Module 3 Measurement of Horizontal Distance

One of the fundamental operations involved in surveying is to find out distance (on the surface of the earth). In plane
surveying distance means spatial separation of points projected on a horizontal plane.

Objective of Module 3

Objective of module 3 is to explain methods for measurement of distance, associated problems and errors.

Lesson 8 Direct Measurement of Distance

Lesson 9 Errors in Measurement of Distance

Lesson 10 Electronic Measurement of Distance

Summary of Module 3

Glossary of Module-3

SELF TEST of Module-3

Objective of Lesson 8
Objective of Lesson 8 is to explain the methods, problems and mistakes occuring in direct measurement of distance.

Introduction
The horizontal distance between points, projected onto a horizontal plane, is required to be measured in order to
prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.

Methods of measurement
In surveying there are several methods for measurement of distance. These are

1. Direct methods;
2. Optical methods; and
3. Electronic method.

In any work, the choice of a method depends on many factors like field condition, accuracy required, availability of
resources (instruments, time, skill, fund etc). Table 8.1 summarizes the principal methods, instrument required,
precision, use, errors of measurement of distance.

Direct Measurement
When the distance between points / stations are measured directly, usually by using tape, is known as direct method.

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Ranging
When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be laid between the
points/ stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The process of laying out a straight line between
points is known as ranging.

 Direct Ranging
 Indirect Ranging

Direct Ranging
When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly. The intermediate points are placed at
distances having interval less than one tape length. The intermediate points are found by moving a ranging pole in
transverse direction and thus, points are selected in such a way that the end points and the intermediate points lie in
a straight line (Figure 8.1). In this method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are required in a team of
at least one surveyor and one assistant.

Indirect Ranging
When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter visible, indirect method of ranging is
being adopted. It is being carried out either by reciprocal method or by random line method.

1. Reciprocal Ranging
2. Random Line Method

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Reciprocal Ranging
Figure 8.2 shows the field operations involved in reciprocal ranging. Let A and B are the two end points whose
distance is required to be found and are not inter visible. To fix the intermediate points in a straight line between
these points, two more points say C and D are chosen in such a way that D & B are visible from C and C & A from D.
Then, direct ranging is being carried out alternatively along DCA and CDB for a number of times so that ACDB lie in a
straight line.

Ranging by Random Line Method

In this method, (Figure 8.3) a random line such as BQ is being laid such that R is visible from Q. A perpendicular QR
is being erected at Q and measure its distance. Then the desired distance BR is being calculated using distance
formula.

In laying the line BR, intermediate points are established first. These are laid by taking offset from the random line at
distances calculated by using the method of similar triangle such as
After locating the intermediate points on the line BR, the obstructions get cleared to make the end points intervisible.
Then, direct ranging is being carried out to obtain an extended continous straight line.

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Taping
Taping involves measurement of the distance with tapes (steel/linen), either by placing it on the ground or sometimes
by getting it suspended between points. Additional equipments employed during taping are plumb bob, the hand
level, pegs/ pins and range pole (or flag or ranging rod) etc. The precision of distance measured with tapes depends
upon the degree of refinement with which measurements are taken.

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Field Problems
During measurement of distance, various obstacles may be encountered in the field. Depending upon the type of
obstacle, a suitable geometrical figure has to be framed and an equivalent distance has to be measured or computed.
Obstacles encountered in the field can be divided into three broad categories.

Type I : Ranging along obstacle is possible but not measurement such as pond, river etc.

To carry measurement along the type of obstacles where measurement round the obstacle is possible, perpendicular
offsets are drawn from the line one at each side of the obstacle, as shown in Figure 8.4(a). Then, a parallel distance
equivalent to distance along the obstacle is measured. In some cases, the distance is being calculated either
adopting basic principle of geometry and/or trigonometric relations Figure 8.4(b).

When measurement round an obstacle is not possible, similar triangles are established as shown in Figure
8.5(a), Figure 8.5(b). The unknown distance is calculated by solving similar triangles.

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Type II : Measurement along obstacle is possible but not ranging such as bush etc.

In this case, either of method of reciprocal ranging or ranging by random line method is being adopted to range a line
between stations and subsequently measurement of distance is being carried out.

Type III : Both ranging and measurement along the obstacle is not possible such as building.
In this case, two perpendicular offsets of equal length are erected from the line before the obstacle and a parallel line
is ranged, as shown in Figure 8.6. The parallel line is extended and two perpendicular offsets, of same length as
before, beyond the obstacle, are dropped from the line beyond the obstacle. Equivalent distance along a line parallel
to ranged line is then measured to get the distance. However, depending on field condition surveyor can apply
suitable geometrical /trigonometric concepts to find the unknown distance.

Mistakes in Taping
During taping, mistakes generally made by individuals (usually inexperienced) are:

1. Adding or dropping a full length of tape

2. Adding or dropping a part of the length of tape
3. Other points incorrectly taken as 0 or 30 meter marks on tape
4. Reading numbers incorrectly
5. Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly

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Objective of Lesson 9
Objective of Lesson 9 is to explain the different errors/corrections involved in direct measurement.

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Introduction
The length of a tape is standardized at certain temperature and pull to amend distance be measured in horizontal
along a plane surface. But ideal condition is hardly obtained during field observation. Thus, it is usual that the
observations taken in the field are fraught with errors. These are of various types depending on the origin and nature.
These are required to be determined and necessary corrections are to be applied before making use of the
measurements for further works.

Types of Errors
Depending on the nature, errors present in the measurement of distance have been classified into two types:
Systematic error and random error.

 Systematic Errors
 Random Errors

Systematic Errors
Systematic errors (in taping) are caused due to: non-standard length of tape, slope in terrain, variations in
temperature during measurement, variations in tension, sag, incorrect alignment of the tape etc. A summary of the
systematic errors in taping is given in Table 9.1 and the details of which are explained next.

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Random Errors
Distance measured depends on observations and on the determination of quantities such as temperature t, tension or
pull p, slope angle  or elevation difference h. Each of these quantities is subject to random errors which when
propagated through the corresponding relations result in random errors in the distance. Thus the random errors
cause random variation in the distance corrected for systematic errors. The random errors are of much lower
magnitude than the systematic errors. The different sources of random errors in taping, designated by their standard
error and these are: v (standard error due to the plumbing of the tape ends), m (standard error due to the marking
the supported tape ends), p r(standard error due to uncertainty in the value of the applied pull or
tension), h (standard error in determining either the slope angle  or elevation difference h), t (standard error in
determining the temperature). A summary of the random errors in taping is given in Table 9.2

Table 9.2 Random errors in Taping

Governing conditions, causes, and manner of

Designation Source of random variation
cumulation
 Rugged terrain breaking tape frequently ;
Plumbing and uncertainty in making
v tape ends
cumulates randomly
Uncertainty in marking tape ends
m with tape fully supported Tape graduated to mm; cumulates randomly
Change in sag correction due to variations in
tension of 0.9 kg form standard tension;
p Uncertainty in applying tension

cumulated
In h ± 0.09 m

Uncertainty in determining elevation In  = ± 0o 10' ;

h difference or slope angle

Cumulates
Observe t to ± 1o C
t Uncertainty in reading temperature
Cumulates n

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Correction for Standard Length

The designated (nominal) length of a tape, as stated by the manufacturer, rarely equals to the true distance. The
difference between the true distance and the designated length is known as error due to standard length (of tape).
Thus, the correction for absolute length of tape,

Cd = true length – nominal length

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Correction for Slope

(Figure 9.1) Let s represents the slope distance between two points A and B, h be the difference in elevation and H
the horizontal distance between the points, all in the same units. Let be the slope of the terrain. Then, the
horizontal distance is

H = s cos  or H = ( s2 - h2 )1/2

and thus, slope correction for measured distance s is

Ch = H – s = (s2 – h2) – s ( always subtractive)

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Correction for Temperature
If the temperature of standardization is T0 degree and measurements are taken at a temperature of T degree, there is
an error in length of the tape, due to difference in standarised temperature and temperature during observation. The
corresponding correction Ct is given by

C t =  L (T- T0)

where  is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the tape and L is the measured distance.

Correction for Tension

If a tape is standardized at a tension of Po and measurements are taken at a tension of P, the correction Cp for
change in length per distance L due to difference in standarised pull and actual pull during observation is given by

where a is the cross sectional area of the tape and E is modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape.

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Correction for Sag

(Figure 9.2) When the tape sags between points of support, it takes the form of a catenary. The correction for sag
Cs is always subtracted from observed distance and is given by

where W is the total weight of tape between supports, L is the distance between supports and P is the applied
tension.

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Correction for Incorrect Alignment

(Figure 9.3) If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with the ends of the line or they are not on the line
to be measured, a correction, Ch known as correction for alignment has to be subtracted from measured distance. It
is given by

where d is the perpendicular distance by which the other end of the tape of length L is out of alignment.
Combined Correction
Whenever corrections for several effects such as slope, tension, temperature, sag etc are to be applied, for
convenience they are combined as a single net correction per nominal tape length. When corrections are applied to
the observed length of a line measured between fixed points (designated measurement) with a tape that is too long,
the correction is added and vice versa.

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Reduction to Mean Sea level

(Figure 9.4) In plane surveying, horizontal distances are reduced to sea level when it is required to count them into
equivalent distance at another elevation, such as the plane coordinate system or the average elevation of a survey
for which the variation in elevation over the area is large.

where, D is the measured distance on the surface of the earth;

R is the mean radius of the earth;

h is the mean height of the terrain above the msl.

Optical Distance Measurement
There is a large family of instruments, methods and procedures generally classified for optical distance
measurement. With the advent of Electromagnetic distance measurement techniques and their versatility, tachometry
is the only optical method that is being widely prevalent in measurement of horizontal distance. Details of this method
will be discussed in Module 7.

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Objective of Lesson 10
Objective of Lesson 10 is to discuss the instrument, principle, errors, problems etc involved in EDM (electronic
distance measurement).

Introduction
Direct measurement of distance using tape is difficult when the terrain is rough or the site is congested. Indirect
measurement of distance using optical method is not suitable for high accuracy measurement. Thus, to obtain high
accuracy measurement in difficult terrain or for long distance, measurements are taken electronically.

Instruments
Electronic measurement of distance is being carried out either by using an electro-optical (light wave) device coupled
with reflector (also called Laser Range Pole) or by a pair of electromagnetic (microwaves) instruments.

EDM Instrument
It is usually an integrated unit called EDMI (Electronic distance - measuring instrument) consisting of an electro-wave
generator, an oscillator, a modulator, a transmitter, and a receiver etc. The type, range and accuracy of an EDM
instrument depend on the type of carrier waves it can generate and subsequently can transmit, receive and analyze
(Table 10.1).
An EDM instrument generally gets mounted in the framework of an electronic theodolite. The net result is a single
instrument termed as total station (Figure 10.1) which can be used to measure all thefundamental
measurements involved in surveying.

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Reflector
It consists of one or more corner cube prisms in which the sides are perpendicular to each other in order to get back
incident light reflected parallel to itself (Figure 10.2).

Principle of Working of the Instrument

The basic principle of EDM instrument is the determination of time required for electro-magnetic waves to travel
between two stations. Here the velocity of electro-magnetic wave is the basis for computations of the distance.

Principle of Working of Electro - Optical EDM Instrument

An Electro - optical EDM instrument, set up on one station, emits a continuous-wave carrier beam of light. It is
generated in the transmitter and modulated by an electronic shutter before entering the aiming optics. The modulator
chops the beam into wavelengths that are proportional to the modulating frequency, where the wavelength is given by

in which  = wavelength;

V= velocity of light through the atmosphere, m/s;

f = Modulating frequency, Hz (cycles per second).

The modulated light is transmitted to the reflector, placed at the other end of the line. The reflector, acting as a mirror,
reflects the light beam back to the receiver, where the incoming light is converted to an electrical signal. A phase
comparison is made between the projected and reflected pulses. Then the amount by which the transmitted and
received signals are out of phase get measured electronically and registered in a meter by getting converted to an
equivalent distance.

In using an Electro - optical EDM, a clear line of sight is required and thus required inter-visibility between the
stations.

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Working of Electro-magnetic EDM Instrument
Electromagnetic (microwaves) EDM instrument transmit high-frequency microwave. The measurement involves two
interchangeable instruments, one being set up on each end of the line to be measured. The sending instrument
transmits a series of microwaves which run through the circuitry of the receiving unit and are retransmitted to the
original sending unit, which measures the phase difference between the transmitted and received signal. The net
phase difference gets converted to linear distance.

In this case the inter visibility between stations is not required; however, an unobstructed measured path between
stations is necessary.

Principle of Measurement of Distance using EDM

In order to measure the distance between stations A and B (Figure 10.3) , let an EDM be placed at A and a reflector
be at B. The modulated beam transmitted from A travels to B and returns back. Let the received signal is out of phase
from the transmitted signal by , as measured by a phase meter. The equivalent linear distance, d is
Thus, the distance (D) between the stations is

where n is the integral number of wavelength , in the double path.

The ambiguity of n is resolved commonly in EDM instruments by employing multiple-frequency technique based on
decade modulation. It is usually built into the EDM device, permitting automatic determination of n and thus a direct
readout of the distance.

Decade Modulation Technique

In decade modulation, a number of frequencies in a multiple of 10 are generally used. The phase difference for each
frequency and thus equivalent distance is determined separately and finally the total distance is computed.

Let us consider a modulation frequency of 15 MHz has been set up in the instrument, resulting in a half wavelength of
10 m.

Thus, a full sweep of the phase meter represents 10 m distance i.e., the phase-meter provides reading in unit meters
and its decimal part and thus the range of the measured distance is from 0 to 9.999 m. For example, in a distance of,
say, 4567.123 m, this frequency would provide the distance 7.123 m. Switching down to 1.5 MHz, the half wavelength
is now 100m, which is resolved by the phase meter to give the tens of metres i.e., reading ranging from 10 to 90 m. In
this example 60 (6 tens). The next frequency is then 0.15 MHz, which in conjunction with the phase meter, gives the
hundreds of metres. In this instance it is 500 (5 hundreds). Finally, a 15-kHz frequency will give the number of
thousand metres in the distance, which in this instance is 4000 (4 thousands). Thus, total distance is 7.123 + 60 +
500 + 4000 = 4567.123 m.

Errors in EDM Measurement

The systematic errors prevalent in EDM measurements are due to the effects of atmospheric conditions on wave
velocity, uncertainties in the position of the electrical centre of the transmitter, uncertainties in the effective centre (s )
of the reflector (s) and contribution from transmitter nonlinearity.

Atmospheric Error
The velocity V of electromagnetic waves in air is a function of the speed of light in vacuum (V o = 299,792.5 Km / s)
and the refractive index (n) of air and is given by

Thus velocity of the modulated waves get altered as atmospheric conditions vary resulting in corresponding change
in the modulated wavelength and hence the basic measuring unit of the EDM instruments. The refractive indices of
electromagnetic waves in air are functions of air temperature, atmospheric pressure and the partial pressure of water
vapor. But, light waves and microwaves react somewhat differently to varying atmospheric conditions.

For light wave, the index of refraction ng of standard air (i.e., for an atmosphere at 0o C, 760 mm Hg pressure and
0.03 percent carbon-di-oxide) as given by Barell and Sears Equation

in which  is the wavelength of the carrier beam of light in micrometers.

Owing to changes in temperature pressure and humidity the refractive index of air becomes na, is given by

Where p = atmospheric pressure in mm Hg

t = temperature in oC

e = vapor pressure, mmHg.

For microwave , the refractive index ( n r ) of the atmosphere is

Where p = atmospheric pressure, mmHg

E = Vapor pressure, mmHg

t = temperature, oC

The method of correcting the obscured distance to account for varying atmospheric conditions is achieved through
recording of temperature and atmospheric pressure at each end of the line. Once the meteorological data are
recorded, corrections to observed distances are carried out either by calculating through charts and nomographs
provided with the instrument or by dialing in the parameters for automatic compensation during measurement. In
case of, microwave EDM, the partial pressure of water vapor is also determined along with temperature and
atmospheric pressure.

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Slope Correction
For short lines of lengths less than 3 Km in length and/or vertical angles of less than 5°, EDM slope distances
corrected for meteorological conditions and system constants can be reduced to horizontal with the usual slope
correction equations as outlined in Lesson 9.

If the measured line is very long and slope angle is more than 5°, the slope distance measured using EDM gets
reduced to horizontal distance by some other complex method which is beyond the scope of this course.

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Ground Reflection
Electromagnetic waves traveling from transmitter and back to receiver usually have strong reflections from the
intervening terrain specifically if it is smooth and free of coarse vegetation. The reflection is more from water surface
along the path, if any. It is more prevalent in microwave EDM. As reflected waves travel along longer path, it causes
error in the measurement of observed distance. In order to eliminate/reduce this error, a series of readings are taken,
each at different frequency, from both ends of the line at the beginning and end of each measurement. The average
of all the readings provides the measurement of the distance.

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Reflector Offset
The effective centre of the reflector does not lie on the vertical line passing through the station point on which
reflector is being held. This is due to the refractive index of the prism glass causing equivalent air distance through
which light travels more than the actual distance traveled. With reference to Figure 10.4, the distance through which
the light travels in the glass cube during retro reflection is a+b+c, which is equal to 2t. The equivalent air distance
through the light travels is 1.57X 2t on account of the refractive index of the glass. The effective centre of the corner
cube is at R and represents the end of the line. Thus, an error cr , known as reflector offset, gets introduced and
needs to be subtracted from the measured distance of the line. The reflector offset is effectively eliminated by
advancing the electrical centre of the EDM by a corresponding amount during manufacture.

When slope distances are measured, light rays striking the reflector are not perpendicular to the front face of the
reflector and thus altering the path of the rays within the reflector and changing the position of the effective centre.
Given the angle of slope, corrections can be calculated to compensate for this error. Some reflectors are designed
with an adjustment allowing the front face of the reflector placed perpendicular to the incoming rays of light
compensating for the error instrumentally.

Correction of this type is necessary for high precision survey where slope angles are consistently large.

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Instrumental Errors
Systematic instrumental errors occurring in electro-optical systems include uncertainties in the position of the
electrical centre of the transmitter, uncertainties in the effective centre of the reflector, frequency drift, and instrument
nonlinearity. The first two sources of errors must be taken into account in all survey measurements, the third requires
monitoring and the fourth is critical only for measurements of high precision.

Microwave systems are affected by uncertainties in the electrical centres of the master and remote units and by a
phenomenon called ground swing or reflection.

The EDM systems properly adjusted at the factory, the errors noted above will be very small and in a practical sense
may be insignificant. However, it is important that users of these systems carry out periodic calibration of the
instruments against a known distance and is absolutely necessary to ensure consistent results.

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Instrument Offset
If the electric centre of the instrument does not lie along its plumb line, a constant systematic error gets introduced in
each measurement. This is known as instrument offset.

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Calibration of EDM
A precisely measured base line is required to find the instrument constant of an EDM. In determining the instrument
constant, repeated measurements (say 10 to 15) of the base line are be taken using the EDM. Meteorological data
during measurement should be gathered with extreme care. The average of the EDM measurements corrected for
meteorological conditions and for slope of the line should agree with the length of the base line. The difference
between the two measurements represents the instrument offset.

If a reliable baseline is not available and if it is not feasible to measure a line, instrument offset is calculated by
measuring a line of unknown length in several sections. Let the distance D be divided into arbitrary increments d 1 ,
d2 , ….., dn (having atleast n =2) (Figure 10.5). Measure the total length of the line using EDM and then measure
each segment separately. All distances are to be corrected for meteorological conditions and slope. Let the
instrument offset be c1 , then the total distance is D+ c1 and the increments are d 1 + c 1 , d2 + c 1 , ….., dn + c 1 .
Thus,

D+ c1 = ( d 1 + c1 )+( d2 + c 1 )+ …..+( dn + c 1)
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Frequency Offset
The tuned frequency of the electromagnetic waves may not be exact as required. An error in the frequency of
modulated waves produces an error in the scale of electronic measurement of distance. For example, if the correct
modulated frequency is 10 MHz and if the actual frequency departs from this by 10 Hz, a relative error of 1 ppm
affects each measurement.

The frequencies can be checked by using a frequency counter. A frequency check is required to be performed at
regular intervals, particularly for high-order surveys or when surveys with very long lines are being performed.
Otherwise, if the EDM is checked against a known distance, applying corrections for instrument and reflector offsets,
meteorological conditions, and slope, a frequency shift can be detected.

Non-Linearity of EDM Systems

As the length a line goes on increasing, the error in measurement of distance using EDM repeatedly changes to a
maximum and a minimum value non-linearly. This non-linearity of error in measurement is determined by making use
of a series of stations placed at precise intervals. The distance between the first and the last point at which reflector
has been placed should be at least equivalent to the half wavelength of maximum modulated frequency. Readings
are taken from a single instrument setup placing reflectors at successive points. A plot of distance versus correction
provides the correction for measurement of distance.

In most EDM, factory calibration is performed so that the average non-linearity and true distance coincide. However,
calibration for non-linearity is needed when it is being used for high precision projects.

Summary of Module 3
In plane surveying, distance between any two points on the surface of the earth means horizontal distance between
the points. It is obtained by direct measurement using tape or through direct observation using electronic instrument
or computed using observed parameters from optical instruments. The degree of accuracy of measurement depends
on the type of instruments and the methods adopted. Systematic errors associated with measurements are corrected
using appropriate physical model and random errors are computed using the theory of errors. In order to avoid or
minimise errors in measurement necessary precautions need to be taken and proper calibration of instruments needs
to be done before use.

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