1 0.0069 1 25.4 50 0.344738 345 10 254 10000 69 20 508 14 0.0965 97 0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 ef = number of equivalent standard ax ef = (L/8160)n (for loads in kg) Equation 2.3 L = axle load (in kg or kN) or ef = (L/80)n (for loads in kN) Equation 2.4 n = damage exponent (n = 4.5 Axle 1 Axle 2 Axle 3 Truck No Load(kg) Factor Load(kg) Factor Load(kg) 1 6780 0.43 14150 11.91 8290 2 6260 0.30 12920 7.91 8090 3 6350 0.32 13000 8.13 8490 4 5480 0.17 12480 6.77 7940 5 6450 0.35 8880 1.46 6290 6 5550 0.18 12240 6.20 8550 7 5500 0.17 11820 5.30 7640 8 4570 0.07 13930 11.10 2720 9 4190 0.05 15300 16.92 3110 10 4940 0.10 15060 15.76 2880 Mean equivalency factor for truck-trailers In this example it is assumed that similar calculations have been performed, giving mean equivalency factors for buses and trucks of 0.14 and 6.67 respectively. Initial car survey (in 2002) 2002 AADT Constant Growth ra2005 AADT One directional flow Car 250 0.05 289 145 Bus 40 0.05 46 23 Truck 130 0.05 150 75 Truck-trail 180 0.05 208 104 Selecting a design period of 20 years, the cumulative number of vehicles in one direction over the design period is calculated as follows:
For structural pavement design the cumulative traffic loading of each of the motorised vehicle classes over the design life of the road in one direction is required. For a given class, m, this is given by the following equation: T(m) = 0.5 x 365 x AADT(m)0 [(1+i/100)N – 1]/(i/100) Equation 2.2 Where T(m) = the cumulative traffic of traffic class m AADT(m)1 = The AADT of traffic class m in the first year N = the design period in years For structural pavement design the cumulative traffic loading of each of the motorised vehicle classes over the design life of the road in one direction is required. For a given class, m, this is given by the following equation: T(m) = 0.5 x 365 x AADT(m)0 [(1+i/100)N – 1]/(i/100) Equation 2.2 Where T(m) = the cumulative traffic of traffic class m AADT(m)1 = The AADT of traffic class m in the first year N = the design period in years i = the annual growth rate of traffic in percent Vehicle Class Cumulative number in one direction over 20 years Car 1 1,746,433 Bus 4 279,429 Truck 6 908,145 Trucks and trailers 7 and 12 1,257,431 Finally, the cumulative numbers of ESAs over the design period are calculated as follows, using the cumulative numbers of vehicles previously calculated and the equivalency factors: Vehicle Class Cumulative number of Equivalency v Factor Total ESA(106) Car 1 1746433 0 0.0 Bus 4 279429 0.14 0.0 Truck 6 908145 6.67 6.1
Trucks and trailers 7 and 12 1257431 11.5 14.4
Total ESAs 20.5 Based on the above analysis, the trunk road under study belongs to the traffic class T8 for flexible pavement design. Traffic Class Range(106 ESAs) T1 < 0.3 T2 0.3--0.7 T3 0.7--1.5 T4 1.5-3 T5 3--6 T6 6--10 T7 10--17 T8 17--30
Example 2
A two-way two-lane highway section is to be constructed. A one week axle load survey on this section was carried out and the average daily commercial traffic in both directions is as given below. A 10-year design period with a traffic growth rate of 5% per annum is assumed. Compute the cumulative ESA. (Assume 60/40% directional split) Solution Range-1 Range-2 Range-3 Axle load (KN) 10 30 30 50 50 No of axles 100 70 30 Average axle load 20 40 60 (Lx/80) = EALF 4.5 0.002 0.044 0.274 EAL 0.20 3.09 8.22 ∑ ESA i = 289.51/day in both directions. ESA in 10 6
ESA( for 10 years design period) 1329204.5614541 1.329 both directions
For D= 0.6(60/40 traffic distibution) 0.8 one direction ( two-lane) for L= 0.9 0.72 Design lane m 0.0254
ber of equivalent standard axles (ESAs)
L = axle load (in kg or kN) = damage exponent (n = 4.5) Axle 3 Axle 4 Factor Load(kg) Factor Total Factor 1.07 8370 1.12 14.5 0.96 9940 2.43 11.6 1.20 9340 1.84 11.5 0.88 9470 1.95 9.8 0.31 10160 2.68 4.8 1.23 10150 2.67 10.3 0.74 9420 1.91 8.1 0.01 2410 0.00 11.2 0.01 2450 0.00 17.0 0.01 2800 0.01 15.9 tor for truck-trailers 11.5 mean
ne direction
f the motorised red. For a given
on 2.2 ulated as follows, he equivalency
T8 for
ction was carried out
eriod with a traffic irectional split) Range-3 Range-4 Range-5 Range-6 Range-7 70 70 90 90 110 110 130 130 150 30 20 15 15 10 60 80 100 120 140 0.274 1.000 2.730 6.200 12.407 8.22 20.00 40.94 93.00 124.07 289.53 on ( two-lane) ∑ ESA i Given the three-layer system shown in Figure 2 .30 with a = 4 .8 in. (122 mm), q = 120 psi (828 kPa), h1 = 6 in. (152 mm), h2 = 6 in. (203 mm), E1 = 400,000 psi (2.8 GPa), E2 = 20,000 psi (138 MPa), and E3 = 10,000 psi (69 MPa), determine all the stresses and strains at the tw o interfaces on the axis of symmetry . q = 828KPa
Given a E1=2.8GPa all σr,ϵ=? h1=152mm E1 E2 E3 E2=0.138GPa h2=152mm h1 h2 h3 E3=0.069GPa h3= ∞ q
Solution
The stresses in a three-layer system depend on the ratios k1, k2, A, and H, defined as: K1 E1/E2 20 K2 E2/E3 2 A a/h2 0.8 H h1/h2 1 From table 2.3 ZZ1 0.12173 ZZ2 0.05938 ZZ1-RR1 1.97428 ZZ2-RR2 0.09268 Stress calculation equation σz1 q*(ZZ1) 101 KPa σz2 q*(ZZ2) 49 KPa σz1-σr1 q*(ZZ1-RR1) 1635 KPa 1.63 MPa σz2-σr2 q*(ZZ2-RR2) 77 KPa
σz1-σ1r1 (σz1-σr1)/k1 81 Kpa
σz2-σ r2 1 (σz2-σr2)/k2 38.4 Kpa
At bottom of layer 1(Strain Calculation equation and radial stress)
σr1(Bottom) σz1-q*(ZZ1-RR1) -1534 KPa -1.53 Mpa ϵz1(Bottom) (σz1-σr1)/E1 0.000584 ϵr1(Bottom) (σr1-σz1)/2*E1 -0.00029 At Top of layer 2(Strain Calculation equation and radial stress) σ1r1(Top) σz1- (σz1-σr1)/k1 20 KPa ϵz2(Top) (σz1-σ1r1)/E2 0.000584 ϵr2(Top) (σ1r1-σz1)/2*E2 ### At Bottom of layer 2(Strain Calculation equation and radial stress) σr2(Bottom) σz2-q*(ZZ2-RR2) -28 KPa ϵz2(Bottom) (σz2-σr2)/E2 0.000556 ϵr2(Bottom) (σr2-σz2)/2*E2 ### At Top of layer 3(Strain Calculation equation and radial stress) σ1r2(Top) σz2- (σz2-σr2)/k2 10.8 KPa ϵz3(Top) (σz2-σ1r2)/E3 0.000556 ϵr3(Top) (σ1r2-σz2)/2*E3 ### 2 mm), q = 120 psi (828 GPa), E2 = 20,000 psi and strains at the tw o
122 mm 2.8 Gpa 0.138 Gpa 0.069 Gpa 152 mm 152 mm ∞ mm 828 Kpa
