Skeletal System -Compact bone is smooth and dense

Haversian system (osteon): basic structural unit

• 206 bones of compact bone
Axial skeleton Composed of:
1. Central canal (Haversian canal)
• Bones of skull 2. Concentric layers of bone matrix
• Ribs and Sternum (lamellae)
• Vertebral column 3. Spaces between lamellae (lacunae)
4. Osteocytes within lacunae
Appendicular skeleton 5. Small channels (canalculi)
Spongy bones contain spaces between
• Bones of limbs meshworks of bone
• Shoulder girdles a) Lamellae are arranged in concentric,
• Pelvic girdle layers (trabeculae) that branch and join
to forn meshworks
Function of bones b) Red marrow cavities: spongy sections of
1. Form structure and provide support for long bones and flat bones contain tissue
soft tissues for hematopoesis (sternum, humerus,
2. Protect vital organs from injury head of femur)
3. Serve to move body parts by providing Classification of bones according to shape
points of attachment for muscles 1. Long bones are longer than they are
4. Store minerals wide
5. Serve as site for hematopoiesis Parts
Bone cells: a) Diaphysis: midportion of shaft;
composed of compact bone and
• Osteoblasts: cells that form bone contains marrow cavity, lined with
• Osteocytes: cells that maintain bone endosteum
matrix b) Epiphyses (2 broad ends):
• Osteoclasts: cells that resorb bone Composed of spongy bone, covered
by thin layer of compact bone
Bone matrix-extracellular element of bone -Bones of arms, legs, fingers, toes
tissue 2. Short bones (cuboid bones)
-Composed of spongy bone covered by
Composed of: compact bone
1. Collagen fibers -Bones of wrist and ankle
2. Minerals (mainly calcium and 3. Flat bones: thin and flat, most are
phosphate) curved
3. Proteins, carbohydrates, ground -Consists of layer of spongy bone
substance between 2 thin layers of compact bone
Ground substance: gelatinous material that -Bones of skull, stemum, and the ribs
facilitates diffusion of nutrients, wastes, gases 4. Irregular bones: various shapes and
between blood vessels and bone tissue sizes
Periosteum- double-layered connective tissue -Consists of layer of plates of compact
that covers bones bone with spongy bone between
Outer layer: blood vessels and nerves -Vertebrae, scapulae, bones of pelvic
Inner layer: anchored to bone girdle
Bones are composed of rigid connective tissue: Bone remodeling in adults
osseous tissue
 • Bones of adults do not normally
increase in length and size but constant
remodeling occurs
• Bone remodeling process: bone
resorption and bone deposit occur at all
periosteal and endosteal surfaces
• Involves combined action of osteocytes,
osteoclasts, osteoblasts
• Bones in use (subjected to stress)
increase osteoblastic activity to
increase ossification (bone
development)
• Inactive bones undergo increased
osteoclast activity and bone resorption
• Hormonal stimulus controlled by
negative feedback mechanism that
regulates blood calcium levels
• When blood calcium decreases,
parathyroid hormone (PTH) released:
osteoclast activity stimulated and bone
resorption so calcium released from
bone matrix; calcium levels rise and PTH
releases ends
• When blood calcium rise, secretion of
calcitonin from thyroid gland, inhibit
bone resorption, cause deposit of
calcium salts in bone matrix
Calcium ions required for
a) transmission of nerve impulses
b) Muscle contraction
c) Blood clotting
d) Glandular secretion
e) Cell division
• 99% of calcium in body present as bone
minerals
• Bone remodeling regulated by
gravitational pull and mechanical stress
from pull of muscles
• Bones that undergo increased stress are
heavier and larger
• Wolff s law: bone develops and
remodels to resist stresses placed on it
Joints (articulations)
-Regions where 2 or more bones meet, hold
bones of skeleton together and allow
movement
Types of Joint
a) Fibrous: permit little or no movement
e.g. sutures of skull
b) Cartilaginous:
• Composed of hyaline cardlage
growths that fuse together
articulating bone ends and are
immobile, e.g. stemocostal joints of
rib cage (immobile)
• Composed of hyaline cartilage
growths that fuse to intervening
plate of flexible fibrocartilage, e.g.
intervertebral discs (allows for
flexibility)
c.) Synovial
• Enclosed by cavity filled with
synovial fluid (filtrate of blood
plasma)
• Freely movable; e.g. limb joints
Characteristics of synovial joints
a. Articular surfaces covered with
articular cartilage
b. Joint cavity enclosed by tough,
fibrous, double-layered
articular capsule; internally cavity is
lined with synovial membrane that
covers surfaces not covered by
articular cartilage
c. Synovial fluid fills free spaces of joint
capsule, enhancing smooth movement
of articulating bones
d. Allow many kinds of movements
Ligaments:
• dense band of connective tissue
connecting bone to bone
• Limit or enhance movement
• Provide joint stability
• Enhance joint strength
Tendons:
• fibrous connective tissue bands
connecting muscles to periosteum of
bones
• Enable bones to move when skeletal
muscles contract
• When muscles contract, increased
pressure causes tendon to pull, push, or
rotate the bone when it is connected
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 3. Laryngopharynx:
Events involved with respiration (provision of passageway for air and
oxygen to cells, elimination of carbon) food
dioxide) ❖ Larynx
• Pulmonary ventilation: air in and out of • Provides airway, routes
lungs air and food properly
• External respiration: exchange of • During swallowing
oxygen and carbon dioxide between moves upward and
alveoli and blood epiglottis covers
• Gas transportation: oxygen and carbon opening to larynx;
dioxide transported to and from lungs cough reflex further
and cells of body via blood expels foreign
• Internal respiration: exchange of substances from airway
oxygen and carbon dioxide made ❖ Trachea
between blood and cells • Begins at inferior larynx
Upper respiratory system and descends anteriorly
• Passageway for air moving into lungs to esophagus to enter
and carbon dioxide moving to external mediastinum, dividing
environment into primary light and
Organs left bronchi of lung
❖ Nose: filters, warms, humidifies • Composed of C-shaped
air; contains the turbinates cartilage rings; contains
where air passes and mucous seromucous glands
traps debris producing thick mucus
❖ Sinuses: which is moved toward
-Paranasal sinuses throat by cilia
surround nasal cavity Lower Respiratory System Organs
-Frontal, sphenoid, ❖ Lungs
ethmoicL and maxillary produce ▪ Lie on either side of the
mucous which traps debris, mediastinum (area containing
assist in speech heart, great blood vessels, bronchi,
❖ Pharynx trachea, esophagus)
1. Nasopharynx: ▪ Hilus: mediastinal surface of each
i. passageway for air lungs is where blood vessels of
ii. Contains ciliated pulmonary and circulatory systems
epithelium enter and exit; where primary
iii. Tonsils and bronchus enters
adenoids located in ▪ Apex of each lung lies just below
mucosa in posterior clavicle; base rests on diaphragm
wall; trap and ▪ Two lungs differ in size and shape
destroy infectious o Left lung is smaller, has 2
agents lobes, 8 segments
iv. Eustachian tubes o Right lung has 3 lobes, 10
open into segments
nasopharynx ▪ Vascular system
2. Oropharynx: o Pulmonary arteries and
passageway for air and veins; pulmona1Y capillary
food
 network which surround
the alveoli
o Bronchial arteries supply
lung tissue and drained by
bronchial and pulmonary
veins
❖ Pleura
▪ Double layered membrane covering
lungs and inside thoracic cavities
o Parietal pleura: lines
thoracic wall and
mediastinum
o Visceral pleura: covers
external lung surfaces
▪ Produce pleural fluid: lubricating
serous fluid, which allows lungs to
move easily over thoracic wall
during breathing
▪ Layers cling together and hold lungs
to thoracic wall
▪ Pleural structure creates slightly
negative pressure in pleural space
(normally just a potential space)
❖ Bronchi and alveoli
▪ Bronchial or respiratory tree: right
and left bronchi subdivide into
secondary (lobar) bronchi and then
branch into tertiary (segmental)
bronchi ending in terminal
bronchioles
▪ From terminal bronchioles air
moves into air sacs which branch
into alveolar ducts to alveolar sacs
to the tiny alveoli
▪ During inspiration, air enters lungs
moving through passageways to
alveoli where external respiration
occurs; during expiration carbon
dioxide is expelled
▪ Alveoli cluster around alveolar sacs,
which open into common chamber:
atrium; alveoli provide enormous
surface area for gas exchange
▪ External surface of alveoli covered
with pulmonary capillaries which
together form respiratory
membrane where gas exchange
occurs by simple diffusion
▪ Alveolar walls have cells, which
secrete surfactant in fluid which
maintains moist surface and
reduces surface tension of alveolar
fluid to prevent collapse of lungs
❖ Rib cage and intercostal muscles
▪ Provide protection for lungs
▪ 12 pairs of ribs: first 7 articulate
with body of sternum, ribs 8 —10
articulate with cartilage above ribs;
ribs I I and 12 are unattached
▪ Spaces between ribs are called
intercostals spaces and named for
rib above it
▪ Intercostal muscles between ribs
and diaphragm called inspiratory
muscles
Mechanics of ventilation
• Pulmonary ventilation depends on
volume changes within thoracic cavity
1. Change in air volume in thoracic
cavity changes air pressure
within cavity
2. Resulting in gases flowing in or
out of lungs to equalize
pressure
• Pressures present in thoracic cavity
▪ Intrapulmonary pressure:
within alveoli, rises and falls
with inspiration and expiration
▪ Intrapleural pressure: rises and
falls with acts of ventilation but
always remains less (negative)
to intrapulmonary pressure
▪ Pressures are necessary for
lungs to expand and contract
and not collapse
• Phases of pulmonary ventilation
▪ Inspiration: air flows into lungs
(normally I — 1.5 seconds)
1. Diaphragm contracts
and contracts
2. Intercostals muscles
contact and expands
diameter of thoracic
cavity, decreasing
intrapleural pressure
 3. Lungs stretch and
intrapulmonary
pressure decreases to
slightly below
atmospheric pressure
4. Air rushes into lungs to
equalize
intrapulmonary and
atmospheric pressures
▪ Expiration: air flows out of
lungs (normally 2 — 3 seconds)
1. Primarily passive process
occurring as result of lung
elasticity
2. Inspiratory muscles relax,
diaphragm rises, ribs descend,
lungs recoil
3. Increase in thoracic and
intrapulmonary pressures
compresses alveoli
4. Intrapulmonary pressure is
greater than atmospheric
pressure and gases flow out of
lungs
Diseases of the Respiratory System
Tuberculosis
▪ Caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
▪ Signs and symptoms include as
fever, night sweats, fatigue and
coughing with
Pneumonia
▪ inflammation of the lungs
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Heart
• Size of adult's fist, weight < I pound
• Located in mediastinum, between
vertebral column and sternum
• 2/3 of heart mass is left of sternum;
upper base is beneath second rib; pointed
apex lies approximately with fifth intercostal
space, mid-clavicular
Pericardium
• Covering of double layered fibroserous
membrane, forming pericardial sac
• Layers of pericardium
1. Parietal pericardium:
outermost layer
2. Visceral pericardium
(epicardium) adheres to heart
surface
• Small space between layers is
pericardial cavity which contains small
amount of serous lubricating fluid that
cushions heart as it beats
Layers of Heart Wall
• Epicudium: same as visceral
pericardium
• Myocardiurn: specialized cardiac
muscle cells provide bulk of contractile
heart muscle
• Endocardium: sheath of endothelium
that is lining inside heart's chambers
and great vessels
Chambers and Valves
• Four hollow chambers: two upper atria,
two lower ventricles; separated
lengthwise by interventricular septum
o Right atrium: receives
deoxygenated blood from veins
of body
a. Supeior vena cava:
blood from body above
diaphragm
b. Inferior vena cava:
blood from body below
c. Coronary sinus: blood
from heart
o Left atrium: receives freshly
oxygenated blood from lungs
via pulmonary veins
o Right ventricle: receives
deoxygenated blood from right
atrium and pumps it to lungs
for oxygenation via pulmonary
artery
o Left ventricle: receives freshly
oxygenated blood from left
atrium and pumps it to arterial
circulation 'ha aorta
• Valves separate each chamber of heart
allowing unidirectional blood flow
 o Atrioventricular (A V) valves: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
between atrium and ventricle; Blood
Flaps of valves anchored to • composed of plasma (made up of
papillary muscles of ventricles water, proteins, electrolytes, and other
by chordae tendineae substances) and formed elements
a. Tricuspid. right side (blood cells)
b. Mitral (biscuspid): left Blood cells
side • erythrocyte
o Semilunar valves: connect o red blood cell
ventricles to great vessels o carrier of oxygen and carbon
a. Pulmonary: right side; dioxide
joins right ventricle and • leukocyte
pulmonary artery o for protection against invading
b. Aortic: left side; joins organisms
left ventricle and aorta o may be granular (neutrophil,
o Heart sounds associated with eosinophil, and basophil) or
closure of valves non-granular (lymphocyte and
a. S1 ("lub"): first heart monocyte)
sound; closure of AV • Thrombocyte
valves o Platelets
b. S2 ("dub"): second heart o For initiation of blood clotting
sound; closure of Blood vessels
semilunar valves at • Artery
onset of relaxation o carries blood away from the
Systemic Circulation heart
1. Pulmonary circulation begins with right • Vein
heart: deoxygenated blood from o usually carries oxygenated
superior and inferior vena cava is blood (exception is the
transported to lungs via pulmonary pulmonary artery)
artery and branches o carries blood towards the heart
2. In lungs, oxygen and carbon dioxide are • capillary
exchanged in capillaries of lungs, and o site of exchange of materials
blood returns to left through several Heart
pulmonary veins • 4 chambers
3. Blood pumped out of left ventricle o 2 receiving atria
through aorta and major branches to all o 2 pumping blood away from the
body tissues ventricles
Coronary Circulation (Circulation for heart) • Contraction initiated by Sinoatrial node
1. Left and right coronary arteries (SA node or pacemaker)
originate at base of aorta and branch Diseases of the Circulatory System
out to encircle myocardium
• Arteriosclerosis- hardening large
2. During ventricular relaxation coronary
arteries
arteries fill with oxygen-rich blood
• Atherosclerosis-lipid deposits in the
Blood perfuses heart muscle and cardiac veins
arteries
drain blood into coronary sinus, which empties
into right atrium
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
1. give shape
2. provides movement
3. gives posture
4. capable of heat production
Types of Muscles
a) Skeletal- striated, multi-nucleated,
voluntary movement
b) Cardiac- striated, uni-nucleated,
involuntary movement
c) Smooth/visceral -non- striated, uni-
nucleated, involuntary movement,
spindle shape
Some disease
• Muscular dystrophy- disintegration and
degeneration of muscle fibers
• Myasthenia gravis
▪ autoimmune diseese
▪ too little acetylcholine reaching the
neuromuscular junction causing
severe exhaustion and muscle
fatigue