METHODS OF RESEARCH

Introduction

“Why Do Research?
Academic research is work that contributes to human knowledge and expands
the procedures established by academic disciplines. “

Definition of Research

1. Research is a quest for an answer to a question. Knowing the answer to a

question requires a scientific method and not merely asking from various persons
or merely observing several situations that may out -rightly provide haphazard
answers to posed questions.
2. Research or re-search “to research again”, to take another more careful look, to
find out more.(Seltiz et al., 1976)
3. Research is an activity which is meant to acquire better knowledge by “
relearning what we already know though systematic observation and
experimentation.
4. Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about presumed relations among
such phenomena.
5. Research is systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or
theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. (Best &
Khann, `89)

Common Elements of Research:

1. To attain or establish facts about the phenomenon being investigated

2. Systematic
3. Objective
4. Comprehensive investigation
5. Accurate gathering of data, recording and critical analysis of data and
interpretation of facts

Characteristic of Research

1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

2. Research emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories
that will be helpful in predicting future occurrence.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
4. Research demands accurate observation and description.

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 5. Research involves gathering new date from primary or firsthand sources using
existing data for a new purpose.
6. Careful designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
7. Research requires expertise.
8. Research tries to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate
the procedures employed, the date collected
9. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems
10. Research is characterized by patience and unhurried activity.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Research sometimes requires courage

RESEARCHER- is a person who has an inquisitive mind, one who is not satisfied until
he has achieved his goal.

- A researcher’s primary goal- distant or immediate- is to explore and gain an

understanding of human behavior of human behavior and social life and thereby gain a
greater control over them.

2 Major Types of Research

1. Basic Research – is the type which is conducted for the sake of knowing. Also
known as “theoretical research” or “pure”

- Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake

Objective of Basic Research:

 Design to add to our understanding and store knowledge, but without any
particular practical goals.
 To test or arrive at a theory with ultimate goal of establishing general principles

2. Applied Research – is done when the purpose is to obtain knowledge for practical
application also known as “practical research”.

1. Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world,

rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the
goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition.
2. For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
3. improve agricultural crop production
4. treat or cure a specific disease
5. improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

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*** RESEARCH- often serves both scientific curiosity and practical goals at the same
time.

Methodology of Research

1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (information)

Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific research

consists of an investigation that:

 seeks answers to a question

 systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question
 collects evidence
 produces findings that were not determined in advance
 produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the
study

Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information

about the values, opinions, behavior, and social contexts of particular populations

What are some qualitative research methods?

a. Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring

behaviors in their usual contexts.
b. In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal
histories, perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are
being explored.
c. Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and
in generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or
subgroups represented.

2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ( numbers)

Is conducted to find answers to questions about relationship among measurable

variables with a purpose of explaining, controlling and predicting phenomena.

In quantitative research your aim is to determine the relationship between one thing (an
independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population.
Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once)
or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment). A descriptive study
establishes only associations between variables. An experiment establishes causality.

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Quantitative research is all about quantifying relationships between variables. Variables
are things like weight, performance, time, and treatment. You measure variables on a
sample of subjects, which can be tissues, cells, animals, or humans. You express the
relationship between variable using effect statistics, such as correlations, relative
frequencies, or differences between means.

Comparison on Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Qualitative
General Framework - Seek to confirm - Seek to explore
hypotheses about phenomena
phenomena - Instruments use more
Instruments use more flexible, iterative style
rigid style of eliciting of eliciting and
and categorizing categorizing responses
responses to questions to questions
- Use highly structured - Use semi -structured
methods such as methods such as in-
questionnaires, depth interviews, focus
surveys, and structured groups, and participant
observation observation
Analytical Objectives - To quantify variation - To describe variation
- To predict causal - To describe and
relationships explain relationships
- To describe - To describe individual
characteristics of a experiences
Population - To describe group
norms
Question format Closed ended Open ended
Data Format - Numerical (obtained by - Textual (obtained from
assigning numerical audiotapes, videotapes,
values to responses) and field notes)
- large sample - small sample
- standardized - observations, interviews
instruments
Report of findings Numbers, statistics, Words, narratives,
aggregated data individual quotes, personal
voice

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RESEARCH TITLE

 Researcher must be able to identify the problem first.

 Research problem refers to the research title. The title is a very important part of
all thesis documents, as it introduces readers to the nature.

A good title should have the following properties:

1. The title needs to be very specific in nature

2. In spite of being specific it should also have the expressive power to show the
entire scale of the research study in those few words.
3. It should tell the total nature of the subject.
4. It needs to be very definite and clear.
5. The title needs to be attractive and interesting enough to catch the attention of
the readers.

Before we state the problem, let us learn first the standards in writing a title.

1. The title must be concise. It contains only the words enough to hint the content of
the research. These are overused words and phrases or can be stated in the
body of the study.
2. The title must be stated in declarative form, not interrogative form.
3. If the title exceeds beyond one line, it must be stated like V-form. Likewise, no
title shall be written in excess of three lines regardless the number of words.
(Bouing)

THESIS - a formal and lengthy research paper, especially one written in partial
fulfillment of the requirements.

THESIS PROPOSAL- is a skeletal framework that will aid the student or researcher in
thesis making.

 It deals with the problems, defining them, identifying the data or the materials to
be used in resolving the problem, delineating methods by which wither the
materials will be utilized or the data will be utilized and interpreted.

RESEARCH TOPIC

Before you choose a topic consider…

Specific skills: reading, writing & critical thinking

 understanding the methodology used

 topic and supervisor selection
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  realistic expectation

“A” factors
perseverance, patience, enthusiasm, focused,
open-minded and have a good sense of humor

Your chosen topic must be…

1. something you find interesting -to stay motivated up to the very end
2. something your advisor finds interesting
3. something of interest to the community
4. one that address a real problem
5. something focused and feasible in a reasonable time.
6. ALIGN in the interdisciplinary topic listing.

Constructing a Statement of the Problem

Problem statements make up the core of the introduction to your document.

Your introduction should set the stage for your readers and give them a clear idea of
your argument. An effective document will motivate readers by articulating a problem
that the document can help resolve.

A good problem statement should answer these questions:

1. What is the problem? (how, what, when, where, who, which, why?)
2. Who has the problem or who is the client/customer? This should explain who
needs the solution and who will decide the problem has been solved.
3. What form can the resolution be? What is the scope and limitations (in time,
money, resources, and technologies) that can be used to solve the problem.
4. Limit the problem – The problem may be very broad, try to focus on scope and
boundaries research should be SMART –( Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic & Time Bound)

These steps may help you in the construction of the statement of the problems:

1. Make a clear and analytical introduction which usually encompasses the main
problem the title, stated in the expanded form.
2. The first question inquires the information linked to the introduction.
3. Create subsidiary questions clearly, logically and subsequently derived from the
problem.
4. Ensure that you construct a question that elicits the presentation of the new
knowledge or situation to a problem.

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 5. Pose a hypothetical that shall be tested, if necessary
6. Check if your questions are sufficient, about 3-6 statements, and are able to elicit
information that provide substantial answer to make the main problem.

RESEARCH WRITING PROCESS

1st CHAPTER

What to find?

 introduce the problem

 rationale of the present study
 significance of the study
 scope & limitation
 objective of the study

Thesis introduction is the first part of a thesis paper.

Thesis introduction allows the readers to get the general idea of what your thesis is
about.
Thesis introduction acquaints the readers with the thesis paper topic, explaining the
basic points of the thesis research and pointing the direction of your research.

***going over different condensations that periodically appear in journals will help the
researcher become aware of the problem.

*** it is in introduction that the reader is oriented to the problem that the researcher
seeks to solve and it is there that the reader is made to understand why the problem is
an important one.

Thesis introduction has to contain the following information:

 The thesis paper topic;

 The reasons which pushed a student to write his or her thesis paper exactly on
this topic;
 The thesis topic preface or the background information on the thesis paper topic;
 The goals you are going to achieve;
 The tasks to complete in order to attain the goals or the direction of the thesis
research development;

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Remember:

 Thesis introduction has to contain all the information presented above. But it is
not enough just to know the components of the thesis introduction if you want to
succeed in thesis paper writing.
 Present the terms related to the topic of your thesis paper only in the main body
of the thesis paper.
 Try to use simple language within your thesis introduction.
 Thesis introduction attracts the readers’ attention to your thesis paper.

Hypotheses of the Study

Definition and Function of the HYPOTHESES

- Defined as “a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally

adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further
investigation.
- The function of the working hypothesis is to serve as a guide in the search for
evidence.
- It is used to state a possible relationship between one fact and another.
- As a formal approach, the use of the “null” hypothesis has become more
common in educational, psychological and social research.
- Its use is preferred because it is easier to disprove.
- According to this procedure, one assumes that no significant relationship or
difference exists and having done this, one then seeks to ascertain the
improbability of this null hypothesis.

Formulate Hypotheses – A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:

"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

 State hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure should be constructed in
a way to help you answer your original question.
 The hypothesis must be worded so that it can be tested in your experiment. Do
this by expressing the hypothesis using your independent variable (the variable
you change during your experiment) and your dependent variable (the variable
you observe-changes in the dependent variable depend on changes in the
independent variable). In fact, many hypotheses are stated exactly like this: "If a
particular independent variable is changed, then there is also a change in a
certain dependent variable."
 Hypothesis is statement made when the study aims to make statistical
comparisons or aims to determine relationships between variables.

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  For instance, the problem is “is there a significant relationship between
personality traits and stress management?’
 The hypothesis in the null form is “there is no significant relationship between
personality traits and stress management.”

Significance of the Study

This portion notes the contribution of the proposed study either to a body of scientific
knowledge, to practitioners in the area of the research or to any other group which will
benefit from the results.

 Why is it important for the study to be conducted?

 Who will benefit from it?
 What benefits could be derived from the study?

1. Who will benefit from your study? How will they benefit?
2. This should state why the problem investigated is important and what significance
the results have.
3. Statement on relevance felt needs,
4. Potential contribution of the research to new knowledge
5. Policy implications and other possible uses for its results

Scope and Limitation

 This tells the coverage and boundaries of the study. It tells the attributes and
characteristics that are included or excluded.
 Scope and Limitation may be applicable to place, time, people, value or other
factors.
 If certain weaknesses/ shortcomings of the study are perceived by the
researcher, these must be noted in this section.

2nd CHAPTER

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

REVIEW 1. Exhaustively review the topic focus on study objectives; cluster

similar studies
ANALYZE 2. Synthesis of the literature critically analyze past studies done
BRIDGE 3. Connect literature in the light of your present study

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Related Literature

A review of related literature is an integral part of theses or dissertations. It may also be

a required part of proposals. The main purpose of a review of related literature -is to
analyze scientific works by other researchers that you used for investigation critically.

How to Write the Introduction of a Review of Related Literature

In order to make the Introduction elaborately, take the following steps:

1. Identify the general topic of the sources under discussion. Thus, you will provide
the context of your review of related literature;
2. Discuss what was already presented about the topic of your paper: conflicts in a
theory, conclusions, gaps in research and scholarship, etc.
3. Explain why the literature used is worth reviewing.

How to Write the Body of a Review of Related Literature

When writing the Body, do the following:

 Group the sources according to their common dominators (approaches,

objectives or any specific chronologies);
 Give the examples of how to sort out these groups. Use quotations, evidences,
data, etc. They will make your review of related literature more valid.

How to Write the Conclusion of a Review of Related Literature

 Summarize the contributions of the literature sources made to the area of study
you investigate. Maintain the central focus in the Introduction;
 Give a kind of insight into the relationship between the topic of your review and a
larger study area (e.g. a
discipline, a scientific endeavor, etc.)

Citation

It is a way of strengthening or concretizing one’s idea by citing the similar or relevant

ideas or findings of other researchers and authorities.

Documentation was done through footnoting or parenthetical reference citation.

Modern writers are now using parenthetical reference style. The style is called
“American Psychological Association style” or APA style

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Examples of APA style of citation

Works by single author

Works by multiple authors

When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs
in the text. In parenthetical material join the names with an ampersand (&).

as has been shown (Leiter & Maslach, 1998)

In the narrative text, join the names with the word "and."

as Leiter and Maslach (1998) demonstrated

When a work has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference
occurs.

Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler (1991) found

In all subsequent citations per paragraph, include only the surname of the first author
followed by "et al." (Latin for "and others") and the year of publication.

Kahneman et al. (1991) found

Writing the related literature

In a report, the original information stated by the researcher is printed double space,
while the borrowed information is encoded in single space if copied word for word from
the source. Paraphrased information is stated also in double space.

Conceptual Framework/ Research Paradigm/ Simulacrum

A conceptual framework is the researcher’s idea on how the research problem will
have to be explored. This is founded on the theoretical framework, which lies on a much
broader scale of resolution. The theoretical framework dwells on time tested theories
that embody the findings of numerous investigations on how phenomena occur.

Theoretical Framework

 The theoretical framework provides a general representation of relationships

between things in a given phenomenon.
 Theoretical framework cites the salient outcomes of the previous studies
presents the theories formulated by other writers, these will be used as bases in
proving or disapproving the applicability of such theories on present time.

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The conceptual framework, on the other hand, embodies the specific direction by which
the research will have to be undertaken. Statistically speaking, the conceptual
framework describes the relationship between specific variables identified in the study.
It also outlines the input, process and output of the whole investigation. The conceptual
framework is also called the research paradigm.

 The paradigm must be explained by the researcher.

Definition of Terms

This portion includes words or phrases which will be used in the research study for
clearer understanding of the readers.

- This part simplifies the key words used in the study.

- It serves as the glossary of the research paper.
- Terms may be defined conceptually or operationally. C
- Conceptual definition includes those lifted from the dictionary or written
resources.

Operational definition refers to the definition constructed by the researcher as applied to

the present study.

Locale and Population of the study

This part identifies the setting, venue, place or location of the study. It includes the
population and the sample taken from the population. The sampling method is also
included here.

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