In~1ian’Roads Congress

Special PublIcation 28

ROAD. TRANSPORT
AND ENERGY

<< NEW DELHI 1995

 Indian Roads Congress
Special Publication 28

ROAD TRANSPORT
AND ENERGY
(FIRST REVISION)

Published by
The Indian Roads Congress

Copies can he had from

The Secretary,
Indian Roads Congress,
Janinagar House,
Shahjahan Road,
New [)elhi-l 10 011

NEW DII;I...~HI 1995 Price Rs. 640()

(Plus packing &
postage)
<<
 Published in November, 1984
First Revision April, 1995

(The Rig/its of Pu//icc,lion and Translation are Reserved)

Published by Shri SC. Sharnia, Secretary, lndkn Roads Congress . Jamnagar 1 louse,
Shahjahan Road, New 1)elhi. Printed at Sagar Printers & Publishers, New Dclhi~1 1(5)03,
1.000 Copies

<<
 MEMBERS OF THE HIGHWAYS SPECIFICATIONS
AND STANDARDS COMMITTEE
(AS ON 8.11.93)
1. l).P. Gupta AddI. Director General (Roads), Ministry of
(Coni’enor) Surface Transport (Roads Wing). New De1h~

2. P.K. Dutta - Chief Engineer (Roads), Ministry of Surface

(Mr’tnber-Secreta,’y) Transport (Roads wing), New Delhi

3. (JR. Ainhwani - Engineer-in-Chief, Municipal Corporatio~of i)elhi

4. SR. Agrawal - General Manager (R), Rail India Technical &

Economic Services Lid,, New Delhi

5. V.K. Arora - Chief Engineer (Roads), Ministry of Surface

Transport (Roads Wing), New Delhi

6. R.K. Banerjee - Engineer-in-Chief & Ex-Officio Secretary to Govt.

of West Bengal

7. t)r. S. Raghava Chad - Professor, Transport Engg. Section. Depu. of

Civil Engg., Regional Engg. College. Warangal

8. i)r. hIP. Dhir - Director (Engg. Co-ordination), Council of

Scientific & industrial Research, New Delhi

9. J.K. Dugad - Chief Engineer (Retd.), 98A. MIG Hats, A[)

Pocket, Pita in Pura, New Delhi

10. U. ck~. MS. (Josain — Shankar Sadan. 57/I, Hardwar Road, Dehradun

11. OP. (Joel - Director General (Works), C.P.W.I).. New Delhi

12. D.K. Gul)ta - Chief Engineer (HQ). PWD, liP,

13. i)r. AK. Gupta — Professor & Coordinator, University of Roorkee,

Roorkee

14. (1. Sree Rainana (iopal — Scientist-SI), Ministry of Environntent & Forest,
New Delhi

15. H.P. Jantdar — Special Secretary to Govt. of (Jujarat, Roads &

Building Depaitment, Gandhinaear

(I)
<<
 16 r.i.n. Jayawant Svnt hetic A.sphalts, 1113, Poop Mrdtul Road,
Chettthut’, Bombay

7 V.P. Ka nidar Plot No. 23, Sector No. 19, (iandhinanar fUujantt)

1h Dr. I .R. Kadiyali Chief Consultant, S—487, Ibid Floor, (ireatet

Kailash-l, New Delhi

19 Ninan Koshi Director General (Raod Development), Ministry

of Sot ace ‘Fransport. (Roads Wing), New Delhi

21) P K. L.,autia Secretary to Govt of Ra}asthan, 3 aipa

21 N V. Merani Secretary (Retd.), Maharashtra PWI), A-47/! ~44,

Adarash Nagar, Bombay

22. MM. Swaroop Mathur Secretary (Retsi), Ra’psthart PWD, i—22, Subhash
Fvlarg. C—Schenre,Jaipur

23, Dr. AK. Mullick Director General, National (3runcil for Cement &
Building Materials

24. V R Phtrll I )eputa Director, CRRI, Nes’~ I )elhi

25. U. Raittan Dc pttt v Director (ens’ al lirt reau o I Indian

.
Standards

26. Pu 1. N. IC nganit han Prof. & Head, Dept of Ir’,tnsport Plannins, School
of Planning & Architecture. Ne~Delhi

27. P.) Rao — I )eputv I )irector & Head, Ceotechnical Fnttsr.

Dtvision, CR111, New I’telhi

25. Prof. U.V. Rao Prof. of Civil Engg.. Indian lnstitrtte of

‘leeft no(on y, Nt’ w I )e hr

2Y. RE S’irxen,r Chief Engineer 1R

5’td. NIinistr~ot Surface
Itansport. New Delhi

A. Sankaritn A— L. 7/2, 51, Shinrrtila. 22nd Cross Street, Itesarit

N.rgar. Madras
31 1 )r. AC. Sarn.r
General Manager (T&T), Urban Iranspot’t
1)i vision., RITES, New I)elhi
32. Prof. CU .Ss~rtuthan —
I )i rector Retd.), CRRI, Badri, 51), Thiruvankadani
Street, R.A. Puram. Madras
(ii)
<<
~3. 6. Sin ha — AddI. Chic I Engineer (Plc.i, PWD (Roads),
Guwahati

.14. A. K. Shah - Chief Engineer (QC) & Joint Secretary. R&li

i)eptt.

15, K.K. Satin — i)ireetorGeneral (Road i)evetoptaent) & AddI. Secretary

to Govt. of India (Retd. S—I 08, Panchsheel Park,
New Delhi

11, M.K. Saxena — Ditector, National institute 0,r ‘[raining of

Hitzhway Engineers. New Delhi

47. A. Sen — Chief Engineer (Civil), Indian Road Construction

Corp. Ltd., New Delhi

~. The I )i rector Highway Research Station, Madras

39. ‘ilte I ‘H &‘sl or — Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

—10. The PresiclL’rlt — Indian Roads Congress, (NI. K. Agarwat,( Engineer-in—

Chief, Harvana P.W.D., ll&R —

41 . ‘Fhe I)) rector Genetat - (Road Development). &

Addi Secretary to the C iovt
of India (Ninan Koshi . Ev—Oflieio

42. ‘[he Secretary — ledian IC ads Cong ‘cs

(i),P, C tupta I — 17.s—O/)1’ io

C’o;’t’c’.%/oJtt~/i/t44’h’otbc’ t’.~

S. K. ltharnay’at’ — Deputr I.)ireetor—ihituttten, I—IirtLlttstan Petrolentit

C~brp. I ,td.

2. Uric’. Cl’. Chtri — Chief I ~ngit1t—er,

Ronthay Zone, bombay

“. A. Chodhuri — Shalititar ‘far Products, New Delhi

4. IN. Narendra Si itch — IDI. Chemicals lid., New Delhi

(iii)

<<
 CONTENTS
Page No.

1, Introduction 1
2. Energy Scene 2
3. transport and Energy 13
4. 1:~nergy Conservation in Road Transport 24

Figu r~s

Figure 1 Share of various Types of Energy

Consumption in Selected Countries 3
Fiure 2 OPEC Oil Price (in US Dollar) 5
Figure 3 Per Capita Energy Consumption in
some Selected Countries 6
Figure 4 Produclion of Crude Oil 8
Figure 5 Consumption of Crude Oil in india 9
Figure 6 Consumption of Petroleum Products 10
Figure 7 Net Imports of Petroleum Products 11
Figure 8 The Mounting Fuel Bill in India 12
Figure 9 Per Capita Consumption of Petrol in
some Selected Countries 14
Figure 10 Per Capita Consumption ol Diesel in
Selected Countries
Figure 11 Percentage Share of Transport Sector
in Total Commercial Energy Consumption
in some Selected Countries 16
Figure 12 Share 01’ Energy Sources in Transport
in India
Figure 13 Percentage Share of’ Petrol and Diesel
Consumption in some Selected Countries 19
Figure 14 Share of Road Transport in Total Diesel
Consumption in selected Countries 20
Figure 15 Passenger Mode Energy Intensities 22
(v)
<<
 Figure 16 Freight Mode Energy Intensities 23
Figure 17 Fuel Consumption of Ambassador Car
on Different Road Surface Types 26
Figure 1 8 Fuel Consumption of TATA Truck on
1)ifferent Road Surface Types 27
Figure 19 Influence of Load on Fuel Consumption
of Trucks 29
i”tgure 20 Productivity of Fuel for various Pay—Loads 30
Figure 21 Fuel Consumption vs Pay Load of Trucks 30
Figttre 22 Fuel Consumption Speed Plots for Maruli Cars
- 31
Figure 23 Fuel Consuniption Speed Plots fur Ambassador
-

Cars 32
Figttre 24 Fuel Consumption Speed Plots for 1~CV
—

on I.eye I Smot tli Road 33

I igure 25 Fuel Consumption—Speed Plots for ‘[‘A’IA Truck 34
on Level Smoolh Road
l”igure 26 Saving in Fuel Due to hivement Widening 36
Figure 27 Fuel Consumption of Vehicles on Upward
Gradients 37
Figure 28 Fuel Consumption Under Steady State and
congesled Conditions 38
Figt.tre 29 Fuel Consumption of Truck with 15—T Pay
L.oad 40
I igure 30 Consumption Speed Plots for Ambassador
—

atid Maruti Cars 41

Table I Population of Registered Motor Vehicles

in Itidia (in thousands) 18
Table 2 Year-wise Break-up of Road Network in India 25
Table 3 Roughness Values of Roads as Measured by
Bump Integrator (in MM/KM) 25
Table 4 Optimum Speed and Related Fuel Consumption 35
‘fable S Idle Fuel Consumption of Typical Vehicles 38
(vi)

<<
 ROAD TRANSPORT AND ENERGY

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The publication on Road Transport and Energy, was first printed
in 1984. As the data included therein had become outdated, the Transport
Planning Committee of Indian Roads Congress had taken up the revision of
this publication. The draft of revised Manual was considered by the Transport
Planning Committee (personnel given below) in its meeting held at Patna
on 28th November, 1992 and approved sub~eetto certain modifications
suggested by members,

Dr. i..R. Kadiyati Convenor

MC. Venkatesha Member-Secretary

Me,nbe,’s

M.K. BhaIla Prof. N. Ranganathan

S.S. Chakniborty T.S. Reddy
V.D, Chhatre Dr. AC. Sarna
5K. Ganguli R.P. Sikka
I)r. AK. Gupta i)r. MS. Stinivasan
t).P. Gupta t)r. N.S. Srinivasan
‘I’.’I’. Kesavan ‘rhe t)irector. Central Institute of Road
S. Kesavan Nair l’ransport, Pune
t)r. 51’. Palaniswansy M. Satttpangi
[)r, S. Raghava Chari

E.v-OJJieio

The President, IRC (LB. Chhetri)

The Director General (Road Devetnpment), MOST
The Secretary, IRC (Ninan Koshi)

Cor.i’e.spoitding Metnbera

Pradecp Jau har R. Ramakrishnan

SG. Shah Chittranjan Das
J.M. Vakil

<<
 2

1.2. The document was thereafter considered by the Highways

Specifications & Standards Committee in its meeting held on 08.11.93 and
approved subject to furthermodifications, if any, to be made by a subcommittee
consisting of S/Shri M.K. Bhalla & A.P. Bahadur. The approval from
Execulive Committee was obtained through circulation. The document was
subsequently considered by the C~uncilin its meeting held on 20. II .93 at
Bangatore, wherein Convenor & Member-Secretary of Highways Specifi-
cat ions & Standards Committee were authorised to carry out editing and
minor m~i1’ications,if required, on the basis of comments of members
before getting the same printed. The edited document was finally received
from Convenor, Highways Specifications & Standards Committee on 8th
March, 1995 for printing.

2. ENERGY SCENE

The energy transition from the traditional sources to the modern has
taken place over the period of Industrial Revolution and the period following
it. In the first phase, coal replaced wood as the dominant source of energy.
In the second phase of transition, coal began to be replaced by oil, natural
gas and electricity. At present, 45 per cent of the total energy consumed iti
the wortit is from liquid fuels, 32 per cent from solid fuels, 20 per cent from
gas and the balance 3 per cent from electricity. Oil is thus the predominant
source of energy in the world.

‘[‘he share of these four principal forms of energy in some selected

countries make interesting reading, Fig. 1. In India, the major share (65 per
cent) is t’or solid fuels because of the dependence of coal and firewood. Next
in importance comes liquid fuels, which account for nearly 29 per cent. The
shares of gas anti electricity are 5 and I per cent respectively. As a contrast,
the U.S.A., one of the most industralised nations, obtains the bulk (42 per
cent) of its energy requirements through liquid fuels. Solids account for only
23 per cent, whereas gas accounts for 31 per cent and electricity accounts
for 3 per cent. As nations have marched ahead in industrial activity, they
have switched on progressively to liquid fuels and gas.

Fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal) are not inexhaustible. The proven original

<<
 3

INDIA
~-

. 64.9 28.9 4.8

r 1.4
U
~
r

38.6 37.5 22.0 1.9

U.K. .. ‘..‘.‘,“:~

33.7 34.0 30.4 1.9

U.S.S.R. ... ‘.,-..i -..__

32.6 44.9 20,2 2.3

GERMANY ~. “: ‘.1
2,3.3 42.4 31.4 2.9
U.S.A. :1

12.0 48.3 26.7 13.0

CANADA •‘.‘:t
8.9 72.6 1.8 16.7 LI
:“.~[

C
8.7 33.7 50.4 7.2
PAKISTAN ~L ~

.4 52.0 41.7 1.9

BANGLADESH :1 k~1

3.3 93.6 3,1

THAILAND ~l I C

.8 82.0 16.2 1.0

INDONESIA \‘~I

‘.1 ~‘ 11.8
SRILANKA ““~~~“

32.0 45.0
20.0 3.0
WORLD (1978.. ~. . -l ~

32.0 58.0 7.0 3.0

DEVELOPING ..,.,,‘. ‘....,
EAST ASIA
(1978)

Fig. 1. Share of various types of energy consumption lii selected countries

<<
4

endowment of these~are as under

(Billion barrets of tat
equivalent)

(onveotioflat (light and trtediunt) oil : 1635

Gas (iii t~’rmsof equivalent oil) 1897
Heavy oils 608
Bitutuen depi ,sits 354
Oil shalL’ deposits : 1066

i’otal 5560

C.oal 7600 billion tonnes

‘these are being consumed at a very fast rate. Nearly 3(1 per cent of
the cottventiotial oil, 14 per cetil of gas’ and ii per cent of heavy oils have
already been constttued. Everyday 53 million barrels of oil are produced and
consuttted. Titus at the current level of consumption, liquid fuels tnay rtot
last tor more than 3 or 4 decades. it may be mentioned that the first 200
billion barrels of world oil were produced in 109 years from 1859 to 1968.
The second 200 billion barrels were produced in just 10 years from 1968
It) 1978. The third 200 billiort barrels would have been consumed in the period
1978 to I 988. ‘lile world production rates seem to have stahilised at around
20 billion barrels a year, thanks to energy conservation measures.
Coal deposits cart, however, last for a much longer time. At presetit
only abot.tt 2.5 per cent of the reserves has been exploited. ‘[lids world coal
deposits can last to more than 3,000 years.

The price of oil is very sensitive to political developments. The energy

shocks of 1974 and i979-80 have been accompaniett by steep increase in
the price. The recent Gulf war saw the price of a barrel to touch 842. Fig.
2 shows the trettd in OPEC oil prices.
l’he developing countries, tnany ol’ which are non—oil—producing, are
bouttd to be hit very adversely by the growing price of oil. Already the per
capita cotlsutnption of energy is very low in these countries, and they have
a lotte march ahead to catch up (Fig. 3). Whereas the growth rate of energy
cottsutnpt ion in the developed economies (luring 1980—89 was in the range
of 1—2 per cent per annum, in the developing countries it was in the range
of 3-6 per cent. In India’s case, it was 6.1 per cent. ‘[lie ONE> grew at around
~ ~~erceni during this period. Thus, the growth rate of energy consumption

<<
 <<
5
000? ~ .:; ~ ~ ~ “i E661
oocE ~ ~ ~ . xYwJ ‘[661
• ~ ~,;: ,....:.:: :.~.‘. LOO
ooezE~..::.’~.’~ .‘- .•.~••~flyI
00.T?L.’...y..::....,.8z A’lflhl
~ A’iflPJ
00171 1’: ~ ~JNflc~ 0661
0c11 89
1:y:.y~:~:.1
I. ..‘ .. .,~7J12
OtEI L’.:~:’~
‘:~.-~:198
oc 8Z ~ :~ .. :. ‘~ :, S9
~ ~
09 6? 1: .~ ~ ~:‘:~ ..••
0c?~F~T~’:’:: ~. ~ ~ ~ :]18
~
L691i-~-~’~ 61. —
0L?T V. .. RL
T~:-~I
Ut,.?! ~ LL
1S’Et ~ 91.
_________ SI.
9L6Et~~-I t,L
oL-?al cL
061 U
Q TL6I
6
-~ ~s3pP’~6ue~
N U e~u~uiS
-I
-i” u~e~j
~.Or. ~!PUI
~ ~euopuI
z
~0 ~
~ etrç1~D ~
T!Z~ E
C
r1 ___
~NL I PP0M =
-I =
C
(‘1
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__________
_____________________ upd~r C
__________ ~rn
____________ Auewia~
_______________ ~TSSfl
I -v-s-n
_J 2~~U~j
~NnvArnö~ ‘JYOD ~!~d

<<
MI NOLLdWflSNOD X~N2 Y~LIdYD ~l~c1
 7

is slightly more thati that of GNP. This trend is likely to continue. India and
other developing countries will have to investigate ways and means of
cotlserving energy.

‘[lie coal reserves in India are estimated to be 83,000 milliotl tomines.

‘[‘he present rate of consumption is 200 million tomies. At this rate, the
reserves can last for another three to four centuries. Out of all estiniated
hydro—electric potential of 31)6 TWH (Trillion Watt—Hour), the electricity
gerterated is aroutid 50 TWH. ‘Ilius there is a good scope for devetopmetit
of hydt’o—etectric reserves in India. India’s published and proved oil reserves
are 4.3 billion barrels (roughly 300 million tonnes). It may take just 17 years
to exhaust Ihese. lt’idia has some gas reserves, which are now beine tapped.

Since oil reserves in India are fast depleting, the long-term strategy for
energy should be to tap its hydro—ele.ctric potential, build nuclear power plants
and tap renewable energy sources (solar, wind, geothermal, wave, hiomass,
etc.)

lnttia has had a remarkable success story in oil exploration and

prodt.tction. Begmning with a meagre 0.2 million tonne is 1950, the
production rate now is 30 million ttnines (1991—92). In view of the
encouraging results of recetit exploration activities, it is likely that the
programtne of oil explorati(tn and development will be accelerated in the
coming years.

‘Ilie production and consutription of crude oil in the last decade are
indtcated in Figs. 4 and 5 respectively. The consumption of petroleum
prtxtucts is itidicated in Fig. 6. The average annual rate of growth of
consutrtptiot’t ot’ petroleum products during the period 1974 to I 991 has been
5.6 per cent. The excess of consumptioti over indigenous productitin has
resulted in ittevitable oil imports, Fig. 7. The mounting l’uel itnpnrt”btIt is
depicted in Fig. 8. The deficit in oil, which was nearly 60 per cent ill 198(1—
8 1 , was around 30 per cent itl 1989—90. In 1980—90, the oil ituports consutued
nearly 22 per cent tif the export earnings. These statistics demonstrate ttiat
I RIta is under severe economic pressure on account ol the tilt’tutititig oil
ct’ttlsuttlption.

‘11w ctinst.tntpti( tn of oil prt iduct 5 in the coutitry has grown at a

<<
 N =
‘1,
-l
©
-l
-I
:~L ~
0

<<
Prvducticxi at Crude in millicE Tcxines
 60

5194 51:17 ~j 42
48.80
4~.7O

42.91

35.26

I:
30.15
27.47

22.28

1975/76 1979/80 1981/82 1983/84 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 90/91 1991792

Fig. S. (.oII~umpflofl of crude oil in India

<<
 75 -

z
56.8
55.0
9 52.2 54.1

0)
so
46.4
0
43.8
0
38.8
z
34.0 ~ 35.8
0 31.3 31.6
28.9
26.6
25 23.0 23.52 .9
0
z
2

U)

0
74-75 75 76 77 18 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91—92

Fig. 6. Constimpti~nof petroleum products

<<
 7.3

6.5
6.0 6.1

2
C
C
z
4.6

42
4. 38

3.4 34
H
0
z 2 8
0
z
z

135 86 87 138 89 90

Fig. 7. N~timports or petroleum products

<<
a
U

LO~B~

iocxo

6274

3270

560

7O-~71 -11 72 77 74 75 7t~ 71 7E~ 7~j 60 81 82 83 84 88 86 117 86 89 90

Fig. S. The mounting fud hill in India

<<
 13

ct trtipttuitd rate of 5.6 per cent per annunt in the period 1974—90, I )wjng. the
Stxlh Flail the growth rate was 5.5 per cettl. t tt the Seventh Plan, the growth
rate was 6.8 per cent.

Fig~ 9 gtves the per capita eonsuniption of IWtroI in soit te selected

t.’ontttrtes. ‘tile highest is in US A with 1,438 kg. In India, it is a It w 3 ke.

Fig. 10 gives the per capita eonstttnpticttt of (liesel in soitte selectett

cotttttries, At.tstratia leads with 431 kg. Itidia’s consumption is 18 kg.

Roth itt tcrnts of proditetion and eonsutnptioti of ettergy. India is at tail

end. Itispite nt this utihappy situation about 24 per cent of’ energy tn India
is lost before tts final end ttse.

3. ‘l’RANSPURT ANt) ENEIu;v

‘transport is au itnpttrtattt sector which cnnsutues energy. the perc’et tage

share ot the transport sector itt total cotntuereial energy consumpltoti itt sottte
selected ci tntirries is sht twit in 1’ig. 11. In sotttc’ countries, the share is as httihi
as 56 per cent, whereas itt soitte others it is as tow as 11 per cent. In Ittdia
ts arontttl 24 per ccItt.

‘liii’ Railways use coal, oil and c’leetri’ity for traction. ‘[he percenla ge
share of oil ltas gotte up prttgressi\ eN iti ttte past years with a doss ttss ard
shtiht itt the use of’ coat, The increasing stress on railway eleetr’ilicatti tn
currently being pursued w ill result tn less dependence on oil and should be
wetctttttect,

R tad transport is totally clc’pc’ttctent on oil for propulsiott. ‘hit ictglt

attertt~tttvebets are being investigated, itt the itutiediate future petroteuttt
pro&ltic’ts atone with he the propulsion fuel. ‘[lie alternate fttehs betttg
c’otisidered are ntethtatRtt . ct’tntpressed natural gas, ttvdrogen atid e leetnictt~
I tttrough batteries). lint it will take matty years of research to aect iniplish
success in their etinunoti use tn road sehides, ‘h’lte other tttocles of tratispi trt,
s ti , air trattspttrt ~nidslttps, also nse oil exclusively, Fig,. 1 2 gives the nit tdc’l
distribution of the e&trttniereiat energy itt India in the transport sector. It is
seen that oil fortns 84 ~e~’cc’ttt if the energy consumption itt the tratispot
sc’c’tt ‘r. ( )il for ntact tratisport alone accounts for 65 P’~cent of bIte total ettet ev

<<
14

i!~fl

o ~
z
0

N
z
0
U ‘0

~5oo
en

N
en

N
N en
en

~i
r C ri~ LD ~ ~ -~ ~o

lrIg. 9 Per capita cOuIStIIU~fliOflof Petrol in some sekeled cmliii ries

<<
 15

~5OO.
-I

C
z
0

N ~ —
— — —
N N N

z
0
U

I.’

a.

w
I i~“ci

CL

‘it

<<
 16

PERCENTAGE

K EN Y A 56.0

SRI LANKA 51.13

THAILAND 46.1

INDONESIA 34.8

NEPAL

U.S.A. 25.0

INDIA 24.1

PAKISTAN 123,3

ALGERIA 16.0

EEC
COUNTRIES

BANGLADESH 14.9

14.6

GERMANY 14.2

HUNGARY 11.3

lug. Ii. Percentage share oil raiisport sector iii total commercial energy consumption iii
slarne selected countries

<<
 17

COAL.

‘C
OIL in

ELECTRICITY

TOTAL

N
‘~‘0

z
0
u..
a.
E

z
0

N N
z

slips

Fig. 12. StHire of cuterg~’SOUrcC~Iin trNlsport ill III(lUt

<<
 18

consumed in the transport sector and 77 per cent of the total oil consumed
in the transport sector. Thus, oil for road transport represents nearly 16 per
cent of the total energy consumed in all sectors in the country.
The population of registered motor vehicles in India is given in Table
1. The major products used in road transpert are petrol and diesel oil. Petrol
was the first fuel to be introduced when the internal combustion engine made
its entry. Cars and two-wheelers still use petrol. With the sudden spurt in
the production of two and three wheeler vehicles in the recent past, their
fuel consumption accounts to about 60 per cent of petrol consumed by
vehicles in the country. Diesel was introduced much hater following the
development of an efficient fuel injection system. Since then it has become
very popular for trucks and buses.

TABLE 1. Ponmxnors op R~cismt~a

MoroR VEHICLEs IN Ii’inIA
(iN TnousAt’ws)
Passenger Buses Trucks Two Others Total
cars, jeeps wheeters
and taxis

1960-61 310 57 168 88 42 665

1970-71 682 94 343 576 170 1865
1980-81 1117 154 527 2528 847 5173
1981-82 1207 164 587 2963 922 5844
1982-83 1351 178 648 3512 1025 6719
1983-84 1424 t96 719 4234 1168 7759
1984-85 1540 2,13 783 4960 1287 8796
1985-86 1627 230 848 5798 1379 9882
1986-87 1731 246 902 6749 1417 11045
1987-88 2055 260 1015 8493 1663 13486
1988-89 2284 293 1140 10685 2086 16488
1989-90 2733 312 1289 12525 2314 19173
1990-91 2953 332 1356 14200 2533 21374
1991-92 3205 358 1514 15661 2769 23507
1992-93 3344 380 1592 17060 2970 25346
1993-94 3617 419 1650 18338 3203 27227

Fig. 13 gives the percentage share of petrol and diesel in some selected
countries in the world. In the developed countries, where the use of cars is

<<
 19

U..S..A. 89
=11

SW EDEN ‘67
___J33
65
FRANCE
___s35
64
AUSTRALIA
i36 -

GERMANY 63
‘37
JAPAN ___________ 59 DI
~41
_____________ 53
U.K. t’i
~~~1 47 Ci~i ~
t’3

UGANDA 48
‘ 52
BRAZIL 40
-60

CHINA .36
~64
THAILAND ‘36

ETHIOPIA 29
z~ 71

SRILANKA 29
1 71

INDIA 13
87

Fig. 13. Percentage share of petrol iind diesel consumption in SOU1C selected countries

<<
 20

Share ot road transport in total

d.Lesei COI1SU 51 ptaOfl S

France

Japan

Kenya

Sr Lanka

Gernldrly

Hraz],I
C’

India

Sweden

C tuna ill

Thailand

1020304561701)

Ii g. 14. Slia f’s’ i ii’ ri’s Cf ra uc f)( ni ~ll ti ital cli~’~t’1

ci iii’~U rupt ii‘a in s~kt’tsd t’iiciat ri s’~

<<
 21

for personal movement, the stiare of petrot is high. In U.S. A., for
example tlic share is ~9 per cent. ‘ftc positioll in developing countries is just
the reverse, with a high percentage of shcscl consumption and a low
percentage of petrol consumption. In India, for example, the diesel share is
~7 pcr cent and the petrol share is 13 per cent. ‘this is because of the emphasis
on public transport iii buses and the low car—owncrstiip.

Fin, 14 ekes the percentage of dicsct consumed in road transport in

sonic selected countries, In India, 63 per cent of the total diesel consumed
is in tile road transport sector, (‘onsiderahic diesel is used in India in the
agricultural sector, particularly ilir irrigation by means of diesel pump sets,
In view ot growing oil—shortages, it would be prudenl to encourage the
gradual replaceitient of such pump—sets by electrical pump—sets. This ~ ould
ii ake diesel available ti the road transport sector, which has no such

a tie rnat i ye.

the high share of diesel (and kerosene br domestic cooking and

lighting) in India places heavy dependence on middle distillates. Since the
quantity ol middle distillates is lixed per barrel ot’ oil refined, the high
consumption of diesel will he bound to create dift’iculties in the refining
process, Ultimately, the country may have to swap some of the products or
import sonic,

‘t’here is some increase in the commercial intensity of the transport

sect ~ since the early I 970s. It is attributed generally due to larger share of
traffic handled by the road sector especially by trucks hauling goods to longer
distances, The second contributing factor is the rapid growth of energy
intensive nodes like taxis/cars/two and three wheelers vis—a—vis public modes
like buses/coaches/mini-buses,

‘the passenger mode energy intensities are given in Fig. 15 and the
freight mode energy intensities arc given in Fig. 16. ‘the comparison brings
out glaringly that steam locomotives are extremely inefficient and should he
phased out, ‘hite personalised modes (cars and scooters) consume excess fuel
per passenner—Km to huses. l’)iesel and electric rail propulsion is iiiany times
more energy efficient than diesel trucks, Barges and pipe—lines hold much
promise for future development.

<<
 ELECTRIC DIESEL IPETROL STEAM

3000
2756

2500

F
~‘ 2000
a:
w
C,
z I 451
~g1500
Cl)

a:

1000 665

500 3 iS

0
RAILSmY (TWO PEOPLE) (RIDER ONLY)

Fig. 15. Passetiger mode energy inlensities

<<
 23

ELECTRIC E~DIESEL ~ STEAM

4000

3000

LU
z
z
0 2000

w
0~

I-
cc

1000

35.

0
SAIL

Fig. 16. Freight mode energy intensities

<<
 24

I..iquid fuel as discussed above, is not going to last for more than 3
it, 4 decades trom now onwards and therefore the bitumen which is a
hyproduct of oil shale deposit is going to be iii acute shortage and eventually
nlay not he even available for the purpose of repairs of asphalt pavements,
As a strategy there should he an emphasis on the construction of roads using
indigenous material. It is appropriate to make a mention that constructions
usimmg cement provides a promising alternative,

4. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN ROAD 1’RANSP()RT

4.1. Since road transport uses bulk of the liquid fuels of which India
is in short supply, conservation ob’ energy in this sector must be ac-corded
very high priority. Various measures are possible, many of them simple and
easy to implement. Already many countries have adopted sonic of them and
stahilised the fuel consumption almost at a constant level inspite of steady
grosvth in road transport activities.

4.2. Road Surface ‘Fype and Its Effect on Fuel Consumption

Road vehicles have to overcome the t’riction at the tyre-road interh’ace

when moving. ‘lie sm(x)ther the surface, the hess is the energy needed to
over.otne b’riction. It can be seen from ‘i’ahhe 2 that more than 50 per cet’t
of road length is unsurfaced contributing to loss of energy. The riding quality
of a surface is measured by various methods, ‘Die one adopted in India is
by means ot’ the Towed Fit’lh Wheel Bump Integrator. ‘Die roughness
recorded by this instrument is in terms of upward movement caused when
it is towed at a constant speed of 32 km/hr. It is measured in mm/km. Differctit
surfaces have different values of roughness, and different levels of maintenance
give different values of roughness for the same type of surface. Table 3 gives
the common values.

‘ftc effect of roughness on fuel consumption of vehicles has been

studied in India through controlled experiments. Figs. 17 and lX give the
results tör a car and a 10 T two-axled truck when driving at an optimum
speed of around 40 km/hr.

‘ftc results show that

5 \5’IP~0tt~ 11181 fl at TTCCI a sphi~t tic cc’ ncrem e su rñtce or r~’itt ix cat tit’t mc’ ~uIt in
excess I tet consunipt intl of 2—4 per ct’ni

<<
 25

TAFILE 2. YEAR-WISE BREAK-UP OF RoAr NETWORK EN INDIA

(Length in ~0O0)

Sum-faced Urisurfaced TI:nal National

Highways

1960-61 234 47t 705 23

1971-72 436 576 1012 28
1972-73 474 654 1128 29
1973-74 499 672 1171 29
1974-75 523 692 1215 29
1975-76 551 698 1249 29
1976-77 572 736 1308 29
1977-78 596 776 1372 29
1978-79 622 823 1445 29
1979-80 647 846 1493 29
1980-81 684 807 1491 32
1984-85 788 .899 1687 32
1985-86 825 901 1726 32
1986-87 858 92~ 1780 32
1987-88 888 955 1843 32
1988-89 920 985 1905 33
1989-90 960 1010 1970 34

TAttLE 3, RotiotlNrss VALUES OF ROADS AS MEASURED ElY BUMP INThORATOR

(in mm/km)

Road Condition
Surface Type
Good Average , Poor Very poor

1, Asphaltic concrete 21)00-2500 2500-3500 3500-4900 Over 4900

2. Pm-unix open-textured 2500-4500 4500-5500 5500-6500 Over 6500
carpet

3. SurOice dressing 4000-5000 5000-6500 6500-7501) Over 750(1

4, Water bound macadam 8000-10000 9999-10990 10000-12000 Over 12(100

or gravel

<<
 0
I
9~lAVH9
I
5.
5.
r~.iWc1M
-4
Hood
‘V
1~
5.
I-
I-
flOOD
I
DN[~S~1U ‘3
3.4
0 it3Y.~HflS
-4
1adHVD
XIW~d
L~J3NOD .Z
8
-I
DIT’IVHdSY
I—
0
-l
-l

<<
(1VOH ~1Ji4i~DNO3 DT.LIVHdSY NO NOLT.dWflSNOD
~lO ~DYJN3DH~4cI SV NOLLdUflSNOD 1~1fl~
 27

<<
FUEL, CONSUMPTION AS PERCENTAGE OF
CL)NSUMPTION ON ASPHALTIC CONCRETE ROAD

ASPHALTIC ________ —
CONCRETE

PREJ4EX
CARPET
SURFACE
DRESSING

GOOD HEN
U’

POOR WHII

GRAVEL,/
EARTH

13
0
013

3
‘3
3

Fig. 1. Fuel consumption of TATA truck on different road surface types

 (ii) pr~~idin~~ an asphalt ic concrete surlitce in place of premix carpet or surface
dressing results in a fuel econottty of about 1 —4 per cent.

(iii) providing a hint Imminous surfacing of prettmix carpet or surface dressing over a
wt IM road can acim eve (Ltd’1 saving of 6—8 per ccitt,
4.3. Efl’ect of Overloading of l’rucks

‘I~hctoad carried by a truck intluences fuel consumption significantly.

‘ig, 19 shows the effect on three truck types moving on an asphaltic concrete
snrl ace level road at 40 kin/hr.

Each size of a truck is efficient for a particular pay load. The

productivity of a truck in terms of Tonne—km per litre increases as the truck
site increases, This eh’fect is shown in Fit~s,20 & 21, Thus, for carrying large
h tads, multi—axled trttcks and truck—trailer combinations are ideal. Besides
actucving luei economy, such trucks cause less damage to road pavemenis~

4.4. Effect OF Speed

When vehicles travel at low speed, using the first or second gears, fuel
consu tnption is high. As speeds increase, anti higher gears are used, the Inch
consurnptiot’t comes down. There is a speed, in the range of 31)—SO km/hr.
wtieii the fuel consumption is a minimum. It again increases as speeds rise
thereaFter. ‘fhie fuel consumption curve is thus typically U—shaped. Figs. 22,
23, 24 and 25 give the trends for various vehicles. It is seen that driving
s’t’hicles in a range of speed of 30—50 km/hr results in the minimum fuel
consutnption. Good drivitig habit should recognise this pnenomenon.
Overspeeding must be discouraged. it is for this reason that soon after the
energy crisis in I 973, many countries imposed a speed limit, Given in Table
4 are the optimum speeds and the related fuel consumption br various
vehicles.

4,5. Effect of Pavement Width

‘When the pavement width is inadequate br accommodating the traffic,

c tugest ion occurs, 1brciiim~the vehicles to move at low speeds and frequently
accelerating and decelerating. ‘[his results in excess cottsumption of fuel,
~litis is a seriotts waste and can be pre~enledby timely widening of road
<<
 29
-4
4,4
-4
z
I~w 0
I-
.1~i ~i
E E w
0..
—4 z
0-4 U,
5.
—
4.t >~ z
o
C,)
= ‘V
I I ‘3
0~
5.
o
C”),
U.,
C) -4
0
I I
0

<<
W)l/X~ NOLLdWflSNOD ‘131k!
 30

80
4-4

70

60
x
DATA FROM IRU FOR
50 NEJLTI—AXLSD VEHICLES
z
2 40
0

30
>4
1-4 RUCS DATA (INDIA)
-4
>4 20 FOR
-4
SINGLE UNIT TRUCKS
C)
10
0
0

101520230 3~
PAY LOAD iN TONNES

Fig. 20. Productivity of fuel for various pay-loads

E

z
z 0.LI~
0
0.12
x RUCS DATA (INDIA) FOR SINGLE UNIT TRUCK
0.10
• DATA FROM 11W FOR MULT1—AXLED
0.08
VEHICLES
0,06

0.04

0.02

5 I 1~5
I I I I 30 ~5 40
PAY LOAD OF TRUCKS IN TONNES

Fig. 2t. Fuel cIInsumpflorI ~‘$ pay !o~dof trucks

<<
 31

2LX’

194
194

17(

160

15(
140

130

1120
~ no

13

~70
~6O
.1 50
tFCJ 44 cc/km
40
OPTIMUM SPEED = 37.5 Km/hr
,30

30
10

0 .1)20
~10 ‘20 ‘30 ‘40 ‘50 160 70 • 60
Speed, Km/hr

Fig. 22. Fuel consumption — speed plots for Maruli cars

<<
 32

20
19

294
174

164
154

-.144
I

11<
0
4- 15

13
[Fc] = 75 cr/k.
894 mm
.4 74 OPTIIItJM SPEED 38.8 Km/hr

44.

a
44

34

1)

o fo ~ ~o •k ~ ~ ‘70 80 90 1C))
Speed, Km/hr

Fig. 23. Fuel consumption - speed plut~for Aiiiha~~ador

cars

<<
 33

400

300

‘3
200
u

2:
0
4-

~100
ri)
2:
C
U
FC ~in = 58
‘.4

OPTIMUM SPEED
a. 35 km/hr

0 10 ‘20 ‘30 ~90 ‘50 ~0 ‘O 60

Speed, Km/hr

Fig. 24. Fuel colaswnption - speed plots for LCV on level smooth road
<<
34

400

300
E

2:
2200
4’,

2:
3
U
FC mm = .132 cc/km
“.4

100 OPTIMUM SPESD

45 J(m/hr

0 10 ‘20 30 40 50 ‘60 70 ~40

Speed, Km/hr

Fig. 2S FLICI coilsumptiopi - speed plots for TATA truck oii level smooth road
<<
 35

pa’. etneIlls~segregating the show moving trat’t’ic like anitnal drawn carts,
hycycles etc., and remove hawkers, vendors from road side. 11g. 26 cives
the savings possible by widening road pavements.

II 4. ()p’risumi Spt’:no AND RE~LA’rED Fm’t’,m, CoNsI.’slITrIox

\‘~‘hi.LL’ t~)ptimutuSpt~,’d Fuel Consuinpti.tn

(kmph) (cc/veh-kiu;

A 0)151 ~tdttl Car

38.8 7 ~,0
Pt L’J)) i~’El~1d4ulfli Cat’ —10,0 71 .02
M~tL4tI 37.~ 44,00
t)it’s~’lli’t’p 35,0 69.6
tat,, truck .15.0 132 0
A’,hok l.L’yl~1)~dIICit 4.’) 35.1) 305.72
truck’
I itO,) (,.trlImL’ cial 35,11 5S.0
Vt’ Iiic Ic
I Jrlt~iiL1u~ — 247 1
t(t’)21,)Tal 14u,’ 225.36
51”r,in Rcf (3)

4.6. Effect of’ Grade

Vehicles negotiating upward grades have to overcome the forces of

gravity, causing extra energy consumption. On the other hand, when vehicles
travel dowiigradc, l’uel is saved, ‘[he pattern oF excess fuel consumption on
upward gradients is shown in Fig. 27 For a typical car and a truck, ‘l’his Factor
slamhd he borne in mind when designing the ‘. erik’al profile of new roads.

47. Fuel Wastages due to ldhng

When vehicles are Orced In stop and engincs’are idling, fuel is burnt
without any productive citort. Forced stops’are found at traffic junctions and
check harriers, Delays at junctions can be minimised by optimum design of
stgiial seltings and coordinated signals. U heck harriers should be avoided or
their number reduced, Octrol p0515 are a source of considerable wastage ub
fuels. I ~ducating the drivers to shut oft’ the engine can save fuel,

<<
 36

25~ ~UCAR

TRUCK
20

15
DI BUS

U
~ 10~
>
.4
‘4~ S

~ ~lII*~,1
.4
PLAII) ROLLING HILLY
‘rEERAIN ‘FEERAIN TERRAIN

W1DENE1G SINGLE LANE TO INTERMEDIATE LANE

25

20
0
14
z 15

10 6
“I

‘.4 2 2. 2

.4

ROLLING BILL!
TERNAIN TERRAIN TERRAIN
WiDENING SINGLE LANE TO TWO LANES

25’

20

0 15

4-
2
‘.4
U
2
2
10

C
1

‘F
1

B
1

C T
2

B
22

WIDENING INTERMEDIATE LANE TO TWO LANES

L. C’ T B

Fig. 26. Sasitig in fu~Idue to pavememit widening

<<
 37

CC
C
0
94
.3
62 240
22.3
62
.3
220
6.. 210
0
198
z 200. 19;
0
4-4
184
0. 180 173
U) 170
z
0 160 15! 156
C)
B. 142
0 140 137
62 128
13
‘.9 120 118 II,
z
62
Li 100
100 1
94
62
0.
CC 80

z
0
4-4
60
0.
40
CC
z
0
C) 20~
-2
1.2
0
B. 01234 67 01234 67
PERCENT UPWARD GRADIENT
AMBASSADOR CAR ASBOK LEYLAND BEAVER
TRUCK

F’ig. 27. Fuel L-onsuml)tlon of vehicles on upward gradients

<<
38

i’he idle fuel consumption of some typical vehicles are given in Table 5.
IABLE 5. IDLE FUEL CoNsUMr~rioNOF TYPICAL VEHICLES
S.Nt~. Vchicie Idle FuelConsumption
(cc per mm)

1. Ambassador Car 13,0

2. Premier Pa.,tmini Car 10.5
3. MottO Car 9.6
4. Mahindra Jeep 12.3
5, ‘I’,t’, II) ‘f Inick 15.3
6. Leyland heavy Ltuty tick 35.4

4.S. Effect of Congestion on Fuel Consumption

As the traffic on a road increases, the vehicles experience congestion,
Whereas they are able to follow steady state speed conditions under loW
volumes, they have to perform frequent changes of speeds under congested
conditons, Under extremely congested situalions, stop and go motions take
place, Consequently, loss of fuel lakes place as shown in Fig,28. Recent

U
U Congested
z cond L IOIi~
0
I-.
I..
Steady state
vi
z
0
U Extra due to
-J congested conditions
w
LI.

SPEED (KMPH)

Fig. 2$. Fuel coimsumptioli under steady state and congested conditions
<<
 39

research carried out in India have quantified the excess fuel consumed under
congested conditions, The excess is in the range of 40—70 per cent. This is
a serious loss and can be prevented by timely augmentation of road capacity.

4.9. Energy Saving on Account of Cement Concrete Roads

I ,ately the cost comparisons of flexible and concrete roads are being
clone in terms of whole—life—cycle cost where both initial construction cost
is clubbed with maintenance cost to get a realistic comparison. The studies
have proved that generally concrete roads are cheaper. A study in USA has
shown that there can be fuel saving to the extent of 20 per cent in the case
of heavy vehicles using properly designed cement concrete roads. The reason
attributed to this saving is that the heavy trucks cause relatively more
deflection on flexible pavements than on rigid pavements and part of the
energy is expended in deflecting the pavement which otherwise would he
available for propelling the vehicle and partly more energy would be lost
in surmounting constantly the ridges of deflectionbasin by the moving wheel.
However, their claim of 20 per cent saving in fuel is applicable only to heavy
vehicles plying in the USA and the type of rigid pavement constructed there.

A study done on a 1 .6 km cemenl concrete pavement in North India

has shown that about 5 per cent 9 per cent fuel saving is possible in the
-

case of heavy vehicles it’ flexible pavements are replaced with concrete
pavements. Fig. 29 depicts is a typical curve showing the relation between
l”ueh Consumption (cc/kin) vs speed (knVhr) for a truck with a pay load of
IS tonnes, The percentage of National Highway in the country is in the order
of a nicre 2 per cent of the total road network and if they are converted to
cement concrete roads, the saving is of the order of Rs 560 erores of fuel
per year. There are also savings in other vehicles operating costs that can
he brought about (tyre wear, maintenance and repair cost, depreciation, etc.).
All ttìese savings amount to nearly Rs I 3,IX’)O crores over a period of 12 years.

4.10. Better Vehicle Technology

‘lile technology of vehicle fleet in India is a little outmoded. A lot of

changes have taken place in the countries abroad, resulting in fuel savings.
‘lilis is brought about by better engine design, use of aerodynamic shape of
bodies, use of light weight materials hike plastics, fibre—reinforced-plastics
and ceramics, thinner sections and smaller sue of vehicles. A typical example
<<
40

P1.~XI~Ll4P1.l0M~II7

~ONCR~Th PV~II~.NT

I0 ~0 ~ 40 50 (40

U. ~4II PO~ H01.JJ~

Fig. 29. Fuel consumption oft rock with I ~—‘l’

pa~load
<<
 41

is the Maruti Car, This is shown in Fig. 30. At optimum speeds, the fuel
consumption of an Ambassador Car is nearly 70 per cent higher than of a
Maruti Car.

Trucks can be made lighter by replacing wooden bodies by steel or

aluminium. Buses can be macic lighter by having aluniinium bodies instead
of steel

4,11. Management and Planning Methods for Conserving Energy

‘I bere being a limitation in the identification and production of more

energy sources, the energy policy of the Government needs to be given niore
attention to demand management in the lbrm of more scrutiny and emphasis
on its efficient use, In this direction even energy auduls and standardisation
of various equipments and machineries being used should be taken up in
energy conservation programmes.

130

140
FCJ 1mbassad~
lea
•lfl
riot (Fri. RantS

160

ISO CAR

140

130

120

~l10
101
0 90

IA 60

50

40

3,
cçtseu. SpIllS 37.1 1*/hr
31

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 65 70 ~ fl
SPEED (Iu,/hr)

Fig. 30. (nnsiirnptinn — speed pints mr Ambassador and Maruti ears

<<
42

There are many energy saving measures in the road sector which can
be adopted to save substantial amount of fuel. This calls for a great deal of
management and planning skill to harness benefits by planners, huikhers and
users of the road. The important measures recommended for adoption under
various heads are

A. Improvement of Ri ~ad Infrastructure

I. Widening of roads to avoid congestion of roads.

2. All earthen roads should be paved with WBM and then bituminous
surfacing and all WBM roads should he provided with thin bituminous
surfacing.
3. l-’our laning of all segments of arterial routes viz. National Highways,
carrying heavy traffic volunies.
4. Construction of Expressways along selected routes.
5. Construction of by passes, and ring roads around towns.
6. Synchronised signalling of adjoining intersections should he adopted
in cities to achieve optimal use of road network to quickly dispose olf
the traffic.
7. Road encroachers and hawkers should be cteared so as to remove side
frict is in to trat’t’ic flow.
K Removal ol’ irritants like octroi posts’ and rail road crossings where fuel
is wasted by waiting vehicles.
9. Concrete roads are now proved to be fuel efficient with 5 per cent -

9 per cent saving in the case of heavy vehicles, Heavily trafficked roads
should he slowly converted to concrete roads which are almost
maintenance free.
10. Recycling of old bituniinous mixes from failed pavements is a practical
step in conserving energy. This should he seriously taken up.
ii . Mechanised production of asphalt mixes and paving results in durable
and long lasting roads and hence should he adopted in a bigway. At
the same time emphasis should be given to produce durable asphalt
mixes. Quality assurance system should he introduced in the projects.
<<
 43

2. Bituminous emulsions can he used in cold condition in road mixes thus

saving energy required for heating aggregates and bitumen in Hot Mix
Plants.
I 3. A Comprehensive Maintenance Management System should he
introduced.

B. Traffic Management and Regulation

14. Improving public transport by rat ionatisation of Bus routes and

adopting Bus priority measures.
15. Control on ribbon development and removal of encroach nients.
I 6. Improvement of intersections.
l 7. Segregation of slow moving traffic.
1K Improving parking facilities and preventing on street parking.
i9. Synchronisation of traffic signals in urban areas.
20. Encourage and provide facilities for non—motorised mode.s viz,, cycling
and walking.
21 Improving traffic flow by techniques such as one way streets, contra—
How, sidle street closure, turning and entry restrictions.
22. Optional use~of traffic control mteviccs to guide and streamline traffic
flow,
23. Road pricing in congested areas.
C. Mode rnisation of Vehicle Fleet

24. New technology vehicles should go in for aerodynamically efficient

vehicle body.

25. Designing of efficient engines.

26. Improving suspension and braking sys:tern.
27. Increasing Power to ~~‘eightratio.

28. Development and use of hattery operated vehiclc~,

29. liinptiasis on use of multi—axle vehicles
<<
44

30. Use of radial tyres can save 3 to 5 per cent diesel.

3t . ‘traffic education — on driving methods, better maintenance methods
of vehicles ea to drivers,
32. )pening up of automobile clinics.
33. Stricter penalty on vehicle owners using vehicles emitting harmful
gases in excess of safe limits.

0. Other Planning Measures

34. l..and use Iransport planning to minimise transport demand.

35. Encouraging use of high occupancy vehicles,

36. I )evetnpment ol’ high capacity of mass rapid transport system (MRTS)
in Metropolitan cities.
.37. 1 )evetopment ol’ pedestrians Malts on shopping streets.
3X. I ~(tucaliIig drivers on importance of consumption of fossil fuel and
means of its conservation, through mass media viz., News, ‘t’V,
Radios etc.

REFERENCES

‘0 itU Fnery’y Data I )i rectory and Year Rook, I 990—9 1’, lata Energy Research 1 asl itute
Nes’. Delhi.
2. A~sessnient a f’t’ranspot’tii~iri Grosoh in ASiA and its Efiect’~on EnerQy Usace,
taisiwnatent and Friitiic (,,oneesta’n a cass’ stud) of V,irana’,i, india tic lntern’itionat
Insiiitiiie ror t’nergy (.‘onseivaiion 0)’ National transportation Planning ‘nd ReseaiLh
Ce ut te , to vand tat ni . New t’h’ I hi.
3 Updat tug Road ttser Cost Data — Final Report, Dr. 1 ..k. Kadiy :di and A’.soi. titles, Ness
Delhi tar Nlinistt’s it’Surface ‘t’uutnsport. Roads Wing and Asian t’levetoputtt.—nt Rank, Nos
Ill I
1 Rod t tser Cost Studs in India, 1 uinal Report. Central Rtuatt Research In stitute, New Dethi

5 \‘atioits issue’, of t,teonontte ,Sur’.’s’~. (h’vet’ntnent of india,

S idnhth huive Year Plan, Planning (_oinnnssion, t~t93,
7 16’ o ri if t tie Nat itinal transport 1>otic~ Cittuttutit tee, t>tanning Coniotission. I 980.

<<