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Contents Page

• Crooke’s tube or Discharge tube experiment 1

• Evidence for protons or positive rays experiment 3
• Radioactivity 4
• Discovery Neutron 6
• Discovery of X-rays or Atomic Number 7
• Discovery of Nucleus or Rutherford’s Atomic Model 8
• Bohr’s Atomic Theory 9
• Determination of Radius of Hydrogen Atom 11
• Determination of Energy of an Electron 13
• Determination of Frequency and Wave Number 13
• Atom 14
• Electronic Configurations from Atomic Number 1 to 36 17
• Rules of Electronic Configuration 19
• Shapes of Orbitals 20
• Quantum Numbers 21
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle 23
• Atomic Radius and Ionic Radius 24
• Ionization Potential (I.P.) or Ionization Energy (I.E.) 26
• Electron Affinity (E.A.) 27
• Electronegativity 28
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 29
• Hydrogen Spectrum 30
• Bohr’s Theory and Hydrogen Spectrum 31
• Spectrum 31
• Planck’s Quantum Theory (Quantization of energy) 33
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CROOK’S TUBE OR DISCHARGE TUBE EXPERIMENT

(Evidence for Electrons and Protons)
PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT
passage of electricity through gases under reduced pressure and high voltage.

Experiment
Crooke performed his experiment I n a glass tube called discharge tube’ which was about
50ft in length. At either end of it electrodes were fitted, i.e. cathode on one side and anode on
the other side. Both plates were connected through a battery.

Observation
William Crook observed that when a high voltage (1000 volts or more) is applied to the
discharge tube at normal atmospheric pressure, no phenomenon is observed. But when the
vacuum pump is started and most of the gas inside the discharge tube is pumped out of the
tube, pressure is reduced and the tube begins to glow.

It gives an indication that the gas in the tube begins to conduct electricity. As the pressure is
further reduced, the glowing region moves toward the positivity charged electrode, the
Anode, At still reducing pressure about 0.001 tor, the glow from within the tube fades out and
dark space called Crook’s Dark space appears in the discharge tube, which extends to fill the
whole of the tube. At this stage, the glass at the anode end begins to emit a greenish
fluorescence.
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Pressure Observations
Normal No phenomenon is observed unless very high voltage is
applied.

1 cm(10mm) Conduction takes place like a flash of lightening when a

few thousands of volts is applies.

A few millimeters (mm) Conduction takes place the two electrodes glow and the
rest of the tube becomes dark.
(7-8mm)

1mm Conduction takes place the anode glows and is called

positive column.

0.001mm Conduction takes place the glow from within the tube
fades out and dark space called Crooke’ Dark Space
appears in the discharge tube which extends to fill the
whole of the tube. At this stage the glass at the anode end
begins to emit a greenish fluorescence

CATHODE RAYS
Definition
“cathode rays are fast moving electrons emitted from cathode when pressure of the gas is reducing a
discharge tube experiment at high voltage.”

Properties
1. Travel and straight lines:- They travel in straight lines perpendicular to the cathode surface
and the temperature of the subject on which they fall rises.

2. Deflected in electric and magnetic fields:- They are deflected from their path by electric and
magnetic fields in a way which indicates that they are negatively charged.

3. Cast shadow of object:-They produce a sharp shadow if any opaque object is I their path. This
property suggests that they consists of material particles and travel in straight lines.

4. Cathode rays are electrons:-e/m ratio for each particles resembles that of an electron
determined by J.J, Thomson, hence they are known as electrons.

Where e/m is the ratio of charge of electrons to the mass of electron

Value of ‘e’ = 4.8x10-10 e.s.u. (electrostatic unit) = 1.6x10-19 coulomb.

Value of ‘m’ =9.1x10-28g = 9.1x10-31kg.

5. Produce Fluorescence:-They produce fluorescence on striking the wall of tube. they can
produce fluorescence in 𝑍𝑛𝑆 (Zinc Sulfide, white crystalline solid).
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6. Penetration:-They can penetrate through a very thin film about 10-6m thickness of a metal.

7. Independent of nature of gas:-They are independent of nature of electrodes and the gas in
the discharge tube.

8. Possess momentum and kinetic energy:- They can rotate a small paddle wheel places in their
path .This property suggested that they are material particles (and can exert mechanical
pressure ).

9. Can be focused:- They emerge normally from cathode and can be focused y using a concave
cathode.

CONCLUSION:
1. Electrons are negatively charged particles.

2. Electrons are fundamental particles, they are present in all matter.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• Why are cathode rays called electrons?

• What happens when the gas pressure is 0.001mm in Crooke’s tube?

• Describe Discharge tube experiment along with the observations recorded. Discuss
properties of Cathode rays. Why is electron considered as a fundamental particles?

• Describe Discharge tube experiment. What fundamental particles were discovered during
these experiments?

• What are cathode rays ?Give six properties of cathode rays.

• What observation would you record when the gas is filled in a discharge tube at low
pressure? Prove that cathode rays are:

i. Material particles

ii. Electrons

iii. Travel in straight lines.

EVIDENCE FOR PROTONS OR POSITIVE RAYS EXPERIMENT (CANAL RAYS)

Purpose of the experiment
The atom is electrically neutral ,so when elections were found to be generated in cathode
rays in the discharge tube, it was natural to know whether the positive charged particles were issuing
from the anode when electrons were being generated from the cathode.
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Experiment
In 1886,Goldstein performed a series of experiments in which he used a metal disc with holes in it as a
cathode of a tube. To his surprise, h saw other rays travelling in the opposite direction to that travelled
by the cathode rays. These rays came from the holes on the side of the cathode away from the anode,
and travelled in a straight line towards the end of the tube. He named these rays as Canal Rays. since
these rays passed through the canal of the cathode. Later it was shown that these rays consists of
positively charged particles hence they were known as Positive Rays.

Properties of Canal Rays

1. These rays consist of small particles which travel in straight lines after
passing through perforated cathode.

2. They are deflected in the magnetic and electric field towards the negative
pole or plate i.e. in a direction opposite to that of cathode rays.

3. The value of e/m is n at constant but depends upon the nature of the

gas present in the tube.

Origin (Generation) of positive rays in a cathode ray tube

The positively charged particles constituting the positive rays are not emitted by the
anode, but originate between the electrodes from ionization of the gas atoms through electron
bombardment.
POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
• What are positive rays? How are they produced? Give their three characteristics

• Fill in the blanks

1. The e/m of canal rays depend upon the nature of gas.

2. The particle which has as mas s 1836 times that of the electron is known proton.
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3. Canal / Positive rays are obtained from ionization of the gas atom through electron bombardment.

4. The e / m of positive rays is less than of cathode rays.

RADIOACTIVITY
History
It was noticed by prof, Henry Becquerel in 1895 that the element uranium and its compounds
possess certain peculiar properties uncommon to other elements; they affected a photographic plate
in the dark as if they emitted invisible rays, which were similar to X-rays. The rays obtained from them
were able to penetrate solids, ionize gases and produce

Definition
“Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus is an atom
having atomic number above 82 or its salts.”
OR

“The phenomenon in which certain element emit invisible radiations from nucleus is known as
radioactivity. Such elements are known as radioactive elements.”

Example
238 234
92U 90Th + 2 He4

Nature of radiation
The radiations emitted from radioactive elements like

Polonium, Uranium etc. split into three beams on passing

through an electric field.

The radioactive material is generally placed in a lead block

Which absorbs all the radiations except those passing

Through the hole. When a beam of these radiations is

Passed through an electric field. It splits into three beams.

The deflected rays are called gamma (¥) rays. The rays
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Bending toward negative pole are called Alpha (α) rays and the rays bending towards positive pole
are called beta (β) rays.

PROPERTIES OF α,β,¥ RAYS

• ALPHA (α) RAYS
1. These are helium nuclei with double positive charge having atomic mass 4 a.m.u.
2. Their velocity is 1/10th of the velocity of light.
3. They are good ionizers of gases
4. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
5. Their power of penetration is very low due to being heavy particles. They can
penetrate 1-2cm in air.

• Beta (β ) Rays
1. They are negatively charged particles.
2. They are similar to electrons because they have same e/m ratio.
3. Their velocity is slightly less than that of light.
4. Their penetration power is 100 times greater than α –rays due to smaller size. They can
penetrate 1-2m in air.
5. Their power of ionization is much less than α rays.
6. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.

• Gamma(¥) Rays

1. They are deflected by electric or magnetic field

2. They carry no charge.
3. These are electromagnetic radiations and travel with the velocity of light.
4. They are similar to X-rays but have more penetration power and shorter wavelength
than X-rays.
5. They have more penetration power than α and β rays. They can penetrate through
body tissues,15-20cm in lead block.
6. They are weak ionizes of gases.

ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY

DEFINITION
“When a stable element is bombarded with α-particles or protons its nucleus becomes unstable and
emits radiations to stabilize itself. This induces radioactivity is known as Artificial radioactivity”.

Example
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He4 + Be9 12
6C + 0n
1

(
α) (neutrons)

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• How was Radioactivity discovered ?
• Define ARTIFICIAL Radioactivity with examples.
• SCIENTIFIC REASON

Why is Radioactivity confined to heavy elements only? OR Give the theory of radioactivity.

In heavy elements ,the proto to neutron ratio is 1:1.52. As a result , the radioactivity takes
place in heavy elements only.

Fill in the blank

• The formula of Pitchblende is UO2 ( stone ).
• Most of the radiations give out by pitchblende were electrons.
• Pierre curie and Marie Curie isolated a new element Radium.

DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON
In 1932, Chadwick by using the concept of artificial radioactivity discovered neutron. He bombarded
the nucleus of Beryllium (Be) with fast moving α- particles and observed the radiations having
penetrating power were produces.

The neutral particle is called neutron. The reaction of α-particle with Beryllium (Be) can be
represented as ,
4
2He + 2Be9 6C
12
+ 0n1

(α) (neutron)

This reaction may also be termed as α – n reaction between Beryllium (Be) and carbon (C). ‘α’
indicates the incoming particles and ‘n’ indicates the outgoing particle.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATIONS QUESTIONS

1. What experimental evidence do you have for the existence of neutron in atomic nucleus?
2. Complete the reaction :
4 9
2 He + 4Be

3. Fill in the blank

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Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick.

DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS (Roentgen rays) /ATOMICNUMBER (Henry

Mosely ‘s experiment)
Origin of X-ray (GENERATIONOF X-rays in a cathode ray tube)
In 1895 ,W.C. Roentgen discovered that when high- energy electrons (cathode rays) collide with the
anode , highly penetrating radiations are produces which are called X-rays .The production of X-rays
is carried out in X RAYS TUBE AS SHOWN IN FIURE BELOW :

The X-rays are electromagnetic radiations of very high frequency. The frequency of radiations depends
upon the nature of ,material of anode. The discovery of X-rays help us to calculate the atomic number
of an atom.

‫ ט‬α 1/λ where,

‫ ט‬α energy ‫ ט‬is frequency

λ is wavelength

ATOMIC NUMBER
In 1913,Henry Moseley determined the magnitude of positive charge in any atom by using different
metals as anode .He showed that wavelength of X-rays produces decreases with the increase in
number of positive charge in the nucleus of an atom of an atom of an element. The positive of
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
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POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTION

• Explain the origin of X-rays and relationship between their wavelength and nuclear
charge in the atom from which they originate.
• Fill in the blank
1. X-rays are also known as Roentgen’s rays.
2. X-rays are produced from anode Crooke’s Ehen electrons strike the anode.
3.Wavelength of X-rays decreases with the increase in atomic masses of anode.

DISCOVRY OF NUCLEUD OR RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL (EVIDENCE FOR NUCLEUS)

EXPERIMENT

Rutherford atomic model is based on his experiment of scattering of α - particles by a thin film.
Rutherford bombarded at thin gold foil (0.00004) with fast moving α -particles from a radioactive
material .he observed that most of the α - particles penetrated through the foil .However, one in
8000 particles have suffered a deflection by making an angle more than 90֯ .According to Rutherford
,the region which deflected the positive α - particle must bear a heavy positive charge present in
the atom. This part of atom is called nucleus .Only a small volume of atom is occupied by the
nucleus.`

Postulates / Conclusions / Assumptions

1. The mass of the atoms is concentrated in its nucleus. The dimensions of which is
negligible in comparison with the radius of the atom.
2. The nucleus carries a positive charge ‘ +𝑍𝑒 ‘.
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3. There must be ‘z’ no. of negative charged electrons outside the nucleus and at fairly large
distance, arranged in some manner.
4. The greater part of the atomic volume comprises of empty space in which the electrons
revolve and spin.

Defects / Weaknesses / Limitations

1. According to Maxwell’s theory, any charged particle it accelerated must emit energy . If
revolving emits energy continuously then its orbit would become smaller and smaller;
this would go on till the electron falls onto the nucleus, charting a spiral path. Actually,
it does not happen.
2. IF the revolving electron is emitting energy continuously, a continuous spectrum should
form but actually line spectrum is obtained

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• What experimental evidence do you have for the existence of nucleus in atoms?

BOHR’S ATOMIC THEORY

In 1913 Bohr put forward his model of atom to explain line spectra of elements and to remove
defects in Rutherford’s atomic model. The important postulates are as under.

1. There exists the possibility that electron in certain orbit may not give out radiations and
electron would be completely stable in these orbits. Such orbits were called stationary
states of energy levels.
2. As long as an electron keeps revolving in such orbits, its does not absorb or radiate energy.
3. If an electron absorbs energy equal to the energy difference between the two orbits then it
jumps to higher energy level I.e., it is said to be excited.
4. If an electron radiates energy equal to the energy difference between the two orbits then it
jumps back to lower level . The energy difference emitted is in the form of quantum.

E2 - E2 Æ

ℎ𝑣 = Æ

E2 - E2 = ℎ𝑣

Where,

E2 stands for the energy of higher energy level

E2 stands for the energy of lower energy level

h stands for Planck’s constants (6.625 x 10-34 J. sec)

v stands for frequency of radiations

5. The angular momentum of an electron in any obit is an integral multiple of h/

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According to physical laws,

Angular momentum of any moving particles = 𝑚𝑣𝑟

𝑛ℎ
Angular momentum of an electron = 2𝜋

𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋

Where ,

m stands for mass of electron

v stands for velocity of electron

r stands for radius

h stands for plank’s constant

n stands for principal Quantum Number

“Only those orbits are possible where angular momentum of electron is integral

Multiple of h / 2𝜋"

NUMERICAL
• Calculate the angular momentum of 2nd orbit of hydrogen (h= 6.625 x 10-27 erg x sec).

Data:

n =2

h = 6.625 x 10-27 erg x sec

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Angular momentum = ?

Calculator:
𝑛ℎ
Angular momentum of electron =
2𝜋

2 (6.625 x 10-27)
2𝜋
= 2.1088 x 10-27 erg x sec

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• Why was the term ‘Energy level’ used for orbit by Bohr?
• How is the emission of radiation explained by Bohr?
• Give reason: “Atom give Line spectrum.”

DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF HYDROGEN ATOM

The electron having mass ‘m’ and charge ‘e’ is revolving with

Velocity ‘v’ around the nucleus ( having charge 𝑍𝑒+ ) in an orbit at

a distance ‘r’ from its nucleus.

According to coulomb’s law, the force of attraction between two

Charge separated by distance ‘r’ is,

q1 q2
𝐹= r2

In case of electron and proton ( in nucleus), the coulomb’s force

Of attraction is,
𝑍𝑒𝑥𝑒
𝐹= r2
q1 = charge on nucleus = 𝑍𝑒
q2 = charge on electron = e

𝑍𝑒𝑥𝑒
𝐹= r2

It is the centripetal force that attracts the electron toward Centre.

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According to physical laws,

mv2
The centrifugal force on the electron = r

Since the electron is revolving un a circular path, the centripetal force and centrifugal force are equal

Mv2 = Ze2
r r2

mv2 = Ze2
r
r x mv2 = Ze2

r = Ze2
mv2

To calculate the velocity ‘v’ of electron , Bohr’s theory can be applied . According to Bohr’s theory,α

𝑛ℎ
Angular momentum of electron =
2𝛱

According to physical laws ,

Angular momentum of any moving particle = 𝑚𝑣𝑟

❖ 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛ℎ
2π

𝑛ℎ
v = 2𝜋 𝑚𝑟

substituting this value of ‘v’ in equation we get,

r = _ Ze2___
2

m __𝑛ℎ____
2𝜋 𝑚𝑟

r = _ Ze2___
2
2 2
m _ n h ____
4𝜋2 m2 r2
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r = ___Ze2___
n2h2
4𝜋2 mr2
r = Ze2_x_4𝜋2 mr2
n2h2

r x n2h2 = Ze2 x 4𝜋2 mr2

_n2h2__ = _r2
4𝜋2 mZe2 r

r= n2h2__
4𝜋2 mZe2

Taking ___h2__ _= 𝛼 0
4𝜋2 mZe2

r = n2 𝛼 0

𝛼 0 is the Bohr’s radius or first shell radius of hydrogen atom. Its value is 0.529 Å .

1 Å = 10-10 m

NUMERICAL

Calculate the radius of second orbit of hydrogen atom ( 𝛼 0 = 0.529 Å ).

Data:

r=?

n=2

𝛼 0 = 0.529 Å

Calculation:
∵ r = n2 𝛼 0

⇒ r = (2)2 x (0.529)

⇒ r = 4x 0.529

∵ r = 2.116 Å
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DETERMINATION OF ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON

The single electron of hydrogen atom having change ‘e’ , mass ‘m’

Is revolving with velocity ‘v’ around the nucleus having charge

‘ + 𝑍𝑒 ‘ . The electron if revolving at a distance ‘r’ from the nucleus.

Its kinetic energy is and its potential energy is,

K.E.E =_1_ mv2 P.E. = _-Ze2_

2 r

An electron possesses kinetic energy while revolving around the

Nucleus and potential energy due to its position with respect to the
Nucleus. Total energy of the electron is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
E = K.E. + P.E.
⇒ E = 1 mv2 + -Ze2
2 r

⇒ E = 1 mv2 _ Ze2
2 r

To calculate v2, we equate the centrifugal force to the centripetal force which is due to the attraction
between electron and the nucleus.

𝐹 g = Fc
⇒ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑍𝑒2
r r2

⇒ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑍𝑒2
r

⇒ 𝑣 2 = 𝑍𝑒2
𝑚𝑟
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Substituting value of ‘v’ in equation we get,

⇒ E = 1 𝑚 𝑍𝑒2 _ 𝑍𝑒 2
2 𝑚𝑟 r

⇒ E = 𝑍𝑒 2 _ 𝑍𝑒 2
2r r

⇒ E = 𝑍𝑒2 -_2𝑍𝑒2
2r
⇒ E = _ 𝑍𝑒2
2r

Putting r = _n2h2__ in equation we get,

4𝜋2 mZe2

⇒ E = _ − 𝑍𝑒2__
2 _ n2h__
4𝜋2 mZe2

⇒ E = _−𝑍𝑒2__
_ n2h2_
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒2
E = −𝑍𝑒2 x 2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍𝑒
n2h2
⇒ E = −2𝑍2𝑒4𝜋2𝑚
n2h2
This is the expression for the energy of electron in nth orbit.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTION

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- Starting with K.E = 1 mv2 and P.E, = −𝒁𝒆2 , derive an expression for energy of electron
in nth orbit. 2 r

DETERMINATION OF FREQUENCY AND WAVE NUMBER

According to Bohr’s theory, when electron falls from higher orbit ‘ n2 ‘ to lower orbit ‘ n2 ‘ then
energy of electron decreases from E2 to E2 . The decrease in energy (𝛥𝐸) is emitted in the form of
photon (quantum).

𝛥𝐸 = E2 – E1

⇒ 𝛥𝐸 = -2𝑍2e4𝜋2m - -2𝑍2e4𝜋2m
n2 2h2 n1 2 h2

⇒ 𝛥𝐸 = 2𝑍2𝑒4𝜋2𝑚 + −2𝑍2𝑒4𝜋2𝑚
n2 2h2 n1 2 h2

⇒ 𝛥𝐸 = 2𝑍2𝑒4𝜋2𝑚 + -2𝑍2𝑒4𝜋2𝑚
n1 2h2 n2 2 h2

⇒ 𝛥𝐸 = 2𝑍2e4𝜋2m 1 _ _ 1_
h2 n1 2 n2 2

When an electron jumps from higher level E2 to lower level E1 the energy released is given by ,

𝛥𝐸 = ℎ𝑣

∴ ℎ𝑣 = 2𝑍2e4𝜋2m 1 _ _ 1_
h2 n1 2 n2 2

⇒ 𝑣 = 2𝑍2e4𝜋2m 1 _ _ 1_ This is the expression for the frequency of

h2 n1 2 n2 2 emitted waves.

Where 𝑣 is the frequency of radiation and it is defined as the number of waves passing through
A certain point in one second.

Now 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑣̅
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∴ 𝑐𝑣̅ = 2𝑍2e4𝜋2m 1 _ _ 1_
h3 n1 2 n2 2

⇒ 𝑣̅ = 2𝑍2e4𝜋2m 1 _ _ 1_
ch3 n1 2 n2 2

Putting RH = 2𝑍2e4𝜋2m we get,

Ch3

⇒ 𝑣̅ = RH Z2 1 _ _ 1_ This is the expression for waves number of photons

n1 2 n2 2

Where
𝑣̅ Represents the wave number and is defined as the number of waves per unit distance RH
represents Rydberg’s constant. Its value is 109678 cm-1 .

NUMERICAL
Calculate the wave number 𝑣̅ for hydrogen when electron jumps from 5th orbit to 2nd orbit
( RH = 109678cm-1 ).

Data:
n1 = 2
n2 = 5
v =?
RH = 109678cm-1

Calculation:

∵ 𝑣̅ = RH Z2 _1 _ _ 1_
n1 2 n2 2

⇒ 𝑣̅ = (109678) (1)2 _1 _ _ 1_
22 52
⇒ 𝑣̅ = (109678) _1 _ _ 1_
4 25
⇒ 𝑣̅ = (109678) (0.25 – 0.04)

⇒ 𝑣̅ = (109678) (0.21)

⇒ 𝑣̅ = 23032.38 cm-1
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POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTION

• Derive expressions for frequency and wave number of hydrogen using
E = −2𝑍2e4𝜋2𝑚
n2h2

ATOM
Definition
An atom is mostly space. It consists of a positive charge

Concentrated in the nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons.

Atom in magnetic field

An electron is said to be the smallest known magnet. It tends to arrange (direct) itself in
Magnetic field due to which its path (orbit) can be traced.

Orbit.
The space outside the nucleus where electrons revolve is known as orbit, shell or energy level. They
are name as K,L,M, and so on.

K 2 electrons

L 8 electrons

M 18 electrons n=1 2𝜋2 ⇒ 2(1)2 ⇒ 2 electrons

• Formula for maximum capacity of
electrons in an n=2 2𝜋2 ⇒ 2(2)2 ⇒ 8 electrons orbit
2𝜋 , where n is no, of orbits.
n=3 2𝜋2 ⇒ 2(3)2 ⇒ 18 electrons

n=4 2𝜋2 ⇒ 2(4)2 ⇒ 32 electrons

Sub-hells
These are the sub-divisions of orbits or shells.
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𝑠 2 1 orbital ⦷
𝑝 6 3 orbitals ⦷⦷⦷ (i.e. 𝑝x , 𝑝y and p2 )

𝑑 10 5 orbitals

𝑓 14 7 orbitals

Orbital
The space outside the nucleus where electrons spins is known as orbital. ⦷
The space outside the nucleus when the possibility of finding the electron is maximum is known as
orbital.

• S-orbital
It has spherical shape.

• P=orbital
It has dumb-belled shapes.

° Unpaired p- orbitals

• D-orbital
It has double dumb-belled shape.

• F-orbital
It has complicated shape.

Quantum numbers
𝒔 0

𝑝 1
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𝑑 2

𝑓 3

Ground state – it is the low energy state.

Excited state – it is the high energy state.

Max.
No. of capacity of Subshells
shells electrons

1 2 1s2

2 8 2s2 2p6

3 18 3s2 3p6 3d10

4 32 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14

5 32 5s2 5p6 5d10 5f14

6 32 6s2 6p6 6d10 6f14

7 32 7s2 7p6 7d10 7f14

8s2

Energy of orbitals
E=n+1 where h = main shell

l = subshell

• Correct sequence

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s and so on .

LOGICAL QUESTION
Make the correct sequence for the following orbitals according to ‘𝒏 + 𝒍’ rule:
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3d, 4s, 6s, 5p, 4p,5s

Solution:
3d = 3 + 2 = 5

4s = 4 + 0 = 4

6s = 6 + 0 = 6

5p = 5 + 1 = 6

4p = 4 + 1 = 5

5s = 5 + 0 = 5

Correct sequence

4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 5p, 6s ,

RULES OF ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

1. 2N = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p3

2. 2O = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p4

6
3. C = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p2

4. 9F = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p5

Explanation
Since electrons are negatively charged, they repel each other. If there are available the orbitals of
equal energy (degenerated orbitals), the electrons try to remain as far apart as possible. After entering
of one electron in 2 p – orbitals, pairing takes place.

Application
 P a g e | 25

By the application of Hund’s rule, electron configuration of a few elements is given below:

7N = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2px1 , 2py1 , 2pz1

8O = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2px1 , 2py1 , 2pz1
9F = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2px1 , 2py2 , 2pz1
10Ne =1s2 , 2s2 ,2px1 , 2py1 , 2pz1
LOGICAL QUESTIONS
• 4Be = 1s2 , 2p2 , Aufbau principle is violated.

• 6C = 1s2 , 2s1 , 2𝒑𝒙 2 , 2𝒑𝒚 1 , 2𝒑𝒛 2 , Aufbau principle is violated

• Which rule principle is violated in each of the following electronic configurations?

(i) 7N = 1s2 , 2s1 , 2𝒑𝒙 2 , 2𝒑𝒚 1 , 2𝒑𝒛 0

Ans. This is wrong according to Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity

Correct configuration: 7N = 1s2 , 22 , 2𝑝𝑥 1 , 2𝑝𝑦 1 , 2𝑝𝑧 1

(ii) 8O = 𝟏𝒔2 , 2s2 ,2𝒑𝒙 2 , 2𝒑𝒚 2

Ans. This is wrong according to Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
Correct configuration: 8O = 1𝑠1 , 2s1 ,2𝑝𝑥 2 , 2𝑝𝑦 2 2𝑝𝑧 1

• Correct the following configuration. Also give the name of corresponding law or principle.
7N = 1s2 , 2s1 , 2𝒑𝒙 2 , 2𝒑𝒚 1 , 2𝒑𝒛 0 .

• What are the rules of electronic configuration?

SHAPES OF ORBITALS

S – orbital
All s – orbitals are spherical in shape with the nucleus at the

Centre. Therefore in a s - orbitals , the probability of finding the

Electron is uniformly spread. It has no nodal plane For s – orbitals ,

Value of 𝑙 = 0.
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P – orbital
The p – orbitals are like dumb – bell in shape with two lobes,

One on each side of the nucleus. Each lobe is like a pear, The

P – subshell ( 𝑙 l = 1 ) at each energy level has three different

p – orbital (𝑝𝑥 , 𝒑𝒚 , 𝒑𝒛 ) for the three values of m ( +1, 0, -1).

These three p – orbitals are directed along the x , y and z axes of a set of coordinates.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• Describe the shapes of orbitals in the second energy
Level.

• Draw the shapes of ‘s’ and ’p’ orbitals.

• What is the shape of orbitals for which 𝑙 = o and 1 ?

QUANTUM NUMBERS

Definition
“An integer of half integer that specifies the value of a quantized physical quantity, e.g.

Energy, is known as quantum number.”

OR
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“An orbital is completely described by four quantum numbers.”

Types

1. Principal Quantum Number (n).

2. Azimuthal (Subsidiary) Quantum Number (𝑙)
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m).
4. Spin Quantum Number (s).

SIGNIFUCANCE OF EACH QUANTUM NUMBER IN TERMS ELECTRON

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

It describe the mam shell of electron.
2. Azimuthal (Subsidiary) Quantum Number (𝑙)
It describe the sub – shell of electron.
• Values
s 0
p 1
d 2
f 3

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

It describe the orbital of electron.

• Value
m=±𝑙

4. Spin Quantum Number (s)

It describe the spin of electron on its own axis

• Value

1 1
S=+ , S=-
2 2

SIGNIFICANCE OF EACH QUANTUM NUMBER IN TERMS OF ORBITAL

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

Its describe the size (distance of electron from nucleus ) of orbital.

2. Azimuthal (subsidiary)Quantum Number (𝑙)

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It describes the shape of orbital.

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

It describe the Orientation of orbital.

4. Spin Quantum Number (s)

It describe the spin of electron on its own axis in orbital.

LOGICAL QUESTIONS

• Write down the value of quantum numbers of hydrogen atom.

Ans. 2H= 1s1

n=1

𝑙 =0

m=0
1
s=+
2

• Writes down the set of all the four quantum number of helium atom.

Ans. 2H= 1s1

n=1 n=1

𝑙 =0 𝑙 =0

m=0 m=0
1 1
s=+ s=-
2 2

• What are Quantum numbers? Give the significance of each quantum number.

POSSICLE MCQs
• Principal quantum number determines size of orbital
• Azimuthal quantum number determines shape of orbital.
• Magnetic quantum number determines orientation of orbital.
• Principal quantum number is denoted by n.
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• Azimuthal quantum number is denoted by 𝒍.

• For s, value of 𝑙 = 0.
• For p, value of 𝑙 = 1.
• For d, value of 𝑙 = 2.
• For f, value of 𝑙 = 3.
• When n = 1. then 𝑙 = 0.
• When n = 2, then 𝑙 = 0, 1.
• When 𝑙 = 3, then 𝑙 = 0, 1 and 2
• When 𝑙 = 4, then 𝑙 = 0, 1, 2 and 3
• When 𝑙 = 0 then m = 0.
• When 𝑙 = 1, then m = +1, 0, -1
• When 𝑙 = 2, then m = +2.+1, 0. -1, -2
• When 𝑙 = 3, then m = +3, +2, +1,0,-1, -2, -3

𝟏
• When ↿ , then s = +
𝟐

𝟏
• When ⇂ , then s = -
𝟐

• Principal quantum number determines energy of orbital

PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

Statement
“All the four quantum numbers for any two electrons in an atom can never be the same.

Explanation
In an atom, two electrons may have a maximum of three identical values of same quantum number
but the fourth would be different. This in any orbital, when the value of n, 𝑙 and m are same, the
fourth one i.e. s will differ, it will be anti-parallel. Two electrons can occupy the same orbital only if
their spins are opposed or paired.

Applications
I. An orbital contains a maximum of two electrons.
II. The two electrons in an orbital must have opposite spins.

LOGICAL QUESTIONS
Which rule or principle is violated in the following electronic configuration?

4Be = 1s↿⇂, 2s↿↿

Ans. This is wrong according to Pauli’s Exclusion principle.

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Correct configuration:

4Be = 1s↿⇂, 2s↿⇂

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTION

•
Give reason: “An orbital contains two electrons with opposite spins.”

Ans. In an atom, two electrons may have a maximum of three identical value of same quantum
numbers but the fourth would be different. Thus in any orbital, when the value of n , 𝑙 are same, the
fourth one i.e. s will differ, it will be anti-parallel. Two electrons can occupy the same orbital only if
their spins are opposed or paired.

• FORMULATE FOR MCQs

I. Formula for maximum capacity of electrons in an orbit / shell : 2n2
II. Formula for maximum capacity of electrons in an orbit / shell : n2
III. Formula for maximum capacity of electrons in an sub-shell : 2(2𝒍 + 1)
IV. Formula for maximum capacity of electrons in an sub-shell : 2𝒍 + 1
V. Formula for maximum of sub-shell in a shell / orbit: n

ATOMICRADIUS AND IONIC RADIUS

ATOMIC RADIUS
Definition
“Half the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms covalently bonded together is known
as Atomic radius.”

Unit
It is measured in angstrom unit (Ǻ) OR A.U.)
1 Ǻ = 10-10m = 10-8 cm

Dependence (Factors)
1. Atomic size (no. of shells).
2. Nuclear charge (no. of protons).

TRENDS IN PERIODIC TABLE

I) Group trend (From top to bottom)
Atomic radii increase down the group due to increase in number of shell.

Ii) Periodic Trend (From left to right)

Atomic radii decrease from left to right ( along a period) due to increase in nuclear charge
without increase in shells.

Elements in 2nd period : 3Li, 4Be, 5B, 6C, 7N, 8O, 9F, 10Ne
 P a g e | 31

IONIC RADIUS
Definition
“The space occupied by an ion in any direction in the lattice of an ionic solid is known as ionic
radius.”

“ It is the distance from nucleus of an ion up to the point where nucleus has influence on its electron
cloud”

Unit
It is measured in Angstrom unit (Ǻ) or A.U.)

1 Ǻ = 10-10 m = 10-8cm

Properties Characteristics
(𝑖) Cations have smaller radii than the neutral atoms. On removal of an electron, the effective charge on
the nucleus and pulls the remaining electrons more firmly.

e.g. Radius of C𝑙 atom = 1.57 Ǻ

Radius of Na+ ion – 0.96 Ǻ.

(𝑖𝑖) Anions have large radii than the neutral atoms as an excess of negative charge result in greater
electron repulsion.

e.g. Radius of C𝑙 atom = 0.99 Ǻ

Radius of C𝑙 - ion = 1.81 Ǻ

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) In case of ions which have the same electronic configuration like Na+ , Mg++. A𝑙 +++,

(1s2 , 2s2 , 2p2) the radii decrease with increasing nuclear charge.

Element Na+ Mg++ A𝑙 +++

Atomic No. 11 12 13

Ionic radius 0.95 0.65 0.50

(Ǻ)

Isoelectronic ions
“The ions which have the same electronic configuration are known as Isoelectronic ions.”

O-2 (Z=8) = 10 electrons = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6

F-1 (Z=8) = 10 electrons = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6

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Na+ (Z=8) = 10 electrons = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6

Mg+2 (Z=8) = 10 electrons = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6

A𝑙 +3 (Z=8) = 10 electrons = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 .

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

•
Determine which member in each of the following pairs has larger radius and why?

(𝒊) K and K+

K has larger radius due to one more orbit then K+

(𝒊𝒊) S and S-2

S-2 has larger radius due to greater inter electronic repulsion than S.

(𝒊𝒊𝒊) Na+ (Z = 11) and Mg+2 (Z=12)

Na+(Z= 11) has larger radius due to less number of protons than Mg+2 (Z = 12)

• Which of the following has the smallest radius?

+ +2 +3
11Na , 12Mg , 13 A𝒍

Ans. Aluminum has the smallest radius due to greater nuclear charge.

• Give reason: “ PCL5 is formed but pI5 is not formed.”

Ans. This is because the atomic size Iodine (𝐼)is bigger than Chlorine (C𝑙) and five Iodine
atom cannot be accommodated around a phosphorous atom.

• Fill in the blanks

I. The size of C𝑙 greater than C𝑙 atom.
II. The size of Na+ (𝑍 =11) is greater than A𝑙 +3 (𝑍 = 13)
III. Cations (+𝑣𝑒 ions) are always smaller than parent atoms.
IV. Anions (−𝑣𝑒 ions) are always larger than parent atoms.
V. Atomic radius decreases from left to right along a period
VI. Atomic radius increases from top to bottom in a group.

IONIZATION POSTENTIAL (I.P.) OR IONIZATION ENERGY (I.E)

Definition
“The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom to form positive ion is known as Ionization energy or Ionization potential.”

Unit

KJ / mo𝑙 , kCa𝑙 / ma𝑙 , ex. (electron volt).

 P a g e | 33

Equations

M(g) M+(g) + e- ; 𝛥𝐻 = +𝑣𝑒 (12st I.P)

M+(g) M+2(g) + e- ; 𝛥𝐻 = +𝑣𝑒 (2nd I.P) and so on.

Dependence (Factors)

1. Atomic size (no. of shells).

2. Nuclear charge (no. of protons).

TRENDS IN PERIODIC TABEL

𝒊) Group Trend (from top to bottom)

Ionization energy decrease down t he ground due to increase tin number of shell.

𝒊𝒊) Periodic Trend (from left to right )

ionization energy increase from left to right (along a period) due to increase in nuclear charge
without increase in shell.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• Why is the I.P of Nitrogen greater than that of Oxygen?

Ans. 7N = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2p33 (stable)

8O = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2p34 (unstable)

This is because Nitrogen has stable configuration (p2) since p – orbital is half filled whereas Oxygen has
unstable configuration (p4) since p-orbital is neither half filled nor completely filled.

• Why is the I.P. of Beryllium greater than that of Boron?

Ans. 4Be =1s2 , 2s2 (stable)

5B = 1s2, 2s2 ,2p1 (unstable)

This is because Beryllium has stable configuration (s2) since s – orbital is completely filled whereas
Boron has unstable configuration (p1) since p – Orbital is neither half filled nor completely filled.

• Why is the second I.P of Sodium very high?

OR
Sodium forms Na+ ion but not Na+2 ion. Why?

Ans. Na Na+ + e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
 P a g e | 34

This is because valence electron in sodium atom is in the third orbit so it can easily be removed ,
whereas valence electrons in sodium ion (Na+) are in the second orbit and they have complete octet, so
they cannot be removed easily.

• Why is the third I.P of Magnesium very high?

Ans. Mg Mg+2 + 2e-

(2,8,2) (2,8)

This is because valence electron in Magnesium atom is in the third orbit so it can easily be removed ,
whereas valence electrons in Magnesium ion (Mg+2) are in the second orbit and they have complete
octet, so they cannot be removed easily.

• Why dose I.P. decrease from top to bottom in a group in periodic table ?
Ans. This is because atomic radius (no. of orbits) increase from top bottom in a group.

• Why dose I.P. increase from left to right in a group in periodic table ?
Ans. This is because atomic radius decrease from left to right in a period (nuclear charge
increase without increase in shell).

In general, I.P. α _____1_____

Atomic radius

ELECTRON AFFINITY (E.A.)

Definition

“The energy changed (mostly released) when on electron is added up (absorbed) in the outermost
energy level of a gaseous atom or ion to form negative ion”

Unit

KJ / 𝑚𝑜𝑙, Kca𝑙 / 𝑚𝑜𝑙.

1st E.A.

O(g) + e- O-(g) ; E.A.—141 kJ / 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (Exothermic)

Cl(g) + e- Cl-(g) ; E.A.—348 KJ/ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (Exothermic) (Highest E.A)

2nd E.A.

O(g) + e O-2(g) ; E.A.= +844KJ/ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (Endothermic)

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The second electron Affinity of Oxygen is Endothermic because the incoming electron is repelled by the
uni-negative ion and energy is absorbed in this process

Electron Affinity is inversely proportional to the distance of incoming electron from nucleus.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• Why is the second E.A of Oxygen positive (endothermic)?

Ans. O-(g) + e- O-2(g) ; E.A.= +844KJ/ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (Endothermic)

The second electron Affinity of Oxygen is Endothermic because the incoming electron is repelled by the
uni-negative ion and energy is absorbed in this process.

• Why is the first Electron Affinity of Nitrogen positive (endothermic)?

Ans. 7N = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2p33 (stable configuration)

This is because Nitrogen has stable configuration (p3) since p-orbital is half filled and it is very difficult to
addition of an electron produces the stable inert gas configuration.

• Why is the E.A. of Fluorine / Halogens negative (exothermic)?

Ans. This is because Halogens have small atomic radii and greater attraction for electrons
Moreover, the addition of an electron produces the stable insert gas configuration.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Definition
“The power of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is
known as Electronegativity.”

Unit
It is a relative quantity (a number) and has no unit.

Highest Electronegativity value

Fluorine (F) has the highest electronegativity, i.e. 4.0

• Usefulness: (How is electronegativity used to predict the nature of bond formed

between two atoms?)
Electronegativity helps in deciding the nature of bond it a molecule
1. E.N. difference is greater than 1.7, the bond will be Ionic.
e.g. Na+ C𝑙 -
𝛥𝐸,N, = 2.1
 P a g e | 36

2. If. E.N difference is less than 1.7. the bond will be Covalent.

𝛿+ 𝛿- ° °
e.g. H - C𝑙 𝐶𝑙 - 𝐶𝑙
2.1 3.0 3.0 3.0
𝛥E.N. = 0.9 𝛥E.N. = 0
(Polar covalent) (Non-polar covalent)

3. If E.N difference is zero, the bond will be Non-polar covalent.

4. If E.N difference is greater then zero but less than 1.7, the bond will be polar
covalent Polarity of covalent molecule increase with the increase in 𝛥E.N.

TRENDS IN PERIODIC TABEL

i) Group Trend (from top to bottom)

Electronegativity decrease down the group due to increase in number of shells.

Ii) Periodic Trend (from left to right)

Electronegativity increase from left to right (along a period ) due to increase in nuclear charge
without increase in shells.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTION

• How is electronegativity used to predict the nature of bond formed between two
atoms?
• What is electronegativity? Explain how it predicts the nature of bond formed.

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Statement
“It is impossible to describe exactly the position and momentum of an electron simultaneously

Explanation
An electron is so small and moves so rapidly that its position cannot be detected by electromagnetic
radiations. in order to locate the position of an electron exactly. Light of longer wavelength must be
used. If we measure more accurately the momentum of electron then its position will become more
uncertain in the simultaneous determination of momentum of the electron. Then the product of these
two uncertainties will be equal to Planck’s constant (ℎ).

𝑖) Δ𝑥 . 𝛥𝑝𝑥 ≃ ℎ

⇒ Δ𝑥 . 0 ≃ ℎ

ℎ
⇒ Δ𝑥 ≃ 0
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∴ Δ𝑥 ≃ ∞

𝑖𝑖) Δ𝑥 . 𝛥𝑝𝑥 ≃ ℎ

⇒ 0. 𝛥𝑝𝑥 ≃ ℎ

ℎ
⇒ 𝛥𝑝𝑥 ≃ 0

∴ Δ𝑥 ≃ ∞
Conclusion (How it contradict Bohr’s theory ?)
An electron in Bohr’s theory was considered to be a particle whose momentum and the path along
which it moved was known precisely. According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. It was not
possible to determine simultaneously the position and momentum of a moving particle

HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
Historical Background
It is well known that when a gas is heated in a discharge tube at low pressure, it emits
radiations.
𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒆𝒓 in 1885 studied the spectrum of hydrogen gas. He found a series of line in 𝑉isible region (I.e.
having λ between $000 and 7000 Ǻ ). They were called Ba𝑙mer series. He proposed an empirical formula
to find wave number ῡ of each line.

ῡ = 𝑅𝐻 1_ _ 1_
(2)2 𝑛2 2

𝑅𝐻 is called Rydberg’s constant Where 𝑛2 = 3,4,5,6 etc.

𝑳𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒏 later on discovered another series Ultraviolet region. Wave number of each line was found by
a formula similar to the given by Ba𝑙mer.

ῡ = 𝑅𝐻 1_ _ 1_
(1)2 𝑛2 2

Where 𝑛2 = 2,3,4,5 etc.

𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒏i discovered another such series in Infrared region. ῡ of each line was given by.

ῡ = 𝑅𝐻 1_ _ 1_
(3)2 𝑛2 2

Where 𝑛2 = 4,5,6,7 etc.

Brackett found another series in far –infrared region.

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P𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅 also found another series in far –infrared region.

General Expression
A general expression can give wave number of each line of each series. It is,

ῡ = 𝑅𝐻 1_ _ 1_
𝑛2 2 𝑛2 2
Where 𝑛2 is fixed for each series 𝑛2 keeps increasing (value of 𝑅𝐻 = 109678 cm -1 ).

Energy level diagram for the spectrum of hydrogen.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

• Differentiate between Lyman series Ba𝒍mer series.
• How does Bohr’s Theory account for (clearly explain) Hydrogen atom spectrum?

Ans. When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen at very low pressure in a discharge tube,
the molecule of hydrogen break up into atomic state. These atoms absorb energy from the electric
spark and come into excited state. These excited atoms emit energy in the form of radiations, When
these radiations are passed through prism, a line spectrum is obtained.

• Write only the names of the series of Hydrogen atom spectrum.

Ans.

𝑳𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒏 Series 𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒆𝒓 series 𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒏 series Brackett series P𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅 series

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Ultraviolet VIBGYOR Infra-Red Far Infrared Far Infrared

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BOHR’S THEORY AND HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

Bohr’s theory success lies in the fact that it provided logical proof and reason for the formation
of hydrogen spectrum. According to Bohr’s theory, “It ordinary temperature, the electron in hydrogen
atom resides in lowest energy level, i.e. first orbit or ground state. When electrically it is heated at low
pressure in a discharge tube, the electrons of different amount of energy and jump to an appropriate
high energy level. They are now said to be in excited state.

All the atoms in excited state due to their high energy are unstable, so now the electrons jump back to
the original first orbit directly or to some other level of lower energy. In doing so, they emit energy
equal to the difference of energies of two levels. These energetic waves are separated by a prism
according to their wavelength and thus hydrogen spectrum is obtained.

SPECTRUM
Definition
“ The band of colors into which the incident light (or radiation) break up after passing through
prism is known as spectrum. “

TYPES OF SPECTRUM
There are two type of spectrum.

1. Emission Spectrum.
2. Absorption Spectrum.

Emission Spectrum
“The spectrum which is obtained by the emission of radiant energy from the excited element is
known as emission spectrum.”

Types of Emission Spectrum

There are two main types of emission spectrum.

a) Continuous spectrum.
b) Line spectrum.

(𝒂) Continuous spectrum

• Definition
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“The spectrum in which constituent colors of white light are so mixed up that there is no
line of demarcation between them is known as continuous spectrum.”

• Formation of continuous spectrum

When a beam of white light from sun or any incandescent lamp is allowed to pass
through a prism in a spectrometer, it splits up into seven colors (Red, Orange, yellow, Green,
Blue, Indigo, and Violet) because radiations of different wavelengths deviate to colors on the
screen is known as the spectrum.

(b) Line Spectrum

• Definition
“The spectrum which consists of bright lines separated by dark spaces is known as line
spectrum.”

• Formation of line Spectrum

This spectrum is obtained by passing lights emitted from an excited gas (or element)
through a prism. An element can be excited by.

𝑖) Heating the element strongly.

𝐼𝑖) Passing electric current through a gas at low pressure in Crooke’s tube.

The excited gas emit light. When this light is passed through the prism, a series of bright lines
separated by dark spaces are obtained. Such spectrum is known as line spectrum.

➢ Example
The sodium vapor light given line spectrum, which consists of two yellow lines
due to which it has characteristic color.

• Characteristics of line spectrum:-

1) Each elements has its own characteristic line spectrum by which it can be identified
e.g. The sodium vapour light given line spectrum, which consists of two yellow
lines due to which it has characteristic color.

2) Each line in the spectrum represents a definite wavelength.

 P a g e | 41

Visible Spectrum

The band of seven color of white light whose wavelength ranges between 4000 Ǻ to 7000 Ǻ , which
visible to human eye, is known as visible spectrum

Invisible Spectrum

The spectrum of radiations of wavelength smaller than 4000 Ǻ, known as ultraviolet rays, and greater
than 7000 Ǻ , known as infrared rays, which is not visible to human eye is known as invisible spectrum.

Monochromatic Light

The light of a single wavelength is known as monochromatic light.

POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTION

• Which of the following given line or continuous spectrum?

1. Sunlight : Continuous spectrum
2. Incandescent bulb light : Continuous spectrum
3. Heated Neon gas : Line spectrum

• Define emission spectrum. What are its two kinds? Explain line spectrum in detail.

• Define spectrum. Explain line spectrum in detail.

• Comment on the statement “Line spectra came to serve as finger print for the identification of
elements”.
• Differentiate between continuous spectrum and line spectrum.

• Multiple Choice Questions

1. Light of a single wavelength is known as Monochromatic light.

2. Violet has the shortest wavelength in visible region (5000 Ǻ).
3. Red has the longest wavelength in visible region (7000 Ǻ).

PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY (Quantization of Energy)

This theory was proposed by Max Planck to explain the radiations emitted from hot bodies.
 P a g e | 42

Postulates
1. The emission or absorption of energy from a body does not take place continuously but occur
discontinuously in the form of small packets.
2. Each packet of energy is known as a quantum.
3. A quantum of energy in the form of light is known as photon.
4. The energy of quantum or photon is not fixed. It is directly proportional to the frequency ′𝑣 ′of
radiation.
Eα𝑣
E = ℎ𝑣
⇒
Where,
ℎ = Planck’s constant (6.624 x 10-34 j .sec = 6.625x10-27 erg. sec)

𝑐
But 𝑣 = .
𝜆

ℎ𝑐
∴ E= .
𝜆

Where,
E = energy of quantum
C = velocity of light
𝜆 = wavelength

5. A body can emit or absorb one photon of energy or some integral multiple of it
i.e.ℎ𝑣,2ℎ𝑣,3ℎ𝑣 and so on. It means that the amount of energy gained or lost by a body is quantized, i.e.
E = 𝑛ℎ𝑣 (Where 𝑛 = 1.2.3 and so on).
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