... .. ... . . . ..... . . . .... . ................ . .. 454

INDEX ........ ... .. . ........ . .... .... .. .................... . . ......... 456

Chapter 7 UNIVERSAL JOINTS

7.1 Velocity Ratio of Shafts

apter 9 GEAR TRAINS ............ . . ....... . . . . . . ....... . . . . ... . .. . . 256

9.1 Angular Velocity Ratio 256

The textbook is an amplification and an upgrading of an existing Teaching Material o~

The subject matter discussed in the textbook includes Introduction to Computer

The author is grateful to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of

1.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Mechanisms: Mechanisms is commonly defined as the division of machine design '

A mechanism (Multibody system): A mechanism is a combination of rigid bodies, or

Fig. 1.1 Slider-crank mechanism

A machine: A machine is a mechanism or a collection of mechanisms which transmits

machine is an internal combustion engine which comprises a number of mechanisms

Fig. 1.2 {a) Simple link, (b) Compound link

Motion can be thought of as a time series of displacements between successive positions

1.2.1 Types of motion

1.2.2 Transmission of Motion

Motion is transmitted from one member to another in three ways:

Period: A period is the time required to complete a cycle of motion.

Phase: A phase is the relative instantaneous position of a mechanism at a given instant

1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

1.3.1 Independent C oordinates

Period: A period is the time required to complete a cycle of motion.

Phase: A phase is the relative instantaneous position of a mechanism at a given instant

1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

1.3.1 Independent Coordinates

1.4 DEGREE OF FREEDOM

The minimwn number of coordina~s required to fully describe the configuration of

where f = number of degrees of freedom of the linkage;

For example, in the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 1.1 ,

Therefore, the number of degree of freedom of the system is

2.1 FOUR-BAR LINKAGE

Link 1 is the frame or ground; generally, it is stationary.

Fig. 2.2 f:ocking of jour-bar mechanism

2.1.1 Transmission angle

Fig. 2.3 Transmission angle

Fig. 2.4 Range of transmission angle

2.1.2 Motion of a four-bar mechanism

2.1.3 Variations of the four-bar linkage

Fig. 2.5 Variations of the four-bar mechanism

:/I . 2 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM:

A slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism with three revolute joints,

Fig. 2.6 Slider-crank mechanism

In the slider-crank mechanism, commonly

2.1.3 Variations of the four-bar linkage

Fig. 2.5 Variations of the jour-bar mechanism

/' ·. 2 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM:

A slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism with three revolute joints,

Fig. 2.6 Slider-crank mechanism

In the slider-crank mechanism, commonly

2.2.1 Inversion of the Slider-crank mechanism

Fig. 2. 7 Inversions of the slider-crank mechanism

2.3 THE SCOTCH YOKE

Fig. 2.8 The Scotch yoke

The displacement of the slider x in moving form A to A ' is given by

X = r - rcose = r(l - cosO) (2.2)