• 206 bones of compact bone Axial skeleton Composed of: 1. Central canal (Haversian canal) • Bones of skull 2. Concentric layers of bone matrix • Ribs and Sternum (lamellae) • Vertebral column 3. Spaces between lamellae (lacunae) 4. Osteocytes within lacunae Appendicular skeleton 5. Small channels (canalculi) Spongy bones contain spaces between • Bones of limbs meshworks of bone • Shoulder girdles a) Lamellae are arranged in concentric, • Pelvic girdle layers (trabeculae) that branch and join to forn meshworks Function of bones b) Red marrow cavities: spongy sections of 1. Form structure and provide support for long bones and flat bones contain tissue soft tissues for hematopoesis (sternum, humerus, 2. Protect vital organs from injury head of femur) 3. Serve to move body parts by providing Classification of bones according to shape points of attachment for muscles 1. Long bones are longer than they are 4. Store minerals wide 5. Serve as site for hematopoiesis Parts Bone cells: a) Diaphysis: midportion of shaft; composed of compact bone and • Osteoblasts: cells that form bone contains marrow cavity, lined with • Osteocytes: cells that maintain bone endosteum matrix b) Epiphyses (2 broad ends): • Osteoclasts: cells that resorb bone Composed of spongy bone, covered by thin layer of compact bone Bone matrix-extracellular element of bone -Bones of arms, legs, fingers, toes tissue 2. Short bones (cuboid bones) -Composed of spongy bone covered by Composed of: compact bone 1. Collagen fibers -Bones of wrist and ankle 2. Minerals (mainly calcium and 3. Flat bones: thin and flat, most are phosphate) curved 3. Proteins, carbohydrates, ground -Consists of layer of spongy bone substance between 2 thin layers of compact bone Ground substance: gelatinous material that -Bones of skull, stemum, and the ribs facilitates diffusion of nutrients, wastes, gases 4. Irregular bones: various shapes and between blood vessels and bone tissue sizes Periosteum- double-layered connective tissue -Consists of layer of plates of compact that covers bones bone with spongy bone between Outer layer: blood vessels and nerves -Vertebrae, scapulae, bones of pelvic Inner layer: anchored to bone girdle Bones are composed of rigid connective tissue: Bone remodeling in adults osseous tissue • Bones of adults do not normally a) Fibrous: permit little or no movement increase in length and size but constant e.g. sutures of skull remodeling occurs b) Cartilaginous: • Bone remodeling process: bone • Composed of hyaline cardlage resorption and bone deposit occur at all growths that fuse together periosteal and endosteal surfaces articulating bone ends and are • Involves combined action of osteocytes, immobile, e.g. stemocostal joints of osteoclasts, osteoblasts rib cage (immobile) • Bones in use (subjected to stress) • Composed of hyaline cartilage increase osteoblastic activity to growths that fuse to intervening increase ossification (bone plate of flexible fibrocartilage, e.g. development) intervertebral discs (allows for • Inactive bones undergo increased flexibility) osteoclast activity and bone resorption c.) Synovial • Hormonal stimulus controlled by • Enclosed by cavity filled with negative feedback mechanism that synovial fluid (filtrate of blood regulates blood calcium levels plasma) • When blood calcium decreases, • Freely movable; e.g. limb joints parathyroid hormone (PTH) released: Characteristics of synovial joints osteoclast activity stimulated and bone a. Articular surfaces covered with resorption so calcium released from articular cartilage bone matrix; calcium levels rise and PTH b. Joint cavity enclosed by tough, releases ends fibrous, double-layered • When blood calcium rise, secretion of articular capsule; internally cavity is calcitonin from thyroid gland, inhibit lined with synovial membrane that bone resorption, cause deposit of covers surfaces not covered by calcium salts in bone matrix articular cartilage Calcium ions required for c. Synovial fluid fills free spaces of joint a) transmission of nerve impulses capsule, enhancing smooth movement b) Muscle contraction of articulating bones c) Blood clotting d. Allow many kinds of movements d) Glandular secretion Ligaments: e) Cell division • dense band of connective tissue • 99% of calcium in body present as bone connecting bone to bone minerals • Limit or enhance movement • Bone remodeling regulated by • Provide joint stability gravitational pull and mechanical stress • Enhance joint strength from pull of muscles Tendons: • Bones that undergo increased stress are • fibrous connective tissue bands heavier and larger connecting muscles to periosteum of • Wolff s law: bone develops and bones remodels to resist stresses placed on it • Enable bones to move when skeletal Joints (articulations) muscles contract -Regions where 2 or more bones meet, hold • When muscles contract, increased bones of skeleton together and allow pressure causes tendon to pull, push, or movement rotate the bone when it is connected Types of Joint RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 3. Laryngopharynx: Events involved with respiration (provision of passageway for air and oxygen to cells, elimination of carbon) food dioxide) ❖ Larynx • Pulmonary ventilation: air in and out of • Provides airway, routes lungs air and food properly • External respiration: exchange of • During swallowing oxygen and carbon dioxide between moves upward and alveoli and blood epiglottis covers • Gas transportation: oxygen and carbon opening to larynx; dioxide transported to and from lungs cough reflex further and cells of body via blood expels foreign • Internal respiration: exchange of substances from airway oxygen and carbon dioxide made ❖ Trachea between blood and cells • Begins at inferior larynx Upper respiratory system and descends anteriorly • Passageway for air moving into lungs to esophagus to enter and carbon dioxide moving to external mediastinum, dividing environment into primary light and Organs left bronchi of lung ❖ Nose: filters, warms, humidifies • Composed of C-shaped air; contains the turbinates cartilage rings; contains where air passes and mucous seromucous glands traps debris producing thick mucus ❖ Sinuses: which is moved toward -Paranasal sinuses throat by cilia surround nasal cavity Lower Respiratory System Organs -Frontal, sphenoid, ❖ Lungs ethmoicL and maxillary produce ▪ Lie on either side of the mucous which traps debris, mediastinum (area containing assist in speech heart, great blood vessels, bronchi, ❖ Pharynx trachea, esophagus) 1. Nasopharynx: ▪ Hilus: mediastinal surface of each i. passageway for air lungs is where blood vessels of ii. Contains ciliated pulmonary and circulatory systems epithelium enter and exit; where primary iii. Tonsils and bronchus enters adenoids located in ▪ Apex of each lung lies just below mucosa in posterior clavicle; base rests on diaphragm wall; trap and ▪ Two lungs differ in size and shape destroy infectious o Left lung is smaller, has 2 agents lobes, 8 segments iv. Eustachian tubes o Right lung has 3 lobes, 10 open into segments nasopharynx ▪ Vascular system 2. Oropharynx: o Pulmonary arteries and passageway for air and veins; pulmona1Y capillary food network which surround ▪ Alveolar walls have cells, which the alveoli secrete surfactant in fluid which o Bronchial arteries supply maintains moist surface and lung tissue and drained by reduces surface tension of alveolar bronchial and pulmonary fluid to prevent collapse of lungs veins ❖ Pleura ❖ Rib cage and intercostal muscles ▪ Double layered membrane covering ▪ Provide protection for lungs lungs and inside thoracic cavities ▪ 12 pairs of ribs: first 7 articulate o Parietal pleura: lines with body of sternum, ribs 8 —10 thoracic wall and articulate with cartilage above ribs; mediastinum ribs I I and 12 are unattached o Visceral pleura: covers ▪ Spaces between ribs are called external lung surfaces intercostals spaces and named for ▪ Produce pleural fluid: lubricating rib above it serous fluid, which allows lungs to ▪ Intercostal muscles between ribs move easily over thoracic wall and diaphragm called inspiratory during breathing muscles ▪ Layers cling together and hold lungs Mechanics of ventilation to thoracic wall • Pulmonary ventilation depends on ▪ Pleural structure creates slightly volume changes within thoracic cavity negative pressure in pleural space 1. Change in air volume in thoracic (normally just a potential space) cavity changes air pressure ❖ Bronchi and alveoli within cavity ▪ Bronchial or respiratory tree: right 2. Resulting in gases flowing in or and left bronchi subdivide into out of lungs to equalize secondary (lobar) bronchi and then pressure branch into tertiary (segmental) • Pressures present in thoracic cavity bronchi ending in terminal ▪ Intrapulmonary pressure: bronchioles within alveoli, rises and falls ▪ From terminal bronchioles air with inspiration and expiration moves into air sacs which branch ▪ Intrapleural pressure: rises and into alveolar ducts to alveolar sacs falls with acts of ventilation but to the tiny alveoli always remains less (negative) ▪ During inspiration, air enters lungs to intrapulmonary pressure moving through passageways to ▪ Pressures are necessary for alveoli where external respiration lungs to expand and contract occurs; during expiration carbon and not collapse dioxide is expelled • Phases of pulmonary ventilation ▪ Alveoli cluster around alveolar sacs, ▪ Inspiration: air flows into lungs which open into common chamber: (normally I — 1.5 seconds) atrium; alveoli provide enormous 1. Diaphragm contracts surface area for gas exchange and contracts ▪ External surface of alveoli covered 2. Intercostals muscles with pulmonary capillaries which contact and expands together form respiratory diameter of thoracic membrane where gas exchange cavity, decreasing occurs by simple diffusion intrapleural pressure 3. Lungs stretch and 1. Parietal pericardium: intrapulmonary outermost layer pressure decreases to 2. Visceral pericardium slightly below (epicardium) adheres to heart atmospheric pressure surface 4. Air rushes into lungs to • Small space between layers is equalize pericardial cavity which contains small intrapulmonary and amount of serous lubricating fluid that atmospheric pressures cushions heart as it beats ▪ Expiration: air flows out of Layers of Heart Wall lungs (normally 2 — 3 seconds) • Epicudium: same as visceral 1. Primarily passive process pericardium occurring as result of lung • Myocardiurn: specialized cardiac elasticity muscle cells provide bulk of contractile 2. Inspiratory muscles relax, heart muscle diaphragm rises, ribs descend, • Endocardium: sheath of endothelium lungs recoil that is lining inside heart's chambers 3. Increase in thoracic and and great vessels intrapulmonary pressures Chambers and Valves compresses alveoli • Four hollow chambers: two upper atria, 4. Intrapulmonary pressure is two lower ventricles; separated greater than atmospheric lengthwise by interventricular septum pressure and gases flow out of o Right atrium: receives lungs deoxygenated blood from veins Diseases of the Respiratory System of body Tuberculosis a. Supeior vena cava: ▪ Caused by Mycobacterium blood from body above tuberculosis diaphragm ▪ Signs and symptoms include as b. Inferior vena cava: fever, night sweats, fatigue and blood from body below coughing with c. Coronary sinus: blood Pneumonia from heart ▪ inflammation of the lungs o Left atrium: receives freshly oxygenated blood from lungs CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM via pulmonary veins Heart o Right ventricle: receives • Size of adult's fist, weight < I pound deoxygenated blood from right • Located in mediastinum, between atrium and pumps it to lungs vertebral column and sternum for oxygenation via pulmonary • 2/3 of heart mass is left of sternum; artery upper base is beneath second rib; pointed o Left ventricle: receives freshly apex lies approximately with fifth intercostal oxygenated blood from left space, mid-clavicular atrium and pumps it to arterial Pericardium circulation 'ha aorta • Covering of double layered fibroserous • Valves separate each chamber of heart membrane, forming pericardial sac allowing unidirectional blood flow • Layers of pericardium o Atrioventricular (A V) valves: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM between atrium and ventricle; Blood Flaps of valves anchored to • composed of plasma (made up of papillary muscles of ventricles water, proteins, electrolytes, and other by chordae tendineae substances) and formed elements a. Tricuspid. right side (blood cells) b. Mitral (biscuspid): left Blood cells side • erythrocyte o Semilunar valves: connect o red blood cell ventricles to great vessels o carrier of oxygen and carbon a. Pulmonary: right side; dioxide joins right ventricle and • leukocyte pulmonary artery o for protection against invading b. Aortic: left side; joins organisms left ventricle and aorta o may be granular (neutrophil, o Heart sounds associated with eosinophil, and basophil) or closure of valves non-granular (lymphocyte and a. S1 ("lub"): first heart monocyte) sound; closure of AV • Thrombocyte valves o Platelets b. S2 ("dub"): second heart o For initiation of blood clotting sound; closure of Blood vessels semilunar valves at • Artery onset of relaxation o carries blood away from the Systemic Circulation heart 1. Pulmonary circulation begins with right • Vein heart: deoxygenated blood from o usually carries oxygenated superior and inferior vena cava is blood (exception is the transported to lungs via pulmonary pulmonary artery) artery and branches o carries blood towards the heart 2. In lungs, oxygen and carbon dioxide are • capillary exchanged in capillaries of lungs, and o site of exchange of materials blood returns to left through several Heart pulmonary veins • 4 chambers 3. Blood pumped out of left ventricle o 2 receiving atria through aorta and major branches to all o 2 pumping blood away from the body tissues ventricles Coronary Circulation (Circulation for heart) • Contraction initiated by Sinoatrial node 1. Left and right coronary arteries (SA node or pacemaker) originate at base of aorta and branch Diseases of the Circulatory System out to encircle myocardium • Arteriosclerosis- hardening large 2. During ventricular relaxation coronary arteries arteries fill with oxygen-rich blood • Atherosclerosis-lipid deposits in the Blood perfuses heart muscle and cardiac veins arteries drain blood into coronary sinus, which empties into right atrium MUSCULAR SYSTEM 1. give shape 2. provides movement 3. gives posture 4. capable of heat production Types of Muscles a) Skeletal- striated, multi-nucleated, voluntary movement b) Cardiac- striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary movement c) Smooth/visceral -non- striated, uni- nucleated, involuntary movement, spindle shape Some disease • Muscular dystrophy- disintegration and degeneration of muscle fibers • Myasthenia gravis ▪ autoimmune diseese ▪ too little acetylcholine reaching the neuromuscular junction causing severe exhaustion and muscle fatigue