General Agriculture Notes For ICAR and ARS PDF

2010-11
General Agriculture
For ICAR’s EXAMS, JRF, SRF, ARS & IARI Ph. D. Exams
(Based on Authorized and Current information)
Compiled by :
Roop Singh Maitry
(Ph.D. Scholar, WST, I.A.R.I.)
Special thanks to
Ajit Uchoi
(Ph.D. Scholar, PGR, I.A.R.I.)
Indian Agricultural Research Institute

New Delhi-110012
Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com
CONTENTS
1. Indian Agriculture: At A Glance

2. Horticulture
3. Biochemistry
4. Microbiology
5. Crop Physiology
6. Entomology
7. Agronomy
8. Agricultural Economics
9. Plant Pathology
10. Genetics and Plant Breeding
11. Statistics
12. Soil Science
13. Agricultural Extension
14. Crop Biotechnology
15. Environmental Science
16. Seed Technology
17. Agricultural Engineering
18. Agricultural Physics
19. History of Agricultural Research
in India
20. Agricultural Points
PREFACE
Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. In India,
the competition in agricultural education is increasing day by
day. The competitive examination is an only routine procedure
of admission in Agricultural Universities, viz. Central
Agriculture University (CAU), State Agricultural Universities
(SAUs), Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). The
competitive examination is also an only routine procedure of
recruitment in agricultural job/posts, viz. Agricultural
Research Services, State PSC and UPSC. Thus, one has to prepare
him/herself very strongly for these competition exams and for
the success, need to read authentic and authorised reading
materials. The knowledge of general agriculture is very essential
for every competition exams related to agriculture. Many
authors are attempted to compile the notes/books of general
agriculture, in which, TNAU notes is well famous. Other books
were also made impact on the readers. But still no book is there
with authentic and authorised information. Therefore, I and my
friends feel need to write this book. This book has been so as to
serve, as best as possible to aim of writing this book.
Here, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to the
person who prepared the TNAU notes with his /her hard work. I
am highly thankful to Mr. Ajit Uchoi who helped me for
material collection and typing. Finally, I wish to thank all the
friends, who encouraged me to compile this book, Deepak Gupta,
Gopal Mahajan, Somnath Holkar. And also thanks to other
friends for there, cooperation, Ramnna, Datta, Imtiyaj.
References:
1. Handbook of Agriculture- ICAR (new edition)
2. General Agriculture- Muni raj Singh (new edition)
3. Economic Survey of India- Govt. of India (2009-10)
4. India-2010
5. ICAR websites
6. TNAU notes
7. Fundamentals of Soil Science-ISSS
1. INDIAN AGRICULTURE: AT A GLANCE (2010-11)
Indian Agriculture-2010:
 A record production of 233.88 Million tons of food grains in 2008-09
 Contribution to Growth rate in GDP – 4.7% (2007-08), 1.6% (2008-09)
 Contribution to GDP –16.4 % (2007-08), 15.7% (2008-09)
 Share to total imports– 2.95% (2007-08), 2.74% (2008-09)
 Share to total exports – 12.05% (2007-08), 10.23% (2008-09)
 Contribution to total Employment- 52% (2008-09)
 MSP increase in 2008-09 over last year:
 Wheat-8% (lowest)
 Ragi-58% (highest)
 India supports(of world’s):
 Total geographical area-2%
 population- 18%
 Livestock-15%
 Forest-1.5%
 Total Geographical Area (TGA) - 329 M.H
 Potential for Biological Production - 265 M.H
 Per Capita land availability-0.37ha (1991-92)
 Per Capita Agri. land availability -0.16 ha(1991-92)
 Net cultivated area- 143 Mha
 Irrigated area-56.3 Mha
 National Commission on Farmers-2004 (Chairman- M.S. Swaminathan)
 National Horticulture Mission-started 2005
 National Bamboo Mission-started 2006-07
 NRAA- National Rain fed Area Authority, since 03/11/2006
 National food security mission-started Rabi, 2007
 RADP- Rain fed Area Development Programme, Since 20 March, 2008
 All India avg. fertilizer consumption- 128.8 Kg/ha (2008-09)
 Highest avg. fertilizer consumption- Punjab (212Kg/ha)
 Lowest avg. fertilizer consumption – Arunachal Pradesh (5 kg/ha)
 Nutrient consumption ration (NPK), 2007-08)- 5.5:2.1:1
 NPMSF- National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertilizer, 2008-09
 ISOPOM-Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm & Maize, started since 1st
April, 2004
 Kisan Call Centre(KCC),started since 21st Jan 2004 (toll free No. 1551)
 DMRI- Directorate of Marketing Research and Inspection, Nagpur , Maharashtra
 First livestock census conducted in India: 1919
 Rank of India in Silk production-2nd (1st-China), - 18,320 MT
 Provides about 65% of the livelihood
 Contributes 21% of Total Exports, and Supplies Raw materials to Industries
 Growth Rate in production - 5.8%
 About 75% people are living in rural areas and are still dependent on Agriculture.
 About 43% of India’s geographical area is used for agricultural activity.
Organizational Setup of ICAR: (Present scenarios-2009-10)

 Union Minister of Agriculture is the ex-officio President of the ICAR Society.
(Present- Sharad Pawar)
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 Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research & Education Ministry of Agriculture,

Govt. of India & Director-General, ICAR – the Principal Executive Officer of the
Council. (Present- Dr. S. Ayyappan)
 Agricultural Scientists' Recruitment Board, Chairman-Dr. C. D. Mayee (Plant
Pathlosist)
 Deputy Directors-General (8)
 Additional Secretary (DARE) and Secretary (ICAR)
 Additional Secretary and Financial Advisor
 Assistant Directors-General (24)
 Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, New Delhi
 Directorates/Project Directorates - 25 (with upgradation of 12 NRCs)
 National Bureaux – 6 (New-NBAII, Bengaluru and NBAIM, Mau, UP)
 Deemed Universities status -6(New- NAARM, Hydrabad and NIASM, Malegaon,
Maharastra)
 National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) [formerly Project
Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC)] is a nodal Institute at national level for
research and development on all aspects of work on harnessing resources of insects
including biological control of crop pests and weeds, training, information repository,
technology dissemination and national/international cooperation.(2009)
 National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganism(NBAIM), Mau, UP
(2005)
 There are 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) established under
ICAR institutes.
 ICAR Introduced revised curricula and syllabi for 95 disciplines in Master’s and 80
disciplines in Doctoral programmes.
 The Handbook of Agriculture updated as 6th edition (2009).
 NIASM (National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management), Malegaon,
Maharastra,2008
 Established a network of over 568 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK).(upto Dec.2009)
 Deputy Director General (Natural Resource Management): Dr. A.K. Singh,
 Union Minister for Agriculture: Shri. Sharad Pawar
 Minister of State for Agriculture: Prof. K.V. Thomas.
 New Director-General of ICAR: Dr. S. Ayyappan
Handbook of Agriculture (New entry-2010):

 Father of Hybrid rice in India- Dr. E.A. Siddiqe
st
 Milk production in India (Highest over World)-108 Mt.(2009) and 1 rank in world.
 Milk Availability (g./person/day)- 245 (2007-08), 258 (2008-9)
 Food grain production (Mt.)-233 Mt
nd
 Fruit production - 63 Mt (2007-08) 2 rank
nd
 Vegetable production -125 Mt (2007-08) 2 rank
 Agriculture accounts …….% of National work force-52
 Project Directorates-25 (upgrated NRCs-12)
 SAUs-45
 National Research Centres (NRCs)-17
 AICRPs-61
 National Institutes-6 (very Imp.)
 Central Institutes-49
 Directorate of Women in Agriculutre-Bhuwneshwar, Orissa
 Directorate of Floricultural Research- New Delhi
 Directorate of Information and Publication in Agriculture- New Delhi
 AICRP, NSP-crops, New Delhi
 AICRP, Arid Zone fruit-Bikaner
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 AICRP, NSP-vegetable,Varanasi
 AICRP, Pestiside residue, New Delhi
 AICRP, Agrometeorrology, Hydrabad
General Agriculture (New, ICAR wbsites):

 Sahbhagi Dhan - new varieties of rice capable of withstanding drought.
 Water submergence variety of rice- Swarna-Sub 1, can survive for 14 days under
water.
 To ward off threat to wheat production from the globally spreading menace of
resistant varieties of wheat stem rust- Ug99,DBW 17, PBW 550, Lok 1, and Turja
identified.
 In potato, dry matter-rich variety Kufri Frysona developed for making French Fries.
 Cloned and surviving buffalo calf, GARIMA, produced for faster multiplication of
selected highly productive animals.
 For Bird Flu diagnosis, High Security Animal Disease Laboratory, Bhopal, conferred
OIE-international recognition.
 Devised drip and sprinkler irrigation systems saving water (30-50%), labour (50%),
fertilizer (30-40%) and increasing yields (12-76%).
 Leaf Colour Chart (LCC), a simple device for nitrogen management saves 15 kg N/ha
in rice.
 Tractor-mounted cumin planter saves 30% seed.
 Motorized aril extractor developed for pomegranate.
 The first systematic work on SRI began at TNAU, Tamil Nadu in 1993.
 Golden rice: Produced by combining genetic material from daffodils, Ervinia
vredivora, Agrobacterium tumifacience and Japonica rice. by Professor Ingo Potrykus
and Dr. Peter Beyer (Germany,1999)
 Purpose of golden rice- to provide a new, alternative intervention to combat Vitamin
A Deficiency.
General Agriculture by Muniraj Singh (New Entry):

 National Biodiversity Board-New Delhi
 Camel crop-Sorgum
 Natural Genetic enginner-Agrobacterium tumefacience
 Pashmina (Winter cloth) obtained from- Goats
 Law of Tolerance –Sheford
 Oleresine- Chilli
 Keshar(sefforon) belongs family-Iridaceae
st
 World Food Prize,1987 (1 Indian)-M.S. Swaminathan for Green revolution
nd
 World Food Prize,1989 (2 Indian)-Vergese Kurien for Milk revolution
th
 World Food Prize,2000 (5 Indian)-S. K. Khus for Quality Protein Maize
st
 World Food Prize, 2009- Gebisa Ejeta (Ethiopia) for 1 sorghum hybrid for drought
and srtiga weed.
 Mychoryza increase availability of – Phosphorus
 Water Requirement of irrigated wetland rice-1500 mm
 Nurient mobility concepts-Bray
 PUFA conent is highest in –Sunflower
 Pseudocereal-Buckwheat
 First Agri. Chemist of ICAR-J W Leather
 Pulse crop doesn’t fix N-Rajma
 Avg Milling recovery of Rice-60%
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Informatics in Agriculture:
 IT Plan for Agriculture Sector (AGRISNET) was submitted to Ministry of Agriculture
in 1997 to establish “Indian Agriculture on-line” and revised in 2000.
 AGMARKNET-Agricultural Marketing Information Network
 NADAMS-National Agricultural Drought Advisory and Management Systems
 AgRIS-Resources Information System
 APHNET-Animal Production and Health Informatics Network
 ARISNET-Agricultural Research and Information System
 ACINET: Agricultural Credit Informatics Network
 E-chaupal estabilished by Indian Tobacco Comp. (ITC) for M.P.
 VERCON (Vitrual Extension, Research and Communication Network) developed by-
FAO,2001
 Soya-Chaupal is for weather, farming practice and Market price of Soybean in M.P.
 ICT- Information and Communication Technology
 ARIS- Agricultural Research Information System, est. by ICAR, 1995
Nanotechnology in Agriculture:
 coined by-Nario Taniguichi (1974), at Univ. of Tokyo, Japan
 Nanotechnology is Understanding and control of matter at dimension of 1-100 nm
 Example of Nano based Smart Delivery System-Halloysite
 Nano Pesticide-Nano Particles(NPs) of ZnO, Sio2 and TiO2 used for Bacteria & Green
Algea
 Nano Particles used for reclamation of heavy Particles-Amphiphylic
Polyurethane,Zeravalent Iron (nZVI), and Nano sized Zeolite.
Crop Biotechnology.
TM
 First transgenic plant-Flavr Savr tomato for delayted ripining was realeasd for
commercial cultivation in 1994 by Calgene (Compony).
 Final Approval Committee for release of transgenic crops in India- GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Approval Committee)
 Area under transgenic plant in World (2008)-125 Mha, 139 Mha (2009)
th st nd rd
 Rank of India for transgenic plant -4 ( 1 -USA, 2 -Mexico, 3 - Argentina)
 Crops having highest transgenic plant cultivation area- Soyabean> Corn>Cotton
 Area under Bt-cotton: 7.5 Mha(2008), 8.4 Mha (2009)(86% of cotton area)
 First genetic engineering compony est. 1976, Genentech
 First transgenic crop- tobacco
Irrigation in India-2010:
 National water awards (2007)-Hiware Bazar Gram Panchayat, Ahmadnagar,
Mharastra
 Area under micro irrigation system in india (2008-09): 3.88 Mha
 Area under Drip in India (2008-09): 1.42 Mha (highest area-Maharashtra)
 Area under Sprinkler in India (2008-09): 2.45 Mha (highest area-Haryana)
 Water year-2007
 Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Advisory Council (ARGWC)- constituted in
2006
 National Institute of Hydrology- Roorkee, Uttarakhand
 World Congress on conservation Agriculture, 2009- held at New Delhi
ITK in Agriculture:
 Bael fruit can be used to contol –rice blast
 Cow urin used for – wheat termite control , sorghum smut control
India’s position in world Agriculture Rank
 Total Area :Seventh
 Irrigated Area : First
 Population :Second
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 Economically Active population : Second

 Total Cereals : Third
 Wheat :Second
 Rice :Second
 Coarse grains : Fourth
 Total Pulses : First
 Oil Seeds : Second
 Fruits and Vegetables : Second (first-China)
 Implements (Tractors) :Third
 Milk : First
 Live Stock (castles, Buffaloes) :First
WORLD AGRICULTURAL SCENARIO
 Rice : China > India > Indonesia
 Maize : USA >China >Brazil
 Wheat : China > India >Usa
 Groundnut : China > India
 Sugarcane : Brazil > India
 Total Cereals : China > USA > India
 Coarse Cereals: Usa > China > Brazil > India
 Total Pulses : India -1st
 Mustard & Rapeseed: China > Canada > India
 Fruits & Veg : China > India
 Cotton : CHINA > USA > India
 Tobacco : China > Brazil > India
 Tea, Jute & Allied Fibres: India -1st
 Coffee :India-6th
 Cattle Population: 1st (16.5%)
 Buffalo Population: 1st (56.7%)
 Milk Production: 1st (15%)
 Egg Production: China>USA>Japan>India
 Total Area of India-329 m ha-2.4% of world-7th position
 Total Arable Land-162 m ha-2nd after USA
 Total Irrigated Area-58 m ha-21% of world-1st position
 Human Population-102.5 Crore-17% of world-2nd after China
INDIANS WHO SECURED WORLD FOOD PRIZES:
 1987 - Dr MS Swaminathan- architect of India’s “green revolution”
 1989 -Dr Verghese Kurien – Milk cooperatives
 1996 - Dr Gurudev S Kush – improved yield potential of rice
 1998 – Mr B R Barwale – Founder of MAHYCO
 2000 – Dr Surinder K Vassal – Developed quality protein maize
 2005 – Modaduga v Gupta – For Aquaculture
SOME IMPORTANT YEARS:
 2004-International year of rice
 2005-International year of micro credit
 2006-International year of desert and desertification
 2007-International year of water (theme-more crop per drop)
 2008-International year of potato
 2009-International year of fibre
 2010- International year of Biodiversity
PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY (2009-10)
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 Cereals – 409.9 gm/day

 Pulse -29 gm/day
 Milk - 245 gm /day.
 Minimum requirement of milk – 240 gm/day
World Green Revolution:

 Increasing the wheat production that began in Mexico in 1945.
 The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former USAID director
William Gaud.
 CIMMYT , Mexico - the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center.
 Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars.
 HYVs or “high-yielding varieties - A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat)
which yield 10 times more than that of traditional rice.
 Father of the Green Revolution- Norman Ernest Borlaug (Birth-March 25, 1914 and
Death - September 12, 2009 (aged 95) Dallas, Texas (USA). An American agronomist
and Nobel laureate who has been deemed the. He received his Ph.D. in plant
pathology and genetics.)
 Father of the Green Revolution in India- M. S. Swaminathan (Mankombu Sambasivan
Swaminathan, born August 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu.)
 Father of the Ever Green Revolution in India (1995) - M. S. Swaminathan.
 Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops
for Green Revolution.
 The land Mark of Indian Green Revolution- IARI, New Delhi
 "Miracle Rice"-IR8 - a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by IRRI. Crossed between
an Indonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chinese variety named “Dee-geo-woo-
gen.”
CROP PRODUCTION SCENARIOS IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE (2008-09):

 Total foodgrains production in 2008-09 was estimated at 233.88 million tonnes as
against 230.78 million tonnes in 2007-08.
Current trends in Indian agriculture:
 10th largest economy in terms of GDP
 10th in world plant biodiversity (4th in Asia)
 India is in 4th position in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Leading state in production and area of crops:
 Rice – WB> UP, Punjab (Productivity)
 Wheat – UP> Punjab, Haryana (productivity)
 Pulse s– MP (production), Haryana (productivity)
 Oilseed – MP>AP, TN (productivity)
 Groundnut – Gujarat (production), TN (productivity)
 Mustard – Rajasthan
 Cotton – Maharashtra
 Jute – West Bengal
 Coffee – Karnataka
 Tea – Assam
 Rubber – Kerala> Tripura
 Potato – UP
 Onion – Maharashtra
 Sugarcane – Uttar Pradesh (production), Tamil Nadu (productivity)
 Maize – Karnataka
 Soybean – MP(production), AP (productivity)
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 PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS:

CROPS 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
Rice 93.43 96.69 99.15
Wheat 75.80 78.57 80.58
Coarse cereals 30.66 40.76 39.48
Cereals 199.89 216.02 219.21
Total pulses 14.20 14.76 14.66
Total food grains 214.09 230.78 233.88
Total oilseeds 24.29 29.75 28.15
Sugarcane 355.52 258.84 231.56
Cotton 226.3 lakh bales 246.84 lakh bales 231.56 Lakh bales
CROP PRODUCTION 2009-10 (Based on Advance Estimate)

 Kharif foodgrains production - 98.83 Mt
 Kharif rice production - 71.65 Mt., a decrease of about 15 per cent over 2008-09
 Total kharif production of coarse cereals- 22.76 Mt.
 Total production of Kharif pulses- 4.42 Mt.
 Total kharif production of the nine Oilseeds- 15.233 Mt.
 Sugarcane production- 249.48 million tones
 Cotton production- 23.66 Million bales (of 170 kg each)
 Production of jute and mesta- 10.243 Million bales (of 180 kg each)
Highest/Lowest production year-
Crop Year (highest) Year (lowest)
Food grain 2008-09 2002-03
wheat 2008-09 2002-03
Rice 2008-09 2002-03
Pulse 2003-04 2002-03
Nine Oilseed 2007-08 2002-03
Sugarcane 2006-07 2003-04
Cotton 2007-08 2002-03
AREA COVERAGE 2009-10(Based on Advance Estimate)
 Kharif total foodgrains -66.78 Mha
 India ranks first in world milk production.
 Production of sugar in 2008-09 sugar season declined by about 11.62 Mt.
Allied sector Production figure in 2008-09:
 Milk - 108.5 million tonnes
 Eggs- 55.6 Billion,
 Wool - 42.7 Million kg
 Meat-3.8 Million tones
 Fish production- 7.6 million tones
 Silk production -18, 324 Kg
MSP-2009-10 (Rs.per Quintal)
 Paddy- Rs.1000/-
 Jwar- Rs.860/-
 Arhar- Rs.2300/-
 Cotton - Rs.2500/-
 Wheat- Rs.1100/-
 Gram- Rs.1760/-
 Sugarcane -Rs. 129.8/-
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 Barley- Rs.750/-
LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION & AREA OF CROPS:2008-09

Crops Prod. Leading Prod. Area Productivity
(Mt) state (Mha) (Kg/Ha)
Rice 99.15 WB>AP>UP 45.35 2186
Wheat 80.58 UP>PNJ>HR 27.88 2891
Maize 19.29 AP>KN>RJ 28.19 2355
Jwar 7.31 MH>KN>MP 7.68 -
Bajra 8.83 RJ>UP>GJ 8.74 -
C. Cereal 39.48 RJ>MH 27.62 -
Cereal 219.21 - 22.37 -
T. Pulses 14.86 MH>MP>AP 7.97 655
Chickpea 7.0 MP>MH>AP 7.97 -
Lentil 0.81 UP>MP 1.31 -
Pig.pea 2.3 MH>KN 3.4 -
T. Food 233.8 UP>PNJ>AP 123.22 -
Grain
T.oilseed 28.16 MP>MH>GJ 27.46 -
Soyabean 9.9 MP>MH 9.52 -
G. nut 7.34 GJ>AP 6.22 -
Mustard 7.37 RJ>UP 6.19 -
Sunflowe 1.25 KN>AP 1.83 -
Sugarcane 273.93 UP>MH 4.4 -
Potato 28.43 UP>WB - -
Cotton* 23.6 GJ>MH 9.41 419
Jute* 10.41 WB>BHR 0.91 -
Coffee - KN - -
Tea - Assam - -
Rubber - Kerla - -
Onion - MH - -
*Million Bales
POINTS NEED TO REMEMBER

 India’s rank in fertilizer consumption- 3rd
 Per ha NPK consumption-128 kg
 CV of South west Monsoon in 2009- 10%
 MSP given by CACP
 CACP stands for - Commission on Agriculture cost and Prices
 FCI Buffer stock, Oct 2009- 16.2 Mt
 Swaljaldhara is – drinking water project, 2002
 Hariyali- watershed development program est. 2003
 NAREGA changes to MAREGA (Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guaranty
Act) 2005
 The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Authority,
established in Nov., 2005 at New Delhi (Chairaman- S. Nagrajan)
 National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertility (NPMSF), has been
introduced in 2008-09
 Total No. of Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs)in India-750 (2008-09)
 Total irrigation potential in India- 102.77 million ha by March 2007
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 Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) started since 1996-97

 NAFED -National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited
 CCI- Cotton Corporation of India
 The Macro Management of Agriculture Scheme (MMA) was formulated in 2000-01
 National Food Security Mission (NFSM) has been launched from the rabi 2007-08 to
enhancing the production of rice, wheat and pulses by 10, 8 and 2 million tonnes
respectively by the end of the Eleventh Plan
 Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCC) was introduced in August 1998
 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) - launched in August 2007
 National Bamboo Mission (NBM)- commenced in 2006-07
 National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH)
 Chairman, Planning Commissions- M. S. Ahuliwalia
 Chairman of National Commission for Farmers - Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
 India’s Rank
 1st– Milk, Coconut, Tea, Banana, Mango, Cashew nut (export, import and processing)
and Pulses
 2nd – Rice , Wheat, Cotton, Fruit and vegetable
 3rd – Tobacco, rubber, Egg and fertilizer
 Consumption of Pesticide is maximum
o Imported Pesticide: Carbaryl followed by cholorpyriphos
o Indigenous Pesticide: BHC followed by Monocrotophos & Endosulfan
 Export of Agro chemicals
o Maximum (in terms of rupees): Cypermethrin followed by Endosulfan,
Phosphide & Lindane
 The top Agrobusiness company: Novartis (Hindustan Ciba-Geigy & Sandoz)
 Total production of pesticides in India : 95,000 tones (2007-08)
 Number of pesticides registered in India: L55-(as on 31/12/99)
 Number of technical grade pesticides manufactured in India:
 Plant Protection adviser to GOL: Dr. R. L. RAJAK.
 Insecticides Act: 1968 (Thakur committee recommendation)
 Insecticides rules : 1971
 Brown revolution - Promotion of Agro Industries Dvt.
 Pink revolution - Promotion of onion production
 Yellow revolution - Promision of oilseeds production
 The word green revolution was coined by “William Gadd”
 Father of Green revolution Norman E. Borlaoug.
 Father of Green revolution in India Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
 Father of hybrid rice production: yuvan long ping
 First laureate of the “world food’ prize: Dr. Swaminathan
 World Food prize – 1986
 Rice breeders: Dr. H. M. Beachell
o Dr. Gurdev singh khush
 NCIPM – National Centre for Integrated Pest Management – IARI, New Delhi
 CPPPTI – Central Plant Protection Training Institute – Hyderabad
 The largest per hectare pesticide consuming country – Taiwan
 Total number of pesticides banned in India = 29
 Recently banned - Phosphamidon
 Highest consumption – cotton 54% followed by paddy 22%
RECENT INSECTICIDE DATA (Updated up to Nov, 2009)

 Number of insecticide included in insecticide schedule- 787
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 Pesticides Banned for manufacture, import and use - 27

 Pesticide / Pesticide formulations banned for use but their manufacture is allowed for
export - 2
 Pesticide formulations banned for import, manufacture and use - 4
 Pesticide Withdrawn - 7
 No. of pesticides refused registration - 18
 Pesticides restricted for use in India – 13
 Insecticides approved by the registration committee for protecting buildings from
termites : Chlorpyriphos 50% EC, Ethion 50% EC, Imidacloprid 30.50% SC, Lindane
20% EC.
 Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control termites in agricultural
crops under the insecticides act, 1968 : Chlorpyriphos 20 EC, Endosulfan 35 EC,
Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL.
 No. of Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control household pests
in houses under the insecticides act, 1968 - 39.
RECENT HORTICULTURE DATA (2009-10)

 %Share of Hoti. Crops in Production– Vegt. (60%) < fruits (31%) < Plantation crops
(5%)
 %Share of Hoti. Crops in Area – Vegt. (40%) < fruits (30%) < Plantation (15%)
 Fruits: leading crops
o Area: Mango>citrus>Banana
o Production: Banana> Mango>citrus
o Productivity: Papaya> Banana>Grape
 Fruits: leading State
o Area: MH>AP>UP
o Production: AP>MH>TN
 Vegetable: leading crops
o Area: Potato>Onion>Tomato
o Production: Potato>Onion>Tomato
o Productivity: Tapioca> Cabbage >Potato
 Vegetable: leading State
o Area: WB>UP>Bhr
o Production: WB>UP>Bhr
 India’s rank in the fruits production – 2nd (1st - Brazil)
 India’s rank in the vegetables production - 2nd (1st -China)
 India is the largest producer of 1. Mango, 2. Banana, 3. Sapota, 4. Acid Lime, 5.
Cauliflower
 India is the 2nd largest producer of 1. Onion, 2. Potato
 Per capita fruit –Recommended : 120 gm/day/person
 Per capita fruit –Availability : 70-80 gm/day/person
 Per capita vegetables- Recommended : 275 gm/day/person
 Per capita vegetables- Availability : 120 gm/day/person
IARI Ph.D. General Agriculture 2009-10 (Answer based on given MCQs)

 Highest procurement of wheat in 2009 was-17.8 Mt
 Contribution of agriculture to GDP is- 22
 IVLP stands for- Institute Village Linkage Programme
 Which one of these is major constituent of poultry feed? – Maize
 In binomial distribution Mean > variance
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 Bordeaux mixture is Fungicide

 Which of the following is used to turn over the soil? Mould bould plough
 NBFGR-National Bureau for Fish Genetic Resource is situated at- Lucknow
 Which of the following is not bio-control agent? Xanthomonas
 Which of the following is complex fertilizer? Urea ammonium Phosphate
 Soil having ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) greater than 15 are Alkali soil
 Rain, mist, fog and cloud all these phenomena occurs in
 Troposphere
 Farming system is All agril. Inputs and commodities
 Which nutrient helps in Biological Nitrogen Fixation?Mo
 Silt is intermediate between
 Sand and clay
 First CO2 acceptor in C-3 pathway -RuBP carboxylase
 From 1960’s onward which of the following operation is in effect for milk?-Operation
flood
 CIMMYT works on-Maize and wheat
 Which of the following is highly salt tolerant fruit crop? Date palm
 Price fixed by government recently for agricultural products Minimum support price
 If farmer has only one irrigation is available for wheat crop, at which stage it is
recommended CRI
 Disease occurring regularly in the same area is called as Endemic
 Which of the following is essential component of nucleic acid and protein? N
 Widely cultivated wheat species in India after T. diococcum
 Banana is Auto triploid
 Which crop in India has maximum area under irrigation? Rice
 Which of the following is not found in plant cell? Glycogen
 Family of cotton is Malvaceae
 Certified seed is produced from Foundation seed
 In prophase which is correct Elongated threads like chromosome
Indian Agriculture: General View

LAND RESOURCES IN INDIA
 Total Geographic area- 328.74 million Hectare (2.4% of world area)
 Average annual Rainfall- 1195 mm
 Total cultivated area – 142.6 mha (46.6% of total area)
 Gross cultivated area – 192.62 m ha
 Total irrigated area – 57 m ha
 Gross irrigated area – 79.5 m ha
 Total area under forest -68.97 m ha (22.5%)
 The generated rainfall volume – 400 mha m
 Per capita availability of agricultural use land – 0.30 hectare
 Cropping intensity – 135.1 %
 Area sown more than once – 50.02 mha
 The generated runoff volume – 185 mha m
 Total area under horticultural crops – 12 mha
 Maximum area under irrigation- Ganga Basin
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 Total cropped area occupied by food grains- 76%

 Area under pasture cum grazing land – 11.30 mha (4%)
 Area under cultivable wastelands- 14.63 (5%)
 Area under tree crops and graves – 3.6 mha (1.2%)
 Area under fruit cultivation - 4 mha
 Area under vegetable cultivation – 6.09 mha
 Fertilizer consumption (kg/ha) – 98
 Percentage of arable land under irrigation – 34.8
 Contribution of agriculture to GDP – 16-18 %
 Contribution of Horticulture to GDP – 28-30 %
 Number of agro climactic zones in India (Planning commission)- 15
 Number of agro-ecological regions (NBSS and LUP) – 21 (now 20)
 No of Hot spots of Biodiversity in India – 3 (Western ghat, the NEH region and the
Himalayas
WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA

 Catchment area of the rivers in India is – 252.8 M ha
 The Ministry of water Resources, Govt. of India has divided the country into 20 river
basine
 Total volume of precipitation – 400 M ha.m
 Percolation is 215 Mha.m, immediate evaporation 70Mham and surface run off is
155Mham.
 Usage of ground on full dev –42.3Mha m
 Usage of surface water on full dev – 80Mham
 Storage reservoirs and tanks – 73Mha m
 Diversion works & direct pumping – 15Mha m
 Water flowing back to sea-92Mha m
 Out of 42.3Mha m ground water receives – 11.5Mha m is used for irrigation
 The yearly average stream flow in our country is 1869Km cube
 A total of 1050 Km cube of unhzable quantum of surface & ground water is available for
irrigation.
 A surface water storage of 1.4Km cube has been created and another 72Km cube will be
available after completion of on going projects an another 132Km cube will be available
from projects under constructions, making the total available water to 378Km cube in the
country.
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2. HORTICUTURE
Cultivation/Production of Mango
 B. N. : Mangifera indica
 Origin : Indo-Burma
 Fruits type : Drupe
 Edible part : Mesocarp
 Main Nutrient: Vit. -A (46660 I U)
 Main varieties: Remarks
1. Mallika :
2. Ainrapali : HDP, Dwarfing, developed by IARI
3. Lal Sundari :Coloured variety, developed by IARI
4. Niranjan : Off season bearer
5. Mandhulika : Off season bearer
6. MDCH-2 : Off season bearer
7. Arka Aruna : Free from spongy tissue
8. Arka Puneet : Free from spongy tissue
9. Arka Anmol : Free from spongy tissue
10. Arka Neelkiran :
11. Sindhu : Seedless
12. Dashehari : Best North Indian cultivar
13. Chausa : Sweeten, Very late varieties
14. Neehun :Best combiner, Very late varieties
15. Kalepadi : Dwarfing
16. Totapuri : Red small, Dwarfing
 Propagation : Veneer Grafting
 Intercrops : Papaya, Phalsa, Onion, Tomato
 Sex forms : Male & Female (Andromonoceious)
 Pollinator : Housefly
 Maturity indices : 1. Specific gravity (1.01-1. 02)
 Flowering to Harvest : 90-120 days
 Major pest : Hoppers
 Physiological Disorders:
1. Malformation:
o Due to low temperature
o Control by … 1. Deblossoming, 2. Spray of NAA @ 200 ppm, 3. Resistant
cultivars- Bahaduran, Aliff, Haichi, Manjeera.
2. Black tip:
o Due to gases from brick kilns (SO2, NO2 and Acetylene)
o Cultivars with more lenticels/ unit are susceptible
o Control : Borax spray
3. Alternate bearing : Control: Paclobutrazol @300 ppm (or) Kutar @ 5 gm/
tree by, Soil as well as foliar spray
4. Spongy tissue: Convection heats
5. Internal Fruit necrosis: ‘B’ deficiency.
Cultivation/Production of Tomato:
 Tomato : Lycorpersicon esculentunn,

 Famous as :Wolf Apple
 Family : Solanacae
 Origin : Peru
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 Fruit type : Bery

 Main Nutrient :(rich in Vit.- A)
 Main Varieties:
1. Pusa ruby 6. Pusa Gaurav Processing
2. Pusa Early Dwarf 7. Arka Vikas
3. Sioux 8. Arka Saurab
4. Marglobe 9. Arka Ahuti
5. Supreme (Seln-120) 10. Arka Ashish
 Hybrids :
1. Arka vishal,
2. Arka vardan (Registant to nematode),
3. Vaishali (Indo-American Hybrids),
4. Rupail (Indo-American Hybrids)
5. Naveen (Indo-American Hybrids)
 Seed rate : Normal: 300-350 gm/ha, and (Hybrid: 70-90 gm/ ha)
 Spacing : 60x60 cm and 90 x 90 cm
 Maturity : Colour development
 Major pest : Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armijera)
 Major Disease : Tomato Spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Damping off, (Vector
Thrips)
 BER : Blosoom-End-Rot (due to Calcium deficiency.)
 Cold set : eg. Pusa sheetal, Pusa Hybrid-2
 Hot set : eg: Pusa Hybrid-1
Cultivation/Production of Rose:
 B. N. : Rosa hybrid
 Family : Rosaceae
 Propagation :T- budding
 Type : 1. Hybrid Tea: Hybrid perpetual ×Tea Rose-(Large solitary flowers)
2. Floribunda: Hybrid tea × Olyanthes – Medium flower on clusters.
 Export Varieties: First Red Golden Times, Mercedes, Belinda, Sonia, Milan, Red
Success, B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Chitra.
Cultivation/Production of Cauliflower:
 Edible part :curd (Prefloral apical meristem)
 Operation : Blanching in cauliflower
 Disorders : Whiptail- Mo deficiency
Browning – Boron deficiency
 Varieties : Pusa snowball, Pusa katki, Pusa deepali, Early Kunwari.
General Horticulture:
 Fruit types:
Type Example
1. Berries : Grapes, Guava, Phalsa, Tomato, Brinjal, Chitiles
2. Drupe : Mango, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Apricot
3. Hesperidum : Citrus
4. Amphisarca : Wood apple, Bael
5. Balusta : Pomegranate
6. Pome (false fruit) : Apple, Pear
7. Pepo : Cuarbits
8. Single seeded berry : Dates
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9. Single seeded nuts : Litchi

10. Sorosis : Jack, Mulberry, Pineapple
11. Syconium : Fig
12. Efaerio of better : Annona sp
13. Ekaerro of Drupe lets : Strawberry
 Commercial Method of Propagation:
Fruits Method
1. Mango : Venner Grafiting
2. Banana : Sword suckers
3. Citrus : ‘T’/ shield budding
4. Grapes : Hard wood cutting
5. Guar : Stooling/ Mound layering
6. Litchi. Programme to : Air Layering
7. Acid lime, Phalsa, Mangosrein : Seed
8. Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum : ‘T’ budding
9. Anola : Patch budding
10. Strawberry : Runner
11. Pineapples : sucker, slips
 Nutrients, Deficiency symptoms and Sources:
Type Deficiency Source

1. Vitamin-a Night blindness Fruits: Mango, Papaya, Japanese
(Retinal) (xerophthalmia) Persimmon
2. Vit B-1 (Thiamin) Beri-beri Almond, Apricot, Cashew
3. Vit B-2 (Riboflavin) Dry Skin Bael, Passion Fruit, Jack
4. Vit C (Ascorbic acid) Survey F: Barbados Cherry, Orange,
Guava
V: Chitlies, Bittergourd Amla
5. Vit – D (Calciferol) Rickets V: Greens
6. Iron - Dates, Currants, Caronda, Green
7. Calcium - Litchi, Banana, Carols, Tomato
8. Potassium - Banana, Greens
9. Phosphorus - Carrot, Tomato, Spinack
10. Iodine Goatee Onion Okra
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3. BIOCHEMISTRY
 Major group of compounds found in a cell are carbohydrates and their derivatives,
fats and their derivatives proteins and their derivatives, nucleic acids.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
 Organic compounds with a general formula (CH2O)n
 Carbohydrates can be classified into 3 categories,
(a) Monosaccharides
(b) Oligosaccharides
(c) Polysaccharides
(a) Monosaccharides
 Trioses: Trioses are simple sugars derived from hydrolysis of oligopolysaccharides
have ‘C’ atom ranging from 3-9 (eg.)
 They are of two types (a) Aldoses, (b) Ketoses
 Aldoses: Sugars with terminal CHO aldehyde group aldotriose- Glyceraldehyde
(simplest sugar)
o Aldoterose- Erythrose, thresose
o Aldopentose – Arabiose ribose deoxyribose
o Aldohexose – Glucose, galactose, mannose
 Ketoses: Having >C=O group
 Ketotriose: Dihydroxy acetone – simplest keto sugar
 Ketohexose: Fructose – It is the sweetest among all the sugars.
(b) Oligosaccharides
 All derived from combination of two or more monosaccharides units Depending upon
the number of monosaccharides presence they can be classified as
(I) Disaccharides: eg. Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose, cellobiose
(II) Trisaccharides: eg. Raffinose
(III) Teirasaccharides: eg. Stachyose
 Sucrose: Produced from alpha glucose beta fructose by alpha. –1.2. glycosidic
linkage. It is a Non- reducing sugar.
 Maltose: Consists of 2 units of glucose linked together by alpha 1.4 linkage reducing
sugar found in germinating seeds largely.
 Cellobiose: Consists of 2 units of glucose but the bond involved is beta, 1.4 linkage.
It is a reducing sugar.
 Lactose: Consists of one molecule of beta D glucose and one molecule of beta D
galactose linked together by beta 1.4 linkages.
 Stachyose: It is a tetra saccharide consists of one glucose and one fructose and 2
galactose.
(C) Polysaccharides
 Molecular weight in kilo Daltons (kd)
(a) Storage polysaccharides:
 In plant consists of amylase, amylopectin. (It is polymer of glucose).
 Amylase is un-branched chains of glucose units joined by alpha – 1.4 linkages. The
chain is nonlinear, but it is helical one.
 Amylopectin: Highly branched, Bond types: Alpha-1.4 linkage but at the branching
points alpha 1.6 linkage is present.
 Glycogen: It is present only in animal cells. It is just like starch, but heavily branched
and compact and it contains both alpha 1.4 and alpha 1.6 linkages.
(b) Structural Polysaccharides
 Cellulose: Polymer of glucose joined together by beta 1.4 linkage
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 Hemicellulose: Polymer consisting of L-arabinose. D-glucose, D-galactose, D-

Xylose, along with uranic acid (galacturonic acids)
 Pectin: Polymer of galacturonic acid. Normally present in cell walls as calcium
Pectate
2. PROTEINS
 The name was suggested by Berzelius
 This name is derived from Greek Proteins means ‘first rank’
 Proteins are polymer of amino acids.
 Each amino acid is linked with another one by peptide
-C=O-NH2 bond.
 Different structural levels:
 Primary structure- it is the linear arrangement of amino acids.
 Secondary structure- It is the structure found by linear Polypeptide chain which folds
in a regular fashion.
 This may be of two kinds (1) alpha helix (2) beta pleated sheet.
 These secondary structures are produced by interaction between neighboring amino
acids of same chain.
 Quaternary structure:
 The structure produced by association of more than one polypeptide
 Examples for some commonly occurring proteins
 Structural proteins :
o Collagen: Muscle protein
o Keratin: In hair and wool and nail
o Fibroin: In silk
o Elastin: Found in insect wings
o Regulatory proteins : Enzymes
o Transport proteins : Myoglobin, Haemoglobins
 Another classification of proteins:
 Simple proteins – Contains only ordinary amino acids
 Conjugated proteins – Proteins that contain non amino acid
 Components in addition to amino acids these additional factors are called prosthetic
groups.
 Examples:
o Nucleic proteins – Nucleic acid and protein – chromosomes
o Glycoprotein – Protein and sugar units
o Lipoproteins –Protein and lipids
o Metalloproteins - metals and proteins haemoglobin
3. ENZYMES
 These are special classes of proteins. Enzymatic activity was first discovered by
BUCHNER (Zymase was the first found initially from Yeast)
 The term enzyme was coined by W. KUHNS
 Terminology’s Holoenzymes – Apoenzyme + Prosthetic group
 Apo-enzyme =Without prosthetic group
 Legend = Any substrata that binds with an enzyme
 Active site = The site responsible for analytic molecule
 Regulatory site = the site other than catalytic use where the regulatory.
 Characteristics of an enzyme:
* Specific, Protinacious, colloidal nature, sensitive to temperature.
* Enzymes do not change the equilibrium level. But quickens it.
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 Mechanism of action of enzymes:

o The lock and key model was proposed by Fisher
o It lowers down the activation energy.
 Some special classes of enzymes.
 Allosteric enzymes: are regulatory enzymes which have more than one polypeptide
o This type of enzymes have a well developed regulatory mechanism
o They produce a sigmoidal curve (instead of classical parabolic curve)
 Isozymes: They are different enzymes which catalyze the same reaction in different
tissues. They are different in molecular weight and exercised from different genes.
 Ribozymes: They are catalytic RNA with enzymatic property (non protein)
 Factors affecting activity of enzymes are Temperature. PH. Ionic strength. Water
content.
4. VITAMINS
 The term vitamins was introduced by FUNK
 Classification:
1. Water soluble: – Vit. B complex (B1, B2, B12) C
2. Niacin: (nicotinic acid)
3. Fat soluble: Vit: A. D. E. K.
 Vitamins and their deficiency symptoms
Vitamins Deficiency symptoms
A (Retinal) :Xerophthalmia or dry Deonatosis (dry scaly skin)
,Night: blindness because of reduction in red cone cells
B1 (thiamine) :BERI-BERI (Extreme weakness, pain in joints)
B2 (Riboflavin) :Ariboflavinosis (Blurred vision, cracks on skin at
angle of mouth)
B12 (Cyanocobalamin) :Pemiocin anemia (Reduction in RBCs)
B6 NIACIN (Nicotinic :Pellagra (Black Tongue)
acid (Peridoxin)
C (Ascorbic acid) :Scurvy
D (Calciferol) :Rickets (Pigeon chest in children), Osteomalacia
(adults)
E (Alpha Tocopherol) :Sterility
 Vitamins mainly act as “cofactors” for enzymatic activity.
5. NUCLEIC ACIDS
 CLASSES DNA – Deoxyribose
 RNA – Ribose
 Nucleoside = Sugar (Ribose/ Deoxyribose) + Nitrogenous base
 Nucleotide = Nucleoside + phosphate group
 Types of Bases
o Adenine
o Thymine/ uracil (RNA)
o Guanine
o Cytosine
 Nucleic acid: Frederick Mischer: Waston & crick – B DNA 9right handed helix)
 Bacteriophages – single stranded DNA
 Non-genetic RNAS
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 t-RNA- Transfers amino acids from cytoplasm to Ribosome m-RNA- 5% carries the
message from genes (DNA) r- RNA – Ribosomal RNA- Part of Ribosome (work
benches of protein synthesis.
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4. MICRO BIOLOGY
History
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek : invented the simple (single biconvex lens) in 1674,
Discovered Bacteria/microbial world
 Louis Pasteur : Postulated the ‘germ theory’ of disease, Pasteurization
 Spallanzani : First to provide evidence that micro-organisms do not arise
spontaneously in organic in fusions
 Robert Hooke : Discovered compound microscope
 Robert Koch : Koch postulates for test of disease
 Alexander Fleming (1929) : Discovered antibiotic ‘penicillium’
 Iwanowsky (1892) : Discovered Virus working with an extract from tobacco plants
infected with mosaic disease
 Beijerinck (1898) : Named ‘virus’ (infectious poison agent)
 Brefeld : Developed pure culture techniques for isolation of micro-organisms
 Hesse : First introduced agar as a solidifying agent in culture media
 Petri : Designed and developed glass dishes known today as petridishes
 Edward Jenner : Developed vaccine for Small pox
 ROBERT HOOK – used the word CELL
 ROBERT BROWN – used the word NUCLEUS
 M. SCHLEIDEN & SCHWANN – Cell Theory
 Haeckel proposed PROTISTA
 Whittaker 5 kingdom classification
1. Monera – Prokaryotes
2. Protista – Unicellular Eukaryotes
3. Plantae (Photo syn.) – Multicellular plants and higher algae.
4. Fungi (adsorption) – Multinucleate higher fungi.
5. Animalia (ingestion)
 BERGY’s manual of systematic bacteriology – is the standard for taxonomy
 Eukaryotic: Protozoa, fungi
 Prokaryotic : Bacteria, actinomycetes, BGA
 SIZE (approx.):
o Bacteria – 0.5-3.0 micro m
o Fungi – 1.5-10 micro m
o Protozoa – 2-200 micro m
o Viruses – 100-600 nano in MLO –0.1-0.3 micro m
o Algae – 0.1 micro m (BGA) to ‘x’ feet (higher algae)
o First living cell – e800 million year ago.
o First prokayotic cell – 1400 million years ago (achaean cra)
 Sterilization:
o A Physical agent: High Temp. – dry heat; 1800 C; 1.5 HOURS – 2 HOUR
- Moist heat; 15-20 min (121.6c)
- 15 pounds / inch pressure
 Pasteurization (with milk)
o Low temp High time 62.8c (30 min)
o High temp Low time 71,7c (15 second)
o L. T. – Microbistatic (-4 to –7c)
o H. T. Desiccation
o Osmotic Pressure
o Radiation U. V. (2650 A- Lambda)
o Gamma rays. (Co 60)
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o X-rays (5000-1,30,000 rads)

o Chemical agents
1) Phenol compound – cell wall; cyto. Membrane: protein denaturation
2) Alcohol’s – Protein, cytoplasmic membrane
3) Iodine, chlorine, - Enzyme destruction. Amino acids
4) Aldehyde- amino acids + enzymes
5) Ethylene oxide (Gas) – Enzyme + Amino acids
o Chemotheraputic agents:
1) Arsenic- for Syphilis (by Ehrlich)
2) Sulfonamide – for bacterial infection (by Domagk)
 Antibiotics:-
o Penicillin – Penicillium sp – G + ve; cellwall synthesis
o Tetracycline - S. aureofacines – G + ve, G-ve; Protein synthesis
o Bacitracin – Bacillus subtilis – G + ve, cell wall synthesis
o Chloramphenicol – S. venezuelae G + ve; G-ve, Protein synthesis
o Cycloheximide – S. venezuelae, protein synthesis, Eukaryote
o Nystain – S. nouresii Eukaryote membrane
o Erythromycin – S. nouresii – fungi – Prokaryote
o Erythromyci – S. erythreus G + ve, G-ve, Protein synthesis
o Neomycin – S. fradiae G + ve, G-ve, protein synthesis
 Non legumes – Alnus, casurna, Myrica – Frankia
 Associative Symbiosis – Azpospirillum
 Symbiosis – Rhizobium
 Stem and root nodules – Sesbania, Azorbizobium caulonodans,
 Azospirillum and Azotobacter- Cereals, oil seeds, vegetables, horticulture
- Seed treatment : 200g/ 10-12 kg seeds
- Seedling treatment : 1-2 kg/ ha
- Setts treatment : 2-3 kg/q
- Soil treatment : 4-5 kg/ha
 Microscopy:
1. Dark field microscope:
 Specimens are unstained, appear bright in a dark background
 Applications- For gross morphology in the living specimen
2. Phase contrast microscope:
 Unstained live microbial cells can be studied through this microscope
 Applications – For revealing cellular structures in living cells
 Enables to view living cells more clearly
 Causes a slight loss of resolution
3. Bright field:
 Specimen is stained or unstained
 Used for studying gross morphology of yeasts, molds, algae etc.
4. U V microscope:
 Appearance of specimen – Fluorescent
 Application – For differentiating cellular components
5. Fluorescence microscopy:
 Used for detecting specific types of antigens using an antibody tagged with
fluorescent dye
6. Electron microscope:
 Uses electromagnetic lenses and an electron beam
 Resolving power and magnification is much higher than any light
microscope
 Viewed on fluorescent screen
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7. Transmission electron microscope:

 Contrast results from differential scattering of electrons by the specimen
 Staining is done with salts of heavy metals as uranium. Tungsten
8. Scanning electron microscope:
 Provide three dimensional image of the object
 The surface topography of a specimen can be determined with a clarity and
depth which is not possible by any other method
The Nitrogen Cycle:
 Nitrogen constitutes about 78% of the earth’s atmosphere
 The nitrate form of nitrogen is mostly used by plants
a) Nitrification
 Process of conversion of ammonia into nitrate
 Examples – Nitrosomonas(ammonia to nitrite), Nitrobacteria(nitrite to
nitrate), Aspergillus, Penicillium
b) Denitrification
 Reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide
 Occurs in waterlogged anaerobic soils
 Examples – Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas
Biological Nitrogen Fixation:
 Fixation of the inert atmospheric elemental nitrogen by micro-organisms through a
reductive process
 Accounts for about 70% of the total nitrogen fixed in the biosphere
 Restricted to Bacteria only
a) A symbiotic / Free living Nitrogen fixation:
 Aerobic – Azotobacter, Blue green algae (BGA)
 Anaerobic – Clostridium, Chlorobium, Rhodospirillum etc.
b) Symbiotic Nitrogen fixation:
 Example – Rhizobium, Bacillus etc.
Important points:
 Nitrogen fixing enzyme – Nitrogenase (First discovered in 1960 from Clostridium
pasteurianum)
 Nitrogen fixing gene – Nif genes
 Elements involved in nitrogen fixation – Molybdenum
 Co-factor needed for nitrogen fixation – Cobalt (Co)
 Non legumes – Alnus, Casuarina, Myrica, Frankia sp
 Stem and root nodules – Sesbania, Azorhizobium cauloncians
 Leguminous crop not fixing nitrogen – Rajma (Phaseolus vulgaris)
 Phosphorus cycle – Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium,
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium
 Sulphur cycle – Thiobacillus, Arthrobacter, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
 Red pigment in the root nodules is known as Leg haemoglobin
 Bacteria not responsible for N-fixation- E.coli
 Nif gene is associated with – Rhizobium bacteriod
 Nitrogen fixation in rice field occurs due to presence of – Anabaena (BGA)
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5. CROP PHYSIOLOGY
RESPIRATION
 Respiration in plants consists of Glycolysis & Krebs Cycle and ETC (Electron
Transport Chain)
 Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm & Krebs cycle and ETC in the mitochondria
 Glycolysis is anaerobic.
 Total ATP synthesis from on molecule of glucose in respiration is 36 ATP (Net gain)
Gross production is 38 ATP
 Total ATP synthesis in glycolysis is 4 / glucose (Net gain – 2 ATP)
 Krebs cycle is also called as citric acid cycle or TCA (tricarboxylic acid cycle)
 Final product of glycolysis is pyruyate.
 Anaerobic respiration pathway products are ethanol and lactic acid.
 CO2 molecules are released from the mitochondria during respiration.
 Krebs cycle starts with acetyl coA and oxaloacetate
 Election transport chain is present in the cristae of mitochondria where: ATP is
synthesized in respiration.
 The high energy compound synthesized during respiration is by oxidative
phosphorylation of ADP with P (inorganic phosphate)
 Cytochromes are electron carriers involved in the respiratory election transport chain
 Energy content of molecule of glucose is 686 KCAL or 2870 KJ
 1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL
 1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL
 The energy currency of the cell is ATP
 Occurs in all living organisms except virus
 Catabolic process and oxidation-reduction reaction
 Raw materials used are glucose and oxygen
 During the breakdown of glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed
 Respiratory Quotient – ratio of Co2 evolved to ratio of O2 evolved, normal in plants –
0.97-1.17
 36 ATP molecules are formed on complete oxidation of a glucose molecule through
hexose monophosphate shunt cycle
 The net gain of energy by anaerobic respiration is 2 ATP molecules
 1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL
 1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL
 The no of Co2 molecule released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is zero
 The ratio of energy released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is 1:18
a) Glycolysis:
 Called as EMP pathway (Embden Meyerof paranas pathway) refers to degradation of
glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules
 Occurs in cytosol of cytoplasm
 Common for aerobic and aerobic respiration
 Pyruvic acid is the end product of Glycolysis
 Total ATP synthesis in Glycolysis is 4 glucose (Net gain – 2 ATP)
b) Krebs cycle:
 Also called TCA cycle, citric acid cycle, organic acid cycle, mitochondrial respiration
 The first stable product is citric
 Kreb’s cycle occurs in matrix of mitochondria-aerobic condition
 Krebs cycle starts with acetyl COA and oxaloacetate
 In Krebs cycle, the mineral activator required for enzyme aconitase is Fe
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 The only 5 C compound in TCA cycle is α- Ketoglutaric acid

c) Electron transport chain:
 Also called as respiratory chain or oxidative phosphorylation
 In general, it is found inside the mitochondria
 The process occurs on the inner membrane of cristae
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 × 1012
 Total carbon fixed by ocean per year =273 × 1011
 Blackmann – Explained the law of limiting factors
 Calvin (1954) – Traced the path of carbon in photosynthesis and gave the C3 cycle
 Hatch and Slack (1965) – Reported C3 pathway for carbon dioxide fixation in certain
tropical grasses
 The reduction of Co2 to carbohydrate level needs assimilatory products such as ATP
and NADPH + H+
 Reduction of Co2 occurs in dark but the production of assimilatory powers is light
dependent
 Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b
 Important accessory pigments in plants are carotenoids and xanthophylls
 Light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in thylakoids or Grana
 Dark reaction of photosynthesis take place in stroma
 Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process
a) Calvin cycle (C3 plants):
 The Co2 acceptor is Ribulose 1, 5- diphosphate
 The first stable product of photosynthesis is a 3 carbon compound Phosphoglyceric
acid (PGA)
 For synthesis of one glucose molecule 18 ATP are required
 Photorespiration is present and easily detectable
 Bundle sheaths cells are unspecialised
 The enzyme RUBP carboxylase or Rubisco is found in chloroplast stroma and is the
most abundant protein on earth
 Examples of C3 plants – Wheat, Barley, Oat, Rye, Rice, Pea, Soybean
b) Hatch and slack cycle (C4 PLANTS):
 The Co2 acceptor is phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP)
 Oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) is the first stable product
 Photorespiration is present only to a slight degree or absent
 30 ATP are required for the synthesis of one glucose molecule
 The most distinguishable anatomical feature of the leaves of C4 plants is the presence
of bundle sheath cells containing chloroplasts
 The bundle sheath cells lack Grana in their chloroplast
 Leaves of C4 plants show Kranz type of anatomy
 PEPCO enzymes are present in C4 plants
 C4 cycle is found only in certain tropical plants
 C4 plants are about twice as efficient as C3 plants in converting solar energy into the
production of dry matter
 Example of C4 plants – sugarcane, maize, pearl millet, Cyperus rotundus etc.
c) Crassulacean acid metabolism cycle (CAM cycle):
 Occurs in mesophyll cells
 Most (not all) CAM plants possess the succulent habit
 Examples – Bryophyllum, Opuntia, Agave, Pineapple etc.
 Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 x1012
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 Total carbon fixed by ocean per year = 273 x 1011

 Photosynthesis active radiation (PAR) = 400to 700 nm
 Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b
 Important accessory pigments is plants are carotenoids – (1) caroteins, (2)
xanthophylls
 Co2 concentration in the atmosphere is 350 ppm
 Photosynthesis reaction : Co2 + 2H2o + light =C6 H12 O6 + H2O + O2
 Two parts of photosynthesis:
 Light it action or hill reaction takes place in grana of chloroplast dark reaction of
Calvin
 Cycle takes place in stroma of chloroplast
 The products of the light reaction are ATP and NADPH2
Three types of Photosynthesis Mechanisms
 C3 pathway or reductive pentose pathway or Blackman reaction (Calvin cycle): Rice,
Wheat, Pea, Soyabean, Barley.
 C4 pathway (Hatch – sack pathway or Dicarboxylic acid pathway): Sorghum, Maize,
Sugarcane or B-carboxylation cycle or cooperative Photo synthesis
 CAM pathway (Crassulacean acid metabolism) (Pineapple, opuntia, Agave)
 The most important enzyme involved in photosynthetic CO2 fixation is Rubisco
(Ribulose-bi phosphate carboxylase).
 Rubisco is also the most abundant protein in the world.
 C3 plant first enzyme in CO2 fixation: Rubisco
 C4 Plants first enzyme in CO2 fixation: PEP carboxylase
 Water use efficiency: CAM>C4>C3
 In photosynthesis light energy is converted into chemical energy
 Light reaction takes place in the Thylakojds and dark reaction takes place in the
stroma of
 the chloroplast
 Higher productive plants: C4 (Maize, S. Cane, sorghum)
 High productive plants: C3 (Wheat, Rice Pulses)
 Low Productive plants: CAM (Pineapple)
 C4 plants two types of photosynthesis cells; Mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells
(Kranz type leaf anatomy)
 Photorespiration occurs in C3 plants in light only.
 Normal respiration/ Dark respiration occurs in all cells all the time in all the plants.
 Calvin cycle & Hatch – Slack pathway occurs in chloroplast
 Chlorophyll molecule contains Mg3+ion in its structure
 Photosynthetic rate is the highest in C4 plants
 The processes of formation of ATP in chloroplast with the help of light is called as
 photophosrylation or photosynthetic phosporylation.
 First product of photosynthesis – 3 PGA in C3
 One NADH2 will prpoduce 3 ATP
 One FADH2 will produce 2 ATP
PHOTORESPIRATION
 Refers to production of Co2 in respiration from 2 C compounds in presence of light
 Reported only in green cells such as Beta, Phaseolus, glycine, Oryzae, Pisum,
Gossypium, Capsicum, Helianthus etc
 Discovered by DECKER in tobacco plants
 Substrate for photorespiration is glycolic acid (2 c) and hence called as C2 cycle or
glycolate metabolism
 It occurs in between chloroplast, cytosol, peroxisome and mitochondria
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 It occurs in C3 plants and temperate plants

 The presence of photorespiration process decreases the photosynthetic efficiency of
plants
 Photorespiration is said to be highest in Rice
 Serine amino acid is produced in photorespiration
 Photorespiration involves more than one organelle
 In photorespiration, NAD is reduced to NADH2
MINERAL NUTRITION
 Essential element – (criteria proposed by Arnon and stout)
(1) In the absence of that element, plants is not able to complete its life cycle
(2) The element should not be substituted by other element
(3) Element should form a part of any molecule or constituent of the plant.
 Beneficial element –They do not form the constituent of plant can grow without it but
if present it is advantageous to the plant
 Macronutrients: C, H, O, N, S, Ca, Mg, K, P (>100 µg/g dry matter)
 Micronutrients : Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo (100 µg/ g dry mater)
 Mobile elements: N,P,K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Cl, Zn and Na
 Immobile elements: Bo, Fe, Ca, Cu, S
 Beneficial elements: Co, Sl, Selenium, Na, Ni
 Cobalt: Legumes
 Silicon: Rice, Maize
 Nickel: Legumes
 Criteria of the essentiality of mineral elements propose by Arnon and stout
 Atleast 60 elements are present in plants out of which only 16 are essential
 Carbon: (46% dry weight basis)
o Source: Co2 from the air
o Function: Most of the compounds in the living cells are C-containing.
 Oxygen: (50%)
o Source: O2, Co2, H2o
o Function: The most abundain elements by weight in plants Required for all
compounds in plants.
 Hydrogen: (6%)
o Source: H2O
o Function: Most abundant elements by number of atoms Present in all the
compounds in the living cell component of H2O
 Nitrogen: 1.5%
o Source: NO3, NH4 in the soil solution, Legumes through N2 fixation.
o Function: All the crops prefer No3-(Nitrate) except Rice which prefers NH4 +
(ammonium)
o Components of nucleic acid. Chlorophyll molecule, Proteins
o Deficiency: Pale yellow leaves & reduced growth redleaves in cereals
o Red colour develops in Apple due to the anthocyanin production
o Root lengthening in wheat
o Excess Nitrogen leads to vegetative growth, delay in flowering
 Phosphorus: (0.2-0.8%)
o Source : H3PO4 & Hpo4 from the soil solution
o Function: Component of nucleic acid, Phospholipids (Membranes), ATP
o Deficiency: variable colour development in leaves (Dark green) reduced
tillering & leaf fall. Anthocyanin produced give pink colour.
 Potassium:
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o Only present in plants as K+ not bound to any components

o Function: Stomatal closing & opening
o Disease resistance
o Osmotic adjustment, needed for cell elongation
o Deficiency: rosette, die back in plants
 Chlorosis:
o Stunted growth & Thin shoots
o Tip burns & leaf scorch in older leaves
 Magnesium
o Constitutent of chlorophyll
o Activates many enzymes
o Deficiency: Older leaves affected Cholorosis. Sand drown disease in tobacco
 Sulphur: 0.1%
o Source: Soluble sulphates
o Functions: Aminoacids (Cystein and Methonene)
o Coenzyme A
o Volatile Oils
o Deficiency: Downward cupping of leaves e.g. tobacco, Torr, Tea,
o Tea yellow disease
o Chlorosis
 Calcium:
o Functions: Calcium pectate is present in the middle lamella of the cell wall
o ATPase activator
o Counteract metal toxicity
o Deficiency: Young leaves are mostly affected
o Hooked tips & distort leaves
 Iron
o Component of cytochromes, Catalase, peroxidase
o Deficiency: L
o Intervienal Chlorosis (iron Chlorosis)
o Leaf bleaching (S. Cane)
Deficiency symptoms of Elements:

 N: general starvation
 Fe: Intervienal chlorosis e.g. S. Cane
 Mn: Grey speck Disease of oats, pahla blight of sugarcane, marsh spot of pea
 Copper: Die back disease of citrus or exanthema, Reclamation, white tip disease
 Zinc: Mottled leaf of citrus, drenching of citrus
 Little leaf/ Rosette as in Apple, Pine, Peach walnut, citrus etc, white tip of maize
 Khaira disease of rice
 Molybdenum: Whip tail of cauliflower and brassicae, scald of legumes
 Boron: Heart rot of sugar beet and marigold
 Canker of table beet
 Browning & Hallow stem of cauliflower
 Cracked stem of alfa-alfa
 Hard fruits of Citrus
 Top sickness of Tobacco
 Water core of turnip
 Phosphorus: Sickle leaf disease
 Calcium: blossom End Rot (BER) in tomato and Tip hooking in cauliflower
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:
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 Thiamann – suggested the use of term “Phytohormone” in plants

 Phytohormone are organic substances which are naturally produced in plants
AUXINS (weakly acidic growth hormone):
 Auxin was named by KOGL. It is a Greek word derived from ‘Auxein’ which means
to grow
 Naturally occurring Auxin – IAA
 Synthetically produced auxins are – NAA, IBA, 2, 4 – D, MCPA
 Anti-auxins – Naphthythalamic acid (NTA) , Ethylene chlorohydrins
 Active sites of auxins – shoot tip region, coleoptiles and developing embryos etc.
 The Auxin synthesis occurs rapidly in green leaves in presence of light than the in the
dark
 Tryptophan is the precursor of IAA and zinc is required for its synthesis
 Translocation of auxins is polar
 The site of Auxin transport is located on the plasma lemma
 Avena curvature test and split pea stem curvature test are the bioassays that are
generally used for auxins
 Role of auxins:
1. Promotes apical dominance
2. Increases cell division in cambium
3. Promote the elongation of cells
4. Auxin increase in shoot and decrease in root
5. Induces uniform flowering in pineapple
6. IBA promotes rooting of cutting
GIBBERELLINS:
 Second important growth hormone found in plants
 Discovered by KUROSAWA (1926)
 First isolated from Gibberella fujikuroi, the causal organism of “foolish seedling of
rice” or commonly called Bakanae disease of rice.
 Gibberellins are CYCLIC DITERPENES with gibbane skeleton
 Gibberellins moves in both xylem and phloem
 Chemically gibberellins are related to terpenoids and its precursor is N- Kaurene
 Anti- gibberellins: phosphon D, Cycocel (CCC), Maleic hydrazide, paclobutrazol
 Role of gibberellins:
1. Breaking of dormancy
2. Induction of flowering in long day plants
3. Promotes male flowers production
4. Enhances seed germination
5. The most important effect of GA is the stem elongation i.e. GA induces internode
elongation or sub apical elongation
CYTOKININS:
 Plays a key role in higher plants and moves through xylem
 Miller and Skoog – identified kinetin
 Term cytokinin proposed by Letham (1963)
 The first naturally occurring hormone identified – Zeatin
 Root tip is an important site of cytokinin synthesis
 Precursor of cytokinin is either adenine or adenosine i.e. purine bases
 Mobility is polar and basipetal
 Role of cytokinin:
1. Initiation of cell division
2. Delay of senescence
3. Induce flowering in short day plants
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4. Promotes stomatal opening

5. Promote femaleness in male flowers
ABSCISSIC ACID (ABA):
 Naturally occurring growth regulator
 It acts as stress hormone
 ABA first identified by WAREING (1965)
 Lunalaric acid found in algae and liverworts acts similar to abscissic acid
 Violoxanthin serves as a precursor for biosynthesis of ABA
 Biosynthesis of ABA also takes place through mevalonic acid
 It is a terpenoids
 Bioassays are – rice seedling growth inhibition test and inhibition of α amylase in
barley endosperm
 Role of ABA:
1. Induces bud dormancy and enhances the process of abscission
2. Senescence of leaf is promoted by ABA
3. Stimulates the release of ethylene
4. Brings the closure of stomata during water stress
5. ABA is called ANTI- GIBBERELLIN.
ETHYLENE:
 It is known as RIPENING HORMONE
 Production increased with increase in respiration rate
 Auxin increases ethylene level in plants
 Naturally occurring volatile hormone
 BURG (1962) established that ethylene is the only gaseous growth regulator
 Maximum ethylene is formed in ripening fruits and senescing tissues
 Biosynthesis of ethylene occurs from methionine which is a sulphur containing amino
acid
 Inhibitors of ethylene synthesis are amino-ethoxyvinylglcine
 Bioassays for ethylene are triple pea test and pea stem swelling test
 Role of ethylene:
1. Responsible for fruit ripening with increase in respiration
2. Induces uniform flowering and ripening in pineapple
3. Inhibits stem elongation and cause abscission of leaves
4. Induces fruiting in ornamental plants
5. ETHEPHON- increase latex flow in rubber
OTHERS:
 Glysophosine – used to ripen sugarcane
 Florigen (flowering hormone) – initiation of flowering in plants
 Traumatic acid (wound hormone) – found in injured portions of a plant
 Xanthoxin – destruction product of Violoxanthin and forms ABA
 Brassins – steroid, isolated from pollen grains of Brassica
 Jasmonic acid – Methyl ester in jasmine, inhibits growth and promote senescence
Important points:
 Potassium ions (K+) play an important role in the opening and closing of stomata
 Plant transpirants – colourless plastics, silicone ols, phenyl mercuric acetate, Absiccic
acid, Co2 etc.
 Porometer is used for measuring transpiration
 The growth is maximum during exponential phase
 Transpiration takes place through stomata, lenticels or cuticle
 Guttation refers to exudation of water from plants in the form of liquids
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 Short day plants – soybean, potato, sugarcane, cosmos, chrysanthemum, tobacco,

rice, onion, upland cotton, strawberry, datura etc
 Long day plants – spinach, lettuce, radish, alfalfa, sugar beet, opium, poppy, oats,
wheat etc.
 Day neutral plants –tomato, cucumber, cotton, pea, sunflower, maize etc.
 Vernalisation – refers to method on inducing early flowering in plants by pre-
treatment of their seeds at very low temperature
 Hormone responsible for vernalisation is vernalin
 Water use efficiency is highest in CAM plants followed by C4 and C3 plants
 Photosynthetic efficiency is highest in C4 plants
 To make one molecule of glucose, 6 turns of Calvin cycle are required
 The efficiency of photosynthesis is 40 %
 The ratio of photosynthesis to respiration during day time is 10:1
 In most succulent plants, Co2 is fixed by the activity of PEP carboxylase
 The ratio of Co2 reduced and oxygen released during photosynthesis is 1:1
 DCMU is an example of photosynthetic inhibitor
 The products of light reaction are ATP and NADPH2
 Major form of carbon transfer in plants is by sucrose
 For photosynthesis, the visible range of spectrum between 250 to 750 nm is essential
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6. ENTOMOLOGY
PESTS OF SUGARCANE
1) Shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus (crambidae) or early shoot borer
 Number of feeding punctures near the base of shoot. Rotten portion of straw colored
dead heart emits offensive odour. It can be pulled out eastly.
 Control: Earthing up during early stage.
- Trash mulching
- Trichogramma Chilonis
 Soil application of Gammas HCH emulsion @ 1 kg a.i./ha over the cane sets in
famous at the time of planting
 Granulosis Virus can also be used
2) Top borer: Scirphophaga excerptalis (Pryalidae)
 Midrib tunnelling. Shot – holes on axial bud growth leaves, dead heart and can be
pulled out easily and given bunchy top appearance, Acrial root formation.
 Control:
i. Avoiding of frequent irrigation
ii. Carbofuran @ 1 kg a.i./ha synchronizing with brood emergence
iii. Trichogramma japonicum
iv. Pre-pupal parasitoid Isotima Javensis
v. Resistant var: COJ67, CO 1007
3) Internode borer: Chilo sacchaviphagus indicus (crambidac)
 Attack starts from 4th months onwards. Internodes constricted and shortened with
many bore holes: fresh bore holes with wet frass, stunted growth. Major pests in
peninsular India. Hardening of internodes.
 Control: Detrashing at 5.7 & 9th months
-T- chilonis @ 3.5 cc/ha/fortnight from 4th month until a month before harvest.
4) Gurdaspur borer: (Crambidae) Acigone steniellea
 Two phases: Gegarious phase – feed on first internode from to & may larvae enter
into the core through single hole.
 Solitary phase – dispersed to other came by silhen treads.
5) White grub: Holotrichia consanguinea: H. Serrata. (Meloionthidae Anomula
begglensis (Rutelinae)
 Drying of crops : Yellowing & nibbling of leaves: roots eaten away.
 Control: Netarhizium onisopliae
o Pudding & crop rotation
o B. Popillae milky disease
6) Termites: Odentotermes spp: Microtermes obesi
 Older leaves dry up first & cane falls down if disturbed.
 Filled with moist soil inside the papery rind.
7) Sugarcane scale: Melanaspis glomerate: (diaspridiadae)
 Grayish block appearance of stem. Reduced yield, juice quality of Jaggery production
 Control: Detrashing & Trash burning.
8) Leaf hopper: Pyrilla perpusilla (Lophopidae)
 Yellowish white spots on leaves; sooty mould on later stages.
 Control: Externel parasitoid: Epiricarlia melanoleuca (Ephpyropidae)
 Green muscardine fungus: Aceria sacchari (Eriophyidae)
 Forming a circular Ereneum gall in the inner side of the leaf sheath
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PESTS OF WHEAT
 The rabi crops which are seriously damaged by white grub beetle are wheat and
potato.
 Wheat shootfly: Atherigona naquii
 Ghujia weevil: Taenymecus indicus is a pest of wheat, barley gram and mustard. The
adult weevils cut to germinating seedlings grub feed on soil humus.
 Wheat aphid: Macrosiphum miscanthi
 Wheat gall nematode or ear cockle nematode: Anguina triticl Bacterium associated:
Corynebacterium tritici
 Seed galls/ Thundu disease/ yellow ear rot (Bacterium+Nematode)
o Mgt. Hot water treatment of seeds at 500C for 2 hrs.
 Wheat stems borer: Sesamia inferens (Noctuidae).
PESTS OF RICE
 Yellow stem borer: Scirpophaga incertulas (Pyraustidae)
- Deed heat in young seedlings
- White earhead in panicle stage. No grain formation.
- Monophagous pest
Control:
 Parasitiods: Tetrastichus Schoenobii; egg parasitiod Trichogramma Japonicum
o Destruction of stubbles
o Host plant resistance: TKM 6 resistant variety contains Penta deconal &
silica.
o Pheromone Oviposition deterants in rice for stem borer
 Gall fly or gall midge: Orseoeoa oryzae (Cecidomyiidae)
o Silver shoot or onion leaf which is a modified leaf sheathcaused by maggot.
o Bio control agent: Playigaster oryzae
 Leaf folder: cnapholocrocis medinalis (Pyraustidae)
o Longitadial folding of leaves & drying of leaves by larva.
o Control: Avoid use of excess nitrogen
o Parasitoids: Trichogramma Japomcum
 Green leaf hopper: Nephotettix virescens (Cicadellidae)
o yellowing of leaves
o Vector of rice Tungro, Yellow dwarf, Transitory yellowing
 Brown planthopper: Nilaparvata lugens (Delphacidae)
o Hopper burn drying burning symptom in young plants. Circular patches of
drying. Vector of grassy stunt. Ragged stunt and wilted stunt.
o Avoid use of excess nitrogen
o Resistant varieties: Py3, CO42, Mudgo (low aspargine content)
o Resurgence causing pesticides: Acephate, Fenthion, Phosphamidon,
synthetic Pyrethriods, Methyl demeton
o Predators: Cyrtorhimus lividipennis Lycosa sp. Microvetia sp.
 Ear head bug: Leptocorisa acuta: L. oratorius (Gundhi bug) (Alydidae): chaffy
grains with black spot. Feeds on tender stem. Peduncle and milky grains leads to
chaffy ear head.
o Control: Fenthion 100 EC 200 ml
o Malathion 5% dust @ 10 kg/ha.
o Clean cultivation- removal of weeds & grasses.
 Rice root nematode: Hirschmaiviella oryzae (Mentck disease)
 White up rematode or spring dwarf nematode: Aphelexhcopdes besseyi hot water
treatment of seeds at 520C for to min.
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 Rice stem nematode: ditylenchus angustus

 Larva disease in rice.
 Rice case worm: Nymphula depunctalis
 Larva with in tubular cases. Floating on water.
PESTS OF COTTON:
 consuming 54% of total inscticide in India though the area under cotton is only 5%
1) Cotton jassid or leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (A.biguttula biguttula cicadellidae)

 Hopper burn yellowing, curling, bronzing & drying.
2) Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Aleyrodidae)
 Shedding of leaves, stunting of plants, bud boll opening and poor quality lint.,
contamination of lint with honey dew and sooty mould appearance.
 Vector of cotton leaf curl virus disease in Punjab.
 Whitefly outbreak on cotton in AP during 1985-86.
 Outbreak was due to indiscriminate use of insecticides particularly synthetic
pyrethroids against Heliothis.
3) Spotted bollworm: Earias vitella
 Spiny bollworm: Earias insulana (Noctuidae)
 Symptom: Boring of terminal shoots of young, plants “Flaring of squares” and
boring of young bolls frass at the entrance hole.
 Moths are green in colour.
4) Pink bollworm: Pectinophora gossypiella (Gelichidae)
 Symptom: Rosetting of flowers
 Eating of seeds
 Double seed formation, Locular burrowing
 Diapause during winter
5) American bollworm: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae)
 Large, circular bore holes with faecal pellets. Larvae feed by thrusting their heads
alone inside.
6) Red cotton bug: Dysdercus cingulatus (Pyrrhocoridae)
 Roting of bolls: water soaked spots
 Lay eggs in soil
 Bacterim associated: Nematospora gossypii – staining of hint.
 Control measures: All pests
 Crop rotation with cereal: i) Bhendi should not be grown in rotation
o ii) Yellow sticky trap for monitoring whitefly
o iii) Whitefly tolerant var. LPS 141 and Supriya
o iv) Pheromone trap for PBW (Gossyplure)
 Pheromone trap for Helicopiveria (Helilure)
 Biological control:
o Trichogramma chilonis against bollworms
o Spodoptera NPV 250-500 LE/ha (1 LE=6x109 POB= 3 larvae)
o Helicoverpa NPV
o B.t. Formulation against early instars of bollworms
o Synthetic pyrethriods should be used only during peak flowering and boll
formation stages.
7) Stem weevil: Pempherulus affinis
 Stem gall near the base of the plant
 MCU 3 – resistant variety
 Control – soil application of granular insecticide/Neem cake
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PESTS OF CHICK PEA (BENGAL GRAM)

 Helicoverpa armigera – Gram pod borer or gram caterpillar consume foliage and
developing pods.
 Greasy cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon (Noctuidae)
Cut the stems at ground level
TERMINOLOGY:
 Regular pest: Occur most frequently on cultivated crops
Eg.: cotton bollworms, Brinjal fruit borer
 Occasional pest: Occurring less frequently
Eg.: case worm on rice
 Seasonal pests: Occurs in a particular season of year
Eg.: red hairy caterpillar on groundnut
 Persistent pest: Occurs throughout the year on crops
Eg.: chilli thrips, Rose thrips
 Sporadic pests: Occurs in a few isolated localities
Eg.: Gall midge on rice in Madurai area
 Endemic pests: Occurs in same Agril. Area year after year
Eg.: nematode on potato in Nilgris
 Migratory pests: Moves from one area to others and causes damage
Eg.: Locust
 Epidemic pests: Occur in particular area/season in severe form
 Pandemic pests: Occur in a large geographical area/entire country or continent
Eg.: locust outbreak
Pesticide calculation:
1) Apply 0.75 kg a.i./ ha of 3% carbofuran granules
Formula: Rec. Dose of ai./ha

x 100
% al. of formulation
0.75x100 =25kg granules/ha

3
2) Quantity of Malathion 50 EC required spraying 1 ha of field, o.5% strength
Pesticide V1 x N1 = V2 x N2 (Spray fluid)
V1 = V2 x N2 (500 lit of spray fluid in required/ha)

N2
500x0.5
= = 5 liters
50
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7. AGRONOMY
PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY:
1. CLIMATE AND ITS INFULENCE ON CROPS
 Weather is a condition of atmosphere at a given place at a given time
 Climate is a weather condition over a given region during a longest period.
 Structure of atmosphere
 Troposphere- statosphere- Mesosphere – lonosphere par
 All weather phenomous like rain, fag, above mist occur in Troposphere zone found in
stratosphere.
 Solar constant: Energy falling in one minute is a surface area of one square cm at the
outer boundary of atmosphere.
 It is equivalent to 1.94 cal/cm2 /min.
 Photosyntheticaly Active Radiation
 Photoperiodic effect – influence of crop growth by the relative length of day and night
especially for floral inition
 Long day plant – plants require long day (>14 hrs.) for floral inifiation (eg. Wheat,
Barley, Oat)
 Short day plant – Plants require shorkerday (less than 10 hrs) ( eg. Rice, Sorghum
Maize)
 Neutral plants – cotton, sunflower, buck wheat
 Average rainfall in India – (120 cm)
 Rain bearing clouds – cumulonimbus, cumulus.
 Rainy day – if the rainfall received is more than 2.5 mm on a particular day it is called
as rainy day.
 Instruments
o Radiation: Pyranometer: Pressure : Barograph
o Photosynthetically active radition: quantum sensor
o Temperature: Thermograph: Humidity-Psychrometer (or) hygrometer
o Dew: Darosometer: water table: Pizometer rain –Raingauge
o Soil moisture : Tensiometer
 Chemical used for cloud seeding – Silver iodide for cold clouds sodium chloride for
warm cloud
 Indian Meteorological organization situated in PUNE
 Isotherm – Lines of equal temperature
 Isobar – Lines of equal pressure
 Isohyets- Lineo of equal rainfall
 Isotach – Lines of equal wind speed
 Kharif season crop- June to September crops (sorghum, maize, rice, cotton, pegion
pea, other pulses, ground nut)
 Rabi season crops – crop grown during winter (October March) eg. wheat, chickpea,
oat, barley, sun flower.
2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
 C3 plant – eg. Rice, wheat , cotton, soybean
 Enzyme- ribulose 1.5-bisphosphate carboxylate photorespiration is high in C3 plants
(Rubisco)
 C4 Plants- sugarcane, maize, sorgham pearl millet enzyme PEP Carboxylase
 CAM- Pine apple; sisal, ogave
 Plant growth regulators (commercial use) in Agriculture.
 Abscisic acid- Cotton defoliatant; 2.4, -D- herbicide
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 Glyphosate – Sugarcane ripener: gabbroic acid – seed less grape

 NAA- fruits thinner, flower initiation
 MH – Succur control in tobacco, Ethelene – ripening of fruits
3. SOIL & FERTILIZER

 Soil fertility – Inherent capacity of soil to supply adequated nutrients
 Soil Productivity – Capacity of soil to produce in terms of yields.
 Soil texture – relative proportion of soil particles i.e. clay silt. And sand
 Soil structure – arrangement of soil particles
 Particle dimension: Sand 0.2 to 0.02, silt 0.02 to 0.002
 Clay < 0.002, gravel> 2mm
 Crumby structure is better for crop cultivation
 Pore space occupied by water and rain
 Total pore space is more in clay soil
 Bull density – weight of soil per unit volume- 1.5g/cm3
 Particle density – weight of solid portion of soil per unit volume – 2.6g/cm3
 % pore space – Particle density – bulkdensity
------------------------------------ x 100
particle density
 Soil air- Co2 concentration over 0.3%
 Well decomposed organic matter is called as humus
 Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration for organic matter – 12:1
o Legume – 23:1 cereals –90% FYM : 100
 Soil water:
 Field capacity – the soil moisture held by the soil against gravitation
 Force: energy status - -0.1 to 0.33 bar
 Available soil moisture: -0.33 bar to –15 bar =1569 g
 Annual fertilizer consumption: 16:18 MT
 Per ha fertilizer consumption = 76:8 kg/ha
 Fertilizer :
 Organic fertilizer – urea; Neutral fertilizer – CAN 9calcium ammonium nitrate)
 Recommended ratio of NPK for crops 4:2:1 NPK
 At present India to consumption ratio: 9:3:1 NPK
 Per area fertilizer consumption more in Punjab union feretory
 Pondichery. Total pesticide consumption
 Deficiency disorders:
 Mn. Gray speck in oat, Marsh spot in pea, pahala blight in sugarcane
 Cu. Reclamation disease in cereals
 Zn. Kharif in rice, white (bud) in maize, Frenching on citrus
 Mo. Whiptail is cauliflower
 Mg. Is a constituent of chlorophyll
 Bo. Browning of cauliflower
 Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria: Rhizobium
 Gene responsible for N fixation – Nif genes
 Micro element needed for N fixation Molybdenum
 Free living N fixing bacteria Azotobactor, clostridium
 Micro organism associated with casuavina frankia
 Conversion of ammonia to nitrite – Nitrosomonas,
 Conversion of nitrite of Nitrate- Nitrobacter
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4. TILLAGE
 Tilth physical condition of soil resulting from Tillage
 Implements used for primary tillage: country plough , Mouldboard, Plough, Bose
plough
 Implements used for secondary tillage –( blade harrow, disc harrows tractor drawan
ultivator)
 Breeding sub soil – chisel plough
 Pudding – Wet land puddler, tractor drawn cage wheel
 Sowing – Mechanical seed drill
 Weeding – Japanese rotary weeder
 Net sown = 143 mha (1998) and 142.22 mha 1999
 Rainfed = 92 mha (1998)
 Irrigated = 50 mha, 25 mha (37.6%)
5. IRRIGATION
 Potential area under irrigation 89.44 mha
 Major irrigation project – Project covering more than 10,000 ha of command area
 Medium – 2000- 10,000ha
 Minor irrigation project – less than 2000 ha
 1 ha cm = 1 lakh liter of water 1 cubic metre – 1000 litre of water
 1 cu feet – 28.32 liters
 Duty of water – Number of hectare irrigated by constant flow of one current of water
 Delta – Total depth of water irrigated by one ha.
 Transpiration – gaseous loss of water from the surface leaf
 Evapotranspiration – Evaporation + Transpiration
 Water use efficiency – Ratio between yield and Evapotranspiration or WUE = Y/ ET
 Consumptive use
 Irrigation efficiency more in clay soil. less the sandy soil
 Type of irrigation
 Flooding – rice, check basins wheat finger millo (ground pit)
 Basin method – Fruit, crops: furrow irrigation, cotton, sugarcane tobacco, vegetables;
sprinkler undulated areas
 Important river project:
Rive Name of the project states benefited
1. Damodar Damodar valley project West Bengal
2. Sutlet Bhakra; nangal Punjab, H. P Rajasthan
(Indira Gandhi)
3. Kosi Kosi Dam Bihar/Nepal
4. Mahanadi Hirakund (largest dam Orrisa
in the world)
5. Krishna Nagaarjuna sagar Andra, Karnataka
6. Tungabhadra Tunga bhadra project KN, AP
7. Chambal Gandhi sagar, Kota Borrage MP. Rajasthan
(Ranna pratap sagar)
 Water requirement of crops:
 Rice – 1250 mm wheat 300-400 mm groundnut 550-600. sugar cane 2250-2500mm
6. DRY FARMING
 The practice of crop production entirely with rainwater received during the crop
season in low rainfall (<800mm) areas is called as dry or dryland farming.
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 Arid climate: Extremely dry climate with an annual average precipitation usually less
than 250 mm.
 Seed hardening: Process of subjecting seeds before sowing to alternate cycle of
wetting and drying to induce tolerance to drought.
 Proline: Chemicals, K2H2SO4, KCL 0.5 is an amino acid which is increased in
plants during drought.
 Water harvesting – Collecting and storage water on the surface of soil for
subsequent use.
 Antitrans pirants – Any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing
water loss.
 Types:
o Stomatal closing type- Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA)
o Film forming type – Mobileaf, Silicone oil
o Reflectant- Kaoline spray
o Growth retartent – cycocel
7. HERBICIDES
 Selective herbicide – Kills only targeted plants on weeds while crops are ont affected
Eg. Siomazine, atrazine, 2,4-D butachlor, alachlor, fluchloralin, pendimethalum
MCPA, Glyphosate, Propanil
 Non Selective herbicide – Kill all vegetation that they come in confact.
Eg. Paraquat, Diquat.
 Systemic herbicide: Systemic herbicide move within the plant
Eg: Atrayine, simayibne, propanil, 2.4-D MCPA, Glypthocte Butachlor, Fluchloralin.
etc.
 Contact herbicide – Kills plants when they come in contact with plants
Eg. Diquat, Paraquat.
 Pre-emergence application – application of herbicide before the emergence of weeds.
(c4) Paraquat, Diguat, 2.4-D, Propanil, Isoproturon, Glyphosate .
 Pre Planting incorporation – application of herbicide before sowing of crops eg.
Fluchloralin.
 Soil sterilenths – (eg.) Diuron, Atrazine, Methyl bromide
Effective herbicides on Monocotylidous weeds –
eg. Delapon, Fluchloalin.
 Herbicides which have low residual toxicity- Diquat paraquat
 Herbicides which have high residual toxicity – Diuron, Atrazine.
 Parasitic weeds - Weds which derives foods directly from the host plant
 Total stem parasite - Cuscuta associated with lucorn crop
 Partial stem parasite - Loranthus associated with tree crops
 Total root parasite - Orabanche associated with Tobacco
 Partial root parasite - Striga associated with sorghum
 Aquative weeds - Weeds growing in water bodies eg. Water hyacinth,
hydrilla, Salvania, cattail weeds.
 Allelopathy – One plant having detrimental effect on other plants by releasing root
chemical through roots.
8 . CROPPING SYSTEM
 Mono Cropping – Growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year
 Multive cropping – Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one
calender year.
 Inter cropping – Growing 2 or more crops simultaneously with definite row
arrangement.
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 Sequential cropping- Growing at low or more crops in sequate on the same piece of
land in a farming year.
 Cropping Intensity – Ratio between grass sown area and Net sown area is
Gross Sown Area
X 100
Net sown ares
=131.2%
 Zaid cropping – Growing of crops in between Kharif and rabbi season
 Jham/ shifting cultivation – The slash and burn type of cultivation in the hill treats of
North Eastern Region.
 Catch crop – Quick growing crop incidentally planted and harvested in between two
major crops, mainly to utilize residual fertilizer
 Cover crop – Crops which are grown primarily to cover the soil and to reduce the loss
of moisture and eroion
 Multy storey cropping- system of growing together crops of different heights at the
same time on the same piece of land (eg.) coconut + Pepper + cocoa + Pineapple
9. WEED MANAGEMENT
 Weed : is an unwanted plants, a plant out of place
 Classification of weeds
1. Based on duration:
(a) Annuals – Complete their life eyclein one year eg. Phaloris monr, Echinocloa
colonum, Amaranthus (Pig weed family)
(b) Binneal weeds – complete their life cycle in five years (eg.)
Alternanithra echinata; Eichorrutim intybus
© Perennial weeds – More than 2 years
(eg.) cynodam dactylon, cyperus rotundus
2) Based on Morphological Characters:
(a) Grasses – weeds belong to the family of graminance
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PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION:
1. SUGARCANE
 The sugarcane flowering in called as Arrowing,
 Sacharum Spontoneum – wild type cane
 S. officinarium - Called as Noble can used for chewing purpose
 Adsali sugarcane - Sugarcane which takes 18 months for harvesting usually
planted in June/July (kharif)
 Eksali sugarcane - It takes 12 months for maturity. Usually planted in
December/ January is south India Feb/Apri in North India
(Due to late harvest of Rice)
 Brix Meter - is the instrument used to the maturity of sugarcane Brix
meter madding of 18-22% is ideal time before harvest sugar
or sucrose content of cane 10 %
 Largest area and - U.P 957% area, 47% products )
Production
 Highest productivity - Tamil Nadu
 Seed rate - 3 budged set 25-30000 sets 2 bud – 45-50000 sets and single
budded : 1.25000
 Spacing - 90 cm between the rows
 Fertilizer - – 270:150:120 kg kg a.i./ha
 Sugarcane ripener - Glyphosine 5 kg / ha
 Weeds - Sorghum halapense, Cynodan dectylon cypones
 Herbicides - Atrazine @ 1 kg a.i./ha
 Post emergence - 2,4-D
 Varieties - Red rot resistant var – Co 1148, co 19,B17
 Smut resistant var - co 52-7, 449
 Wonder cane - COC 671 (highest sugar %)
 Yield - North India –60-100 t/ha
 South India (Tn) - 120-140 t/ha
2. Wheat –
 Triticum aestivum – Are 7 mha. Production 70.8 mt. Highest production- UP; Highest
productivity – Punjab, protein – 11%, Protein of wheat is called as glutelin.
 Three groups of wheat are (1) Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat) 87% of area (2) T.
durum (Macroni wheat) 12% of area (3) T. dicoccum (Emmer wheat) 1% area.
 Varieties – Normal sown- Kalyansona, Sonora 64; Lermaroja
 Sabarmathi sonora (Mutant var), Arjun, Heera
 Late Sown – Sonalika
 Season – Normal sown – 1 fortnight of November
 Late sown – II fortnight of November
 Seed rate- 100 Kg. Spacing 22.5 cm between rows, No spacing between plants, depth
of sowing, depth – 5 cm dwarf varieties,
 Critical period for irrigation – Crows not initiation stage (20-25 DAS)
 Weeds – phalaris minor, wild oat, Herbicides- Isoproturon, 2.4 D (post emergence)
 Fertilizer – 80: 40: 40 kg NPK/ha
 Yield - Average 2500 kg/ ha
 Gene responsible for dwarf in wheat – Norin –10
3. Rice
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 Oryza sativa – Area 40 mha, production 86 mt. Highest production and productivity
west bengal protein content –7% Gene responsible for dwarf varieties – DEE-gee-
woo-gen
 Three types- 1) Indica (long stem which had lodging tendency)
 2) Japanica (short stem which has no Lodging Tendency)
 3) Japanica ( wild type)
 Three types of rice culture – Upland, Low and Deep water rice
 Upland – Seeds are sown directly of the main field. 60% of area is under upland. Seed
rate 100 kg.
 Wet or transplanting system- Nursery area 1/10 area of main field
 Dapog method of Nursery – Originated from philippines, 30-40 m2 is enough for
planting one hectare
 Seed rate – 40-50 kg/ha, spacing short duration var – 20x10. medium duration var –
20x15
 Fertilizer – 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha. Zn – 25 kg/ha
 Season human rice – May -June harvested in Oct./Dec.
 AUS rice- sown in March/ April harvested in July/August
 Boro rice- December/ January harvested in April/ May
 Weeds – Echinocloa colonum, E.gresgali
 Herbicides – Pre emergence – Butachlor (machete)
 Varieties – Taichung Native (TNI) is first developed dwarf variety in rice
 Drought tolerant variety- Bala, Bhavani
 Blast resistant var. –Jaya. Rasi, CO-14
 BLB resistant – TKM-6 Salt resistant – Jaya, Ratna
 Super rice- Lunisree is a variety developed by CPRI
 Deep water rice- Pankaj, Jaganath
 Yield National average 1750 kg/ha
4. Bengal gram (Chickpea) –

 Cicer arietinum
 Area 7.87 mha. Production 4.5 mt. It occupies an are 33% of area under pulses and
40% of pulse production
 Leaf contains Malic acid which is used for during stomach disorder
 Season-II fortnight of October/ Spacing 30x10. seed rate 100kg fertilizer –20 kg N, 60
Kg P/ha: depth of sowing 7-10 cm Nipping – Plucking of apical buds on 30 DAS to
encourage lateral branching
 Harvest- duration 150 days, average yield irrigated – 1500 kgs, rainfed 400-500 kg
5. Redgram/Arhar/Pigeonpea- Cajanus cajan

 Season-June/July, Seed rate-15 kg/ha, spacing- Extra early var – 50 x30, Early var –
75x30, Long duraation-90x30
 Varieties- Pusa Ageti, prabhat, Mukhta (Wilt resistant)
 Ground nut, Arachis hypogea – Origin – Brazil
 Largest producer- Gujarat; Oil – 40-50%, Soil – Sandy loam
 Season –June/July 9kharif), Seed rate – 120 kg for spreading type, 110 for bunch
type, Spacing- 45x1- (Spreading), 30x10 (Bunch)
 Fertilizer –20-40; 40-90; 20-40 kg NPK/ha, Gypsum- 400kg/ha spreading type has
Dormancy, to beat dormancy GA3 is used Bunch type tends to germinate in the field
itself
 before harvest to arrest this M(malic hydraouide) is used.
 NAA @ 40 ppm on 40 DAS for floral initiation
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 Aspergillus flavus is the fungi which affect kernal during shortage,

 Afalotoxin is produced by this fungi so the kernal be comes bitter in taste.
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8. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
 Australia has the maximum arable land per person

 The Indian Food grains storage management and Research Institute is located at
HAPUR, UP
 The world first agricultural census was conducted in 1930
 The headquarters of Directorate of marketing and Inspection (DMI) established in
1935 is located at – Faridabad, Haryana
 The Agricultural produce (Grading and Marking) Act was passed in – 1937
 Agriculture Price Commission (presently, CACP) declared prices every year on –
Minimum support price
 The most limiting factor of production in Indian agriculture is – capital
 The govt. Determines the support prices of crop products on the recommendation of
Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices
 The demand for agricultural products in general is Inelastic
 The apex body for institution finance for agriculture in India is National Bank For
agriculture and Rural Development
 The earlier name of WTO was GATT
 AGMARK is an indicator of – Purity. Established in 1937
 The govt. Of India set up planning commission in march, 1950
 The price below which the producers are not ready to sell is known as – Reserve price
 NABARD was set up in – July 1982
 The highest per capita income of farmers is in – Punjab
 The scheme of Regional Rural banks (RRBs) was launched in India on – 2nd October,
1975
 The Reserve Bank of India Act for its establishment was passed in the year – 1934
 The Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCCS) was introduced in 1998-99
 The national Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) was introduced in the country
from : Rabi 1999-2000
 The net capital ratio is given by : Total assets / Total liabilities
 The minimum wages act was enacted by the govt. Of India on 1948
 Farm machinery and equipments are an example of Working assets
 NABARD was established on 12th July, 1982 on the recommendation of Shivaraman
Committee
 Cooperative movement in India was started in – 1904
 The headquarters of Asian Development Bank (ADB) is at manila
 The National Agriculture Policy (NAP) was announced on – 28th July, 2000
 The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the
minimum Support Prices for 24 important crops.
 The period of 11th five year plan in India is 2007-2012
 The chairman of National Development Council (NDC) is prime minister
 Value added tax (VAT) is a direct and Indirect tax
 The governor of Reserve Bank of India is D Subba Rao
RATIO METHODS
A. Capital Ratios:
1. Net capital Ratio = Total assets
Total liabilities
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Working assets + Current assets

2. Working capital Ratio=
intermediary liabilities + current liabilities
Current assets
3. Current ratio =
Current liabilities
Deferred liabilities
4. Debt equity ratio =
Net Worth
B. Income Ration:
Gross income
1. Rate of turn over =
Total assets
Total returns to fixed farm resources

2. Net income per acre=
Total acres
C. Cost Ratios:
Total expenses
1. Gross ratio=
Gross income
Fixed expenses
2. Fixed ratio=
Gross income
Operating expenses
3. operating ratio=
Gross income
D.
1. Adjusted crop yield = Crop yield index X Cropping intensity on the farm
Cropping intensity in the area
Potential net income per hectare on the farm

2. System index = X 100
Average net income per hectare in the area
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Cost concepts in farm Management

1. Cost A1 = Value of casual labour + attached labour + hired bullock labour + imputed value
of owned bullock labour + hired machine labour + imputed value of owned machine labour +
seed + manure and fertilizers + plant protection chemicals + irrigation charges + interest on
working capital + depreciation + land revenue.
2. Cost A2 = Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in land, if any

3. Cost B = Cost A1 + imputed rental value of owned land + interest on owned land capital
4. Cost C = cost B + imputed value of family labour
Cost c is also called gross ocost or total cost of cultivation. All cost that paid out for the
factors of production.
AGGREGATE MEASURES
A.
1. Net operation income = Gross income – (Operating expenses + depreciation on working
assets)
2. Net farm income = Net operating income – (fixed expenses + depreciation on lixed assets).
B. Income measures in relation to different cost concepts

1. Farm business income = Gross income – cost A1
2. owned farm business income = Gross income – cost A2
3. Family labour income = Gross income – Cost B
4. Net income = Gross income – cost C
5. Farm investment income = Net income + rental value of owned land + interest on owned
Fixed capital.
FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS
A. Test Ratios:
Total current assets
1. Current ratio =
Total current liabilities
Total current assets + intermediate assets

2. Intermediate ration =
Total current liabilities + intermediate liabilities
Total assets
3. Net capital ratio =
Total liabilities
Cash receipt accounts receivable +

Securities in more than one year
4. Acid ratio =
Total current liabilities
Current liability
5. Current liability ratio =
Owner’s equity
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Total debts.
6. Debt equity ratio =
or Leverage ratio Owner’s equity
Owner’s equity
7. Equity to asset value ratio =
Total asses value
FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS
A. Input-Output ratios:
Operating expenses
1. Operating ratio =
Gross income
Fixed expenses
2. fixed ratio =
Gross income
Total expenses
3. Gross ratio =
Gross income
B. Investment to income ratio:
Gross income
1. Capital turn-over ratio =
Average capital investment
Net return to capital

2. Rate of return on investment =
Average capital investment
C.
Annual fixed cost
1. Break-even point (BEP) =
Selling cost per unit – variable cost per unit
2. Margin of safety = Total output – output at break even point

= Total revenue – revenue at break even point
Break even point out put

3. Percentage of margin of safety = X 100
Volume of output
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INVESTMENT ANALYSIS (CAPITAL BUDGETING)
A. Time value of money:
1. Future value of present money, A = P(1 +I)1

Where. A = future value of present sum invested in the project
P = Principal amount invested in the project
i = rate on interest
t = no. of years of life of the project
A
2. Present value of future money . PW =
(1 + I)1
(1 +I)1 - 1
3. Future value of annuity, A = F
i
Where, P = annual investment
1 + (1+I)1
4. Present value of annuity. PW = P
I
PROJECT APPRAISAL
A. Undiscounted measures:
1. Ranking by inspection
2. Pay back period, P = 1/F

Where, 1 = investment amount
E = annual net cash revenue
3. Proceeds per rupee of outlay
4. average annual proceeds per rupee of outlay
B. Discounted measures:
N B1
Σ
t=1 (1-i)n
1. Benefit/Cost ratio =
(BCR) n C1
Σ
t=1 (1-i)n
Where1 B1= benefit in year

C1= cost in year
N= total no. of years of project’s life
I= discount rate
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N (B1 – C1
2. Net present value/worth, NPV/NPW = Σ
t=1 (1 + I)1
3. Internal rate of return, IRR =
NPV
4. Profitability index, PI =
co
1
=
co
1 n cr
= Σ
co t=0 (1+I)t
Where, cr = total capital required

Co = initial capital expenditure
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9. PATHOLOGY
Plant Pathology
 Father of Plant pathology- Anton De Bary
 Father of Indian Plant Pathology- E. J. Butler
 An Indian whose name is associated with wheat rust- K. C. Mehta
 Irish Famine(1845)- Due to late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans)
 Bengal Famine(1943)- Due to brown spot of rice (Helminthosporium oryzae)
 Father of plant virology- Beijerinck
 Father of plant Bacteriology- E. f. smith
 Most imp disease of rice- Blast (Pyricularia oryzae) controlled by Hinosan, Kitazin,
Blasticidin, Beam.
 Kresek phase- Bacterial leaf blight of rice (Xanthomonas oryzae)
 Bakanae disease of rice (Foot rot)- Gibberella fujikuroi (Also known as Foolish
seedling disease-symptom: plant become very tall)
 Sheath rot of rice- Sclerotium oryzae
 Rice Tungro- A virus transmitted by Nephottetix virescens
 Ufra disease of rice- By nematode (Ditylenchus angustus)
 Most pathogenic bacteria are gram negative and rod shaped
 Gram positive plant pathogenic bacteria: Corynebacterium/ Clavibacter (tundu
disease of wheat)
 Tundu disease caused by- Bacteria and nematode (Anguina tritici) association, a
complex disease
 Plant viruses are mostly single stranded RNA
 Virus contain only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, never both
 Virus contain nucleic acid 5 % and protein (nucleoprotein)- 95 % (TMV)
 Tobacco mosaic virus is single stranded RNA- Rod shaped transmitted by sap or
mechanically
 Single stranded DNA plant virus- Gemini virus
 Double stranded RNA virus- Reovirus
 Double stranded DNA virus- Caulimovirus
 Total stem parasite- Cascuta (Dodder)
 Partial stem parasite- Loranthus
 Total root parasite- Orobanche
 Partial root parasite- Striga
 Bacterial cell wall is made up of – Murein/peptidiglycan
 Karnal bunt of wheat discovered by- Mitra et al., in 1931
 A disease affecting wheat export from India- Karnal Bunt (Neovossia indica /
Tilletia indica)
 Wheat: a. Stem Rust (Black) - Puccinia graminis tritici- Alternate host: Berberi
(Berberis vulgaris) b. Leaf rust (Brown) - P. recondita, Alternate host: Thalictrum
sp. c) Stripe rust (Yellow)- P. striiformis
 Rust disease is controlled by Plantvax- a systemic fungicide
 Smut disease is controlled by- Vitavax (a systemic fungicide)
 Wheat rust in India survive in the southern hill (Nilgiri) and in Northern hill
(Himalaya) in the form of Uredospore
 Loose smut of wheat- Ustilago nuda tritici (Internally seed borne, controlled by
Vitavax, solar Heat Treatment)
 Molya disease of wheat- Nematode- Heterodora avanae
 Black arm of cotton- Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum
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 Red rot of sugarcane- Collectrichum fulcatum

 Grassy shoot- Phytoplasma
 Sporadic- Occurs irregularly in a place at low level
 Endemic- Occurs every year in a confined area at some level
 Pandemic- Occurs over a few countries or few continents
 Epidemic- Occurs over a large geographic area in short time at a devastative level
 Viroid- a plant pathogen made up of only RNA (single stranded). No protein is there
 Prions- Infectious protein molecule
 Potato- 1. Spindle tuber disease (1st discovered Viroid disease)
 Other Viroid disease- Coconut cadang cadang, Citrus exocartis
 Disease caused by Phytoplasma(MLO)- a. sandal spike b. sugarcane grassy shoot c.
Brinjal little leaf d. Sesamum Phyllody e. coconut root wilt
 Disease caused by Spiro plasma (Phyllody)- Citrus stubborn
 Viral disease- Bunchy top of banana- Pentalonia nigronervosa
 Crown gall of stone fruit- Agrobacterium tumefaciens
 Fire blight- First bacterial disease discovered- Erwinia amylovora
 Ergot of Bajra- Claviceps microcephala (purpurea)
 Green ear disease of Bajra- Sclerospora graminicola
 Wart of potato and Golden nematode- Endemic pest, domestic quarantine
 Bunt- Tilletia foetida. T. caries
 Fungicide- Bordeaux mixture discovered by Millerdat
 Systemic fungicide- Van Schmelling & Marshal Kulka
 Pomegranate blight- Xanthomonas campestris pv. punica. Recently epidemic in
Maharashtra
 Panama wilt of banana- fungal disease
 Moko disease of banana- Bacterial disease
 Soft rot of potato- Erwinia carotovora
 Kalisena- Bio formulation of Aspergillus niger N27 to control soil borne disease,
developed in IARI
 Gene deployment for control of Rust- by Nagarajan
 Seed gall wheat- Nematode, Molya disease, Anguina tritici
 Destructive insect pest act- 1914
 Cyanobacteria-BGA-prokaryotic
 Powdery mildew- controlled by sulphur fungicide
 Apple scab caused by- Venturia inequalis (perfect) Spilocaea pomi (fungi)
 Scab of potato caused by- Steptomyces scabies (Actinomycetes)
 Electron Microscope discovered by – Knoll and Ruska (1932)
 Crystallization of Virus – Stanley (1935)
 First book on plant pathology written by – Julius Kuhn (1858)
 Wart disease of Potato is endemic to Darjeeling only
 Plasmid – extra chromosomal fragments found in bacterial cells
 Gene to gene Hypothesis proposed by – Flor (1955) in linseed rust
PLANT PATHOLOGY IN INDIA:

 K. R Kirtikar was the first Indian scientist who collected many Fungi and identified
them
 E. J Butler (1910) did detailed studies of Fungi and diseases caused by them. He
wrote a book ‘Fungi and Diseases in Plants’
 E. J Butler is called the ‘ Father of Modern Plant Pathology’ in India
 J. F Dastur (1886-1971) was the first Indian plant pathologist to study in detail on
fungi and plant diseases
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 B. B Mundkar identified and classified the smut fungi found in India

 The Indian Phytopathological society is founded by B. B Mundkar in 1948
 Dr Karam chand Mehta (K. C Mehta) of Agra college discovered disease cycle of
cereal rust in India
 Prof. Jaichand Luthra and Sattar developed solar heat treatment technique of seeds
to control loose smut in wheat
 M. J Thirumalachar performed extensive studies on rusts and smuts in India.
Developed antibiotics like Oreofungin and Streptocyclin
INTRODUCED DISEASE INTO INDIA:

Name of disease Introduced from Year
 Leaf rust of coffee (Hemileia vastatrix) Srilanka 1876
 Fire blight of apple (Erwinia amylovora) England 1940
 Flag smut of wheat (Urocystis tritici) Australia -
 Bunchy Top of Banana (viral disease) Srilanka 1940
 Wart disease of Potato (Synchytrium Holland 1952
endobioticum)
 Onion smut (Urocystis cepulae) - -
 Golden nematode of potato Europe 1960s
 Groundnut rust U.S.A 1970s
 Citrus canker U.S.A -
Mycoplasma:
 Larger than viruses but smaller than Bacteria
 Devoid of cell wall and cytoplasm
 Enveloped by a lipo-protein plasma membrane
 Highly resistant against the antibiotic Penicillin but is sensitive to Tetracycline
antibiotic
 Tetracycline used to control Mycoplasma
 First isolated from sheep infected by Pleuro pneumonia and therefore called PPLO
(Pleuro pneumonia like organisms)
 Most of the yellow diseases of plants are caused by Mycoplasma
 E.g. Witches broom of Potato, Mulberry dwarf and Aester yellows etc.
Miscellaneous:
 Virus = Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) + Protein (outer cover)
 Lipo-virus = Nucleic acid + protein + lipid e.g. Influenza virus
 Animal virus (Bacteriophage) = DNA + Protein
 Plant virus = RNA + protein
 Viroid = nucleic acid only
 Plant Viroid = RNA only
BACTERIOPHAGES:
 Discovered by F. W. Twort (1915) and Felix de Herelle (1917)
 Contains nucleic acid (double stranded DNA)
 It has two parts viz tail and head
 The tail is composed of protein only. The head has outer coat of protein and inner
core as DNA
VIRIOD:
 Term ‘viriod’ used by T.O Diener
 Naked nucleic acids without protein coat
 Consists of only RNA
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 These ‘miniviruses’ are the smallest known agents of infectious disease

 Potato spindle was the first disease reported to have been caused by a viriod
 Infectious in plants only
 Examples – Citrus excortis viriod, chrysanthemum stunt and chlorotic mottle viriod
Virions:
 Individual, completed and infectious nucleoprotein particles of a virus
 In short, virus particles are called Virions
 Also called nucleocapsids
Prions or slow viruses:
 Smallest proteinaceous infectious
 Contains protein only
 Example – Mad cow disease, Alzheimer’s disease
 Nanometre is the unit for measurement of viruses
DISEASES OF RICE/ WHEAT/ COTTON/ SUGARCANE/ PIGEON PEA

 Diseases of Rice:
1) Blast - Pyricularia oryzae: air borne: edifenphos/ Hisoses 0.05%
Magnaparthe grisea)
2) Brown spot - Helmininosporium oryzae; Seed borne; common fungicide
Bipoloris oryzae (Cochlioboltus miyabeanus)
3) Bacterial blight - Xanthomonas campestris pv.- orzyae
Seed and any antibiotic infected debris streptomycin +
tertacyclin
Symptom : Kresek in seedling stage
4) Foot rot (or) - Gibberella fujikorai; seed lime; common fungicide
Foolish seedling disease (or) (Fusarium Moniliforme)
Bakanae disease
5) Sheath blight (or) - Rhizoctonia solani; Soil borne; Cultural practice +
fungicides
Leaf smut - Enteloma oryzae
6) Stem rot - Sarocladium oryzae (Leptosphaeria salrini)
7) Udabatta disease - Ephelis oryzae (Balansia oryzal) Hot water
8) False smut or Green smut - Ustilaginoidea virens
9) Bunt - Tilletia barcleyana (Neovosia horrida)
10) Rice tungro virus - Vector Nephotetti cinticeps: N. virescens (GLH) reduced
tillering and orange discoloration
11) Rice yellow dwarf - Phytoplasma starting, leaves remains green in colour
12) Ufra disease - Ditcylanchus angustus
13) Pan sukh (dry physiological leaf disease)
14) Kaira disease - Zinc deficiency.
 Diseases of Wheat
1) Stem rust - Puccinia graminis tritici
2) Leaf rust - P. graminis recondita
(Brown, rust)
3) Yellow rust - P. graminis striiformis
(stripe rust) (air borne)
Control
i. Sulphur dust
ii. Plant vax (oxy corboxin)
iii. Loose smut Ustilago tritici - internally seed borne solar heat
Treatment. Hot water treatment (vitavax, carboxin)
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iv. Hill bunt Tilletia foetiaa - Externally seed brone

T. caroues
v. Kornal bunt - Neovossia indica Soil & air brone
vi. Flag smut - Urouystis gramininis-Seed & soil borne
Control for smut & bunts
 Seed treatment with Agresan 2g/kg.
 Benomyl spray for bunts
(1) Exerlite - Angiuna tritici
(2) Tundu (Yellow ear rot) - Corynebacterium tritici
Anguna tritici
(3) Molya (or) cereal - Heterodera avemae
root-eel worm
 Diseases of cotton :
1) Wilt - Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum
2) Wilt - Verticillium dahliae
3) Root rot - Macrophomina phaseoline
4) Blackarm - Xanthomonas compesttris
- Pv. Maliacearum (x, axnopodis new name)
- Spray 500 ppm streptomycin sulphate
5) Stenosis or smail leaf MLO (mycoplasma like organisms) vector-jassid
6) Anthrocanose - Colletotrichum capsici
- Physalospora tucumanensis
- Spread through setts 0.1% Carbendaym- sett treatment
7) Grey or Areolate mildew - Ramularia areola
Common control Acid delinting
 Diseases of Sugarcane:
1) Red rot - Colletotrichum falcatum
Physalospora tucumanensis
Spread through setts 0.1% carbendays sett treatment.
2) Smut - Ustilago scitaminea remove infected – clump & dip in hot
water avoid ratooning
3) Sett rot (or) Pineapple - Ceratocystis paradoxa
4) Gummosis or gumming disease - Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vascularum
5) Red stripe - Pseudomonas rubrilineans
6) Mosaic - Virus vector - Rhopalosiphum maidis
7) Grassy shoot - MLO (Myoplasma Like organisms) vector – Proveista
moesta Hot water treatment 52% c 1/hr. Aerated steam
therapy 54%C for 8/hr.
8) Root knot nematode - Meloidogyne sp.
 Bengal gram:
(1) Wilt - Fusarium Oxysperium j. sp. ciceri
(2) Root rot - Macrophamina phasoline
(3) Blight - Asehochyta rabei seed borne
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10. GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING
IMPORTANT POINTS:
 1717: Thomas Fairchild produced the first artificial hybrid popularly known as
Fairchild’s mule by crossing carnation with sweet William
 Dwarfing gene in rice – Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen (Japonica rice, Taiwan)
 Dwarfing gene in wheat – Norin 10 (Japanese variety)
 Tift 23 A – source of Cytoplasmic male sterility in pearl millet
 Kafir 60 – source of CMS in sorghum
 Non-traditional area of wheat cultivation – West Bengal
 Non-traditional area of Rice cultivation – Punjab
 Gregg 399 is an important source of genetic male sterility in cotton
 Exotic varieties of wheat – Sonara 64 and Lerma Rojo
 Wheat variety resistant to all the three rust – sparrow
 Wheat variety susceptible to all the three rust – Agra Local
 Exotic varieties of Rice – Taichung Native 1 (TN1), IR 8 introduced in India in 1966
 Autotriploid (3x) – E.g. banana
 Triploid – Apples, Watermelons, sugar beets
 Autotetraploid – potato
 Autopolyploid – ornamental plants, sweet potato, oat, alfalfa
 Allopolyploids – wheat, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, rapeseed etc
 Allohexaploid – common bread wheat (Triticum aestivum)
 Allotetraploids – cotton and tobacco
 Man made cereal – Triticale (rye ×wheat)
 Maize is called the ‘Drosophila of crop plants’
 Examples of secondary introduction – wheat: kalyan Sona and Sonalika selected
from introductions from CIMMYT
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL ORGANELLES
Organelles Structure The chief function

* Cell wall * Found between middle lamella and Shape: strength and Rigidity
plasmalemmas
* Have primary cell wall, secondary
cell wall (3 layers)
* Made up of cellulose microfibrills
* Plasmamembrane * Lipid – bilayer model of Davson To regulate the movement of

Danieli, (1935) where protein various molecules into & out
molecule arranged outside of cyloplasm
* Neucleus * Double membrane with pores * contains genetic material

(1993, Robert Brown) * Communteat with
Nuclear membrane Cyptoplasm (ER)
* Chromatin *Thread like (DNA + Nucleoprotein) *DNA-genetic material

* Nueleolus * Globular synthesis * Site of RNA
* Nucleoplasm * With material for building
DNA + MRNA
Cytoplasm
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* Ribosome - 80s size (Animal & Plant) Site of protein Synthesis

- 70s size (cukaryotic organelles)
& prosktuyotes
* Endoplasmic -Network like in cytoplasm rough * Protein Syn; aid in protein

reticulum (ER) (ER) with Ribosome modification
(Porter, 1948) Smooth (ER)-without Ribosome * Lipid synthesis site
* Mitochondria * Cylindrical body dia: 0.2-1p length * Production of ATP

(Benda.) (Power 3-10p through the kreb’s cycle &
house of cell) * Inner folded membrane (Cristae) electron transport chain
* Matrix inside * β-exudation of long chain
fatty acids
* Plastid when * Biconvex lens shaped (5m*dia) * Chlorophyll

Differentiated * Have membranes (grana and photosynthesis
Chloroplast (With stroma lamellae) * Grara & storma lamellae
chlorophyll) with thousands of
quastacomes (Electron
transport &
photophosphorylation)
(Colourless plastid * Storma consists of

leucoplast) enzymes of dark reaction
* Golgi body * Membranes * Shipment in transport

apparatus/ dictyosome vesicles (Packaging) &
in plants transport
(Camillo golgi, 1822)
*Lysosome * Sac of digestive enzyme / * Cell destruction if captured

(Duve, 1955) Digestive vacuoles
*Vacuole * Membrane (Tonoplast) bound * Storage deposit for water
metabolites and product
* turgidity of cell
* Centriole Rarely present in Plants Form poles of spindle

apparatus
* Cytosol/ hyaloplasm The fluid protein of cytoplasm Have compounds for

exclusive of organelles building macro molecules
II Mitosis & Meiosis
Stages Mitosis Meiosis

(*Equational division) (*Reduction division)
1. Prophase: Chromatin condensation 1. Meiosis I 2. Meiosis II
Chromosomes visible I. Meiosis I :
Nucleolus & Nuclear A. Prophase 1
envelop disappear
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2. Metaphase : Chromosomes are a. Leptotene : Chromosome look thin

arranged in equational thread (of loss ball shape because of
plate condensation
b. Homologous chromosome begin to
3. Anaphase: Move to opposite pole pairsynapsis/ synaptonemal complex
found
4. Telophase: Chromosomes form into c. Pachytene: complete bivalent tetrad.
two groups Crossing over
Chiasmata can be seen as the result of
5. cytoplasmic spearation of homologous Chiasma
division terminilization
d. Diakinesis: Chromosomes reach
maximum condensation, nucleolar
membrane disappear, spindle begin to
form
Metaphase I: Bivalents orient at random on
the equatorial plane.
Anaphase I: The centromeres do not divide
continue to hold sister chromatids together
- Because of cross over, sister
chromatids no longer be genetically
identical.
Homologues more to opposite pole
- This movement reduce the
chromosome number from the
diploid condition (2n) condition to
Haploid (n) state.
Telephase I : This divide the diploid
cytokinesis mother cell into 2 haploid daughter
cell.
Meiosis II (equational division similar to
Mitosis
1. Haploid cells mitosis (Meiosisll)
4. Haploid cells.
 Significant difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

SN Mitosis Meiosis
1. Equational division separation sister : Relational division- separation of
chrmatids homologues
Equational division- Separation of
sister chromatics
2. One cytokinesis per karyokinesis : Two cytoplasmic division
3. No synopsis: No chiasmata form No : These do occur
genetic exchange between homologues
(crossing over) & gastric recombination
4. 2 daughter cells/ cycle : 4 gametes/ spores per cycle
5. Genetic content of product identical to : Not identical in terms of
mother cell. 1) Chromosome No. (Haploid)
2) Consent (crossing over-
recombination
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6. Occar in somatic cell : Specialized cells of germ line
 Ploidy Level in Seeds

Embryo-2n Endosperm – 3n Testa-2n Aleuron –2n
 Post-mendalian era:
 devries, correns, Tschemark- Rediscovery of mendehan principles (1900).
 Sutton & bovery – chromosomal theory of inheritance (1903).
 Bateson –term – GENETICS (1905)
- Epitasis interallelic intraction (1909)
 Histones are – velly charged proteins on which –velly charged DNAs are coiled. 5
types of Histones are available.
 Hetro chromatin – Darkly stained Euchromatin – lightly stained
-genetically inactive -genetically active
 Chromosome – named by waldayer –a neucleoprotein

 Chromosome – discovered by strasburger (1875)
 Parts of chromosome – (1) Centronere (2) Telomere (3) Nucleolar organising region
(4) Arms.
 Sources of new variation : (1) Independent assortment (2) Mutation (3)
Recombination cause of C. over (d) Poly Ploidy (5) Somoclonal variation
 DNA Replication - Semiconservative model
- Proposed by Watson and Crick
 Base + Sugar – Nucleoside Base – sugar + PO4 – Nucleotide
A= T; G=C A+G=T+C
 Opposite strands are running in antiparallol way
 Codon: Triplet sequence found in m RNA and codes for single amino acid anticodon:
Corresponding (complementary) triplet seq in t RNA start + codon: AUG stop/ Non
sense/ termination codon: UAA, UAG, UGA.
Genemutiation Addition of a base
Mutation Deletion of bases Frame shift mutation
Chromosomal Substitation of bases
mutation
 Muller first used X-rays as mutagen
 Natural mutation is of low frequency 10-6
 Muton – The unit in which mutation occurs
 Inbred- Progeny of a single cross fertilized heterozygous individual
 Xenia – effect of pollen on endosperm expression
Metaxenia – effect of pollen on seed coat colour
 Pure lime are homozygous and hemogenons in nature
 Clone group of individuals descending from a single plant through several
reproduction.
 X = Basic chromosome number = Monoploid number = Genome number
n = Haploid number = Gametic number
ex.: Triteum aestinum, 2n = 6x = 42
n = 21 (42/2), X = 7 (42/6)
 Genome – All the chromosomes of a diploid species that are distinct from each other
with reference to gene content and morphology.
 Superiority of F1 hybrids over both of its parents : Heterosis
 Isogenic lines: Two lines differing for a single locus
 Parthenogenesis: Embryo originates from unfertilized egg.
Parthenocarpy : Development of fruit without fertilization , ex.: Banana
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 Aneuloidy : Changes in the genome with reference to individual chromosomes. Ex.

Monosome (2n-1), Trisomy (2n=1), Tetrasomy (2n=2)
Euploidy : Changes in the genome with reference to a set of chromosomes genome.
Ex.: Triploid-3x, Tetraploid- 4x.
 Test cross: F1 x homozygous recessive parent.
Backcross : Repeated crossing of hybrid progeny back to one of its parents
 Pleiotrophy : Single gene – governing multiple traits.
 Apomixis: A type of asexual reproduction in which embryo development and seed
formation take place without fertilization and with or without meiosis.
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11. STATISTICS
1) AVERAGES:
No Average Definition Uses
1 Arithmetic Sum of all values/No. of values To calculate average yield, SD, and
Mean correlation and regression coefficients.
2 Harmonic I When deal with Rate, price and speed

Mean (1/x1+1/x2+…+1xn) (1/n)
3 Geometric (X1*X2*…*Xn)1n When deal with relative changes

Mean Ex. Bacterial growth, cell division
4 Median Middle most item of all values For open ended class data’s
Intelligence, Ability and Efficiency.
5 Mode Most frequently occurred item Typical soil type, cropping pattern in a
locality, and shoe and shirt size in
business
 Symmetrical distribution: Mean = Median = Mode
 Moderately skewed distribution: Mean – Mode = 3 (Mean – Median)
2) MEASURES OF DISTRIBUTION:
 Coefficient of variation = (SD/ mean) X 100
3) SKEWNESS:
 Lack of symmetry β1 = m23/m32. Y1= b1
 Symmetrical distribution Y1=0
 Negatively skewed Y1= -Ve
 Negatively skewed Y1= +Ve
KURTOSIS
 A Measure of peakedness or convexity β2= µ4/µ32 Y2=β2-3
 Normal distribution - Y2 = 0
 Platykurtic - Y2= -Ve
 Leptokurtic - Y2= +Ve
4) REGRESSION AND CORRELATION
a) Correlation: To study the association between two or more variables
 Properties of correlation coefficient:
1. It lies between –1 to +1 if it is 0; There is no relationship between variables
2. Independent of change of scale and origin of the variables.
3. It is geometric mean of two regression coefficients.
4. The degree of relationship between two variables is symmetric i.e. rxy = ryx
b) Regression: To measure the average relationship between two of more variables.
 Properties:
1. It gives the nature of relationship between two variables.
2. It gives the cause and effect of relationship
3. Regression coefficients are not symmetric, bxy ≠ byx
4. It is independent of change of origin but not of scale
5) PROBABILITY
 Probability ranges from 0 to 1
No of favorable cases
 Probability = ---------------------------------------
Total no of equally likely cases
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 Probability of an event uncertain to occur is 0

Eg. Probability of 7 in throwing a die – 0
 Additive theorem
(I) Mutually exclusive events
P (A or B) =P (A) +P(B), where P(AB)=0
(II) Not mutually exclusive events
P (A or B)=P (A) +P (B)-P (AB)
 Multiplication theorem
(I) P (A and B)=P (A) X P(B)
6) DISTRIBUTION
a) Binomial Distribution (BD)
 Random variable of BD is a discrete one
 BD has Bernoulli trials containing two outcomes (i.e. success, failure)
 The BD is
P (X)=n Cxpxqn-x
Where
n = no of trials
p = probability of success
q = probability of failure
x = no of successes in ‘n’ trials
 Mean (np) ≠ variance (npq)
 If n is large and if neither p of q is too close to 0, then BD approaches normal
distribution.
 When n> 20; p<0.05, BD approaches Poisson distribution.
b) Poisson Distribution (PD) (the law of improbable events)

 PD – discrete probability distribution
e-mmx
P(x) = --------------
X!
Where
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5……
e = 2.7
m = mean (np)
 Mean (np) = variance (npq) p 0; q 1
 Uses of PD
 Printing errors in a book
 No of deaths in a district in a given period
 Arrivals of trucks aeroplanes at terminals
 Telephone calls
c) Normal Distribution (ND)

 ND – continuous probability distribution
 Standard deviation of a sample = ơ Tv
Where,
s = SD of population
n = sample size
 The normal curve is bell shaped and symmetrical
 Mean = median = mode
 Area under standard normal curve = 1; mean = 0; SD = 1
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7) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
 Experimental error : the variation due to uncontrolled factors
 Treatment : the objects of comparison
 Replication : allocation of treatments to the different experimental units
by a random process
 Local control : the principle of making use of greater homogeneity in groups
of experimental units for reducing experimental error
 Critical difference : (standard error) diff. X t value for error df at 5% or 1% level
SN Type of Type of experimental Error degrees of freedom

Design material
1 CRD Homogeneous N-n
2 RBD Variation in one direction (n-1) x (r-1)
3 LSD Variation in two directions (n-1) x (n-2)
Where,
N = total no. of observations
n = no of treatments
r = no. of replications
 Split Plot Design: To study effects of 2 or more factors requiring different plot sizes
E. g. to study agronomic practices with fertilizer treatments
 Factorial experiments: To study the effects of two or more factors and their inter
relationships
8) TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
 Hypotheses : assumption about a population parameters
 Null hypothesis : Ho (No significant difference between two parameters)
 Altemative hypothesis : Ha (significant difference between two parameters)
 Errors:
 Type I error: hypothesis is true but our test rejects it
 Type II error: hypothesis is false but our test accepts it
9) TESTS OF SIGNEFICANCE (Small sample < 30)
SN Type of Test Uses

1. Students t test Small samples
2. Z test Large samples
3. F test To test the proportions and variances
4. CHI2 Test of independence, test of goodness of fit, test homogeneity
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12. SOIL SCIENCE

ROCKS:
 Earth crust consists of the elements Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron etc. in the
decreasing order of their amounts.
 Rocks are basically divided into 3 types.
 Igneous Rocks: Granite, Basalt (Deccan Trap), Gabbro, Pumice, Rhyolite and
Tracheolite Acidic igneous rocks contain 60-75% quartz e.g. granite. Basic igneous
rocks contain less than 50% of quartz e.g. Basalt.
 Sedimentary rocks: Limestone, sandstone, Shale, Dolomite and Conglomerate.
 Metamorphic rocks: are formed from Igneous and sedimentary rocks e.g. marble,
gneiss, Schist, graphite, slate.
 Important conversions: Gneiss is formed from Granite. Marble from Limestone,
Graphite from Coal, Slate from Shale Quartzite from quartz or sandstone.
SOIL:
 Soil Origin, Weathering, Morphology, Factors and Processes of soil formation
 Rocks are the chief sources of soil parent materials over which soils are formed.
 Soil is formed from weathering of rocks.
Weathering = Disintegration + Decomposition
 Disintegration breaks consolidated rocks into unconsolidated parent materials, which
on further breaking and chemical decomposition forms soil.
 Physical weathering involves agents such as temperature, Water, wind, Plant and
animals and processes such as exfoliation (surface peeling off of rocks), alternate
wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, burrowing of animals, root penetration, etc.
 Water, on freezing, expands 9% by volume.
 Chemical weathering reactions- Solution, hydration, Hydrolysis, carbonation,
Oxidation and reduction.
 Hydrolysis is the most important chemical weathering process.
 Geo-chemical weathering is the weathering taking place at the layers down below
whereas pedo-chemical or pedogenic weathering is the one taking place at the surface
and subsurface layers.
 Soil found at the site of formation- sedentary soils, whereas soils found far away from
the site of formation are called Cumulous or transported soils
 Agent of transportation & name of the soil formed: River water-Alluvium, Lake
water- Lacustrine, Seawater-Marine, Wind-Aeolian if coarse and Loess if fine
particles, Gravity-Colluvium, Ice-Moraine.
 Stages of soil formation- Infancy, youth, maturity and old age:
 Soil wherein there is continuous deposition of materials always remains young e.g.
Desert soils and alluvial deposits.
 Pedology is the study of origin, formation and geographic distribution of soils in
nature whereas Edaphology is the study of soil in relation to crop growth.
 Soil profile is the vertical section of soil through all its horizons and it extends up to
its parent materials.
 A pedon is the smallest volume that can be recognised as a soil individual and it is e-
dimensional.
 The horizontal layers in a soil profile are called horizons.
 Typically there are 4 horizons –O, A, B and C. O horizon is the organic horizon found
in the forest soils. A horizon is below O horizon out of which A2 layer is called
illuvial horizon. B-horizon is found below A horizon and is mostly called illuvial
horizon. Elluvial layer is the one wherein soil materials are removed whereas illuvial
layer is one wherein soil materials removed from other layers are deposited.
 C- Horizon consists of unconsolidated parent materials.
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 Below the C-horizon is found the R layer, which is known as the Bed Rock.
Solum = A+B horizons Regolith = A+B+C horizons
 The study of the soil in the field condition with the help of various morphological
characteristics is called Soil Morphology.
 Dokuchaiev, the father of Soil science, gave the factors of soil formation, which were
later, modified by Jenny.
 The five factors of soil formation are Clorpi – Climate and organism (Active factors),
Relief or topography, parent material and time (passive factors).
 There are various processes of soil formation out of which two are important-
Laterisation and Podzolisation.
 Laterisation occurs in warm humid tropical conditions whereas Podzolisation occurs
in the cold humid temperate conditions.
 In Laterisation, Silica (SiO2) is removed from the A horizon and sesquioxides are left
out in the A-horizon whereas in Podzolisation, sesquioxides are leached from the A
horizon and silica is left out in upper layers.
 Laterite is used for preparing bricks Laterites are very well weathered soils whereas
laterite soils are still undergoing some weathering to become laterites.
 Nature and composition if soil:
 Soil is a 3-phase, particulate, disperse, porous, open and heterogeneous system
 Ideal soil contains 50% solid matter (45% mineral matter and 5% organic matter) and
50% pore space (25% air and 25% water).
 Out of the 3 phases, Solid phase is the constant phase in terms of composition.
 There are basically 3 soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay. There are two systems of
classifying the sizes of these separates.
 International System given by Atterberg – Coarse sand 2mm – 0.2 mm, Fine sand
0.2mm to 0.02, silt – 0.02mm to 0.002mm and clay – less than 0.002mm or less than
2 microns.
 USDA system – Gravel – 2mm and more, Very coarse sand 2-1mm – 0.2mm, coarse
sand – 1.0 to o.5mm, medium sand – 0.5 to 0.25mm, fine sand 0.25 to 0.1mm, very
fine sand 0.1 to 0.05mm, silt 0.05 50 0.002mm and clay – less that 0.002mm.
 India follows International system of particle size classification.
 Physical properties of soil:
 The relative proportion of the various soil separates is called soil texture. There are
12 textural groups.
 Light textured or coarse textured soils are easy to plough whereas heavy textured or
fine textured soils are difficult to plough.
 The 12 textural groups from light or coarse textured to heavy or fine textured soils is
sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty
clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay and clay.
 Gravel is neither a soil separate nor one of the soil textures.
 Particles greated than 2mm are not considered soil.
 Textured is determined by International Pipette and Bouycous Hydrometer method.
 Stoke’s law is applied in the determination of soil texture.
 Silt has intermediate characteristics between sand and clay.
 Clay is called the active fraction of the soil. It is made up of alumino-silicates.
 Soil texture is a static property i.e. it cannot be changed.
 Soil structure is the arrangement of soil aggregates or primary and secondary
particles.
 Grade denotes the durability or stability of the aggregates – structureless, weak,
moderate, strong and very strong.
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 Class of soil structure denotes size of the aggregates: very fine, fine, medium, coarse
and very coarse.
 There are 4types soil structures: platy, prismatic or columnar, angular or sub-angular
blocky and spheroidal (granular and crumb structure).
 Structure is denoted in the order of GRADE-CLASS-TYPE.
 Structure of the soil can be easily changed by management practices.
 Loamy texture and granular or crumb structure is best suited for agriculture crops.
 Bulk density (Apparent density of soil is the mass of unit volume of soul including the
pore space.
 Particle density (True Density) is the mass of unit volume of soil without pore space.
 Bulk density (A) is approximately half that of particle density. So bulk density is
always lower than particle density value of Bulk Density is 1.4 to 1.8 Mg/m3. Bulk
density increases on compaction whereas it decreases on addition of organic matter.
 The particle density (T) of soils is around 2.65 Mg/m3 due to dominance of quartz
whose density is also of the same value.
 Porosity percentage pore space is given by the formula 100x(T-A/T).
 Values: Sandy soil +30% clay soils =50-60% and loams = 40-50%
 Macropores are greater in coarse textured soil and are occupied by air while
micropores are greater in fine textured soils and are occupied by water.
 Soil colour:
 It is found out using Munsell Colour chart. Three variables are used to denote soil
colour .They are hue-dominant Wavelength, Value-relative lightness of the colour and
chroma-purity of the colour.
 Plasticity and cohesion:
 Plasticity is the capacity of the soil to change its shape under moist conditions.
 Cohesion is the capacity to stick together.
 Plastic soils are cohesive.
 Soil Colloids:
 The two phases are the dispersed phase (clay and humus) and dispersion
medium/water).
 Soil colloid is made up inorganic colloid-clay and organic colloid-humus.
 Particles smaller than I micron are said to exhibit colloidal activity.
 Colloidal property increases with decrease in diameter.
 Colloids exhibit the property of sacrificial activity such as the capacity to hold solid,
gases, salts and ions.
 Soil colloids have high exchange capacity, which increases with silica sesquioxides
ratio.
 Soil water:
 Water has maximum density at 40 C. One molecule of water is attached to four
molecules in the neighborhood. The diameter of water molecule is 30A (3x10-10m).
Water has high dielectric constant of 80. Its surface tension is 7.2x10-2N/m.
 Structure of water molecule is hexagonal lattice and the angle is 1040 50.
 Soil moisture constants: Hygroscopic water, capillary water and gravitational water.
 Water held at tension of more than 31-atm is called hygroscopic water. It is not
available to the plants.
 Water held below 1/3rd –atm is called gravitational water and it is drained from the
soil due to gravity.
 Water held at tensions beyond 15- atm is not available to the plants. 15 atm
represents the wilting point.
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 If water is allowed to drain by gravity after supplying water, some water remains even
after drainage due to gravity. It is called field capacity. Water at field capacity is
held at 1/3red atm.
 Water held between 1/3rd and 15 atm is called available water
 Water in soil moves in response to difference to tension or pressure.
 More water means less tension and less water is held at more tension. So water
moves from low tension to high tension.
 Darcy’s law in soil deals to hydraulic gradient.
 Soil air:
 Soil air contains 10 times carbon dioxide as that of air.
 Ideally 2/3rd of soil pores are filled with water and 1/3rd with air.
 Fick’s law deals about the diffusion of gases in soils.
 Submerged soils contain less oxygen.
 Soil air is characterised by ODR-Oxygen Diffusion Rate.
 Soil temperature:
 In soils, heat is mainly transferred through conduction
 Fourier’s law deals with heat conduction in soils.
 Sandy soils absorb more heat than clayey soils because the specific heat of water
(heat required to heat a substance) is 4-5 times that of soil particles.
 Soil temperature is used at family level categorization in soil taxonomy.
 Chemical properties:
 pH is the negative logarithm of H ion concentration. Sorenson gave pH scale.
 There are two types of acidity in soil-active acidity and potential acidity.
 pH measure only active acidity. Potential acidity forms the bulk of the soil acidity. It
is greater than active acidity.
 Soil pH is also soil reaction.
 Soil with pH less than 6.5 are acidic, 6.5 to 7.5 are neutral and above 7.5 are alkaline.
 One unit change in pH changes H ion concentration by 10 times, 2 units by 100 times
and so on.
 Electrical conductivity:
 Measure of soluble salts in mmhos/cm or dS/m in solubridge or conductometer.
 Ion exchange:
 Most important process occurring in soil Ion exchange is a reversible pros\cess. Soil
colloids are the seat of ion exchange.
 Cation and anion exchange respectively. CEC is measured at pH 7 & expressed as
meq/100 g of soil. CEC varies greatly with nature and amount of clay and OM.
 Knolinite has 3-10, Illite – 10-30, Montmorillionite – 80-150 and Organic matter –
greater than 200.
Base saturation:
BS ={(Na+ +K++Ca+++Mg++)/CEC}x100
 Fertile soils are saturated with Ca++ and Mg++ ions. If soil is saturated with more than
15% exchangeable sodium, than that soil is called Alkali soil. If soil is saturated with
H+ ions. Then the soil is said to be base unsaturated or acidic.
 Organic matter:
 OM on decomposition by humification process gives humus. Humus is amorphous an
nature. In India OM is very less because of tropical and sub-tropical climate.
 In hilly and altitudes, OM is above 1% in mangroves it is 10-30%.
 CN ratio of OM is 10:1 whereas that of Indian soils is 5:1 to 25:1 with an average of
14:1
 Histosols are called Organic soils.
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 Organic matter decomposition stages: First sugars & starches followed by proteins
followed hemicelluloses, cellulose and fatty acids and finally lignin and waxes.
 Biological properties:
Bacteria > Actinomycetes> Fungi > Algae
 The smell of soils after fresh showers is due to Actinomycetes.
 Bacteria occur in neutral to alkahne pH. Fungi in acid pH and Algae in shade areas.
 Symbiotic N fixer – Rhizobium in Legumes, Non-symbiotic or Free living is
Arotobacter.
 In paddy algae or Azolla fixes N.
 The amount of N fixed is 50-I50 Kg.
 In plant N is fixed as R-NH2, which is converted to ammonia. The ammonia is
converted so nitrite first by Nitrosomonas or Nitrosococcus, followed by Nitrite to
nitrate by Nitrobacter. This process is called Nitrification.
 Some of the nitrification Inhibitors are N-Serve and AM.
 Optimum condition for nitrification process is field capacity and pH above 5.
 Mineralogical Properties:
 There are primary, secondary, accessory and amorphous minerals.
 Primary mineral: Order of occurrence
Feldspars> Quartz> Mica> Limestone> Hornblende and augite> Olivine and serpentine
 Serpentine is hydrated silicate of Mg.
 Secondary minerals:
 1:1- one silica and one alumina layer. Kaolinite, Halloysite and Dickite
 2:1 – Two silica and one alumina layer: Montmorillionite (expanding), Vermiculite
(Slightly expanding) and Illite (Non-expanding and 15% of silica is replaced by Al3-
and K+ ions) Illite is also called as hydrous mica.
 2:1:1 or 2:2 – Chlorite. The crystal unit is composed of one 2:1 unit (like mica and
Montmorillionite) and one octahedral unit, Brucite {(Mg3 (OH)6}.
 Accessory minerals: B- Tourmaline, F-Topaz, P-Apatite, Ti-Rutile and Anatase.
 Amorphous clay mineral: Allophane. Found in Soil order Andosols.
 Negative charge is due to exposed surface of clay and isomorphous substitution.
 Soil survey, classification and soils of India:
 There are two types of soil survey- Reconnaissance soil survey and detailed soil
survey.
 In RSS1 19 = 1 mile. Toposheets of 1:50,000 to 1:1,00,000 or aerial photo of 1:25,000
or 1:50,000 is used. Observations are once at 3-6 Kms.
 DSS: 19 = 8 mile or 19 = 16 mile. Cadastral maps of 1:5000 to 1:8000 or Aeria: photo
of 1:10,000 is used Observation are once at ¼ - ½ Km.
 Forest area is surveyed by RSS.
 Soil classification:
 India, from 1969, follows USDA’s Comprehensive system of soil classification called
soil Taxonomy. It is type of multi-category classification wherein there 6 categories:
soil order, suborder, great group, sub-group, family and series.
 There 12 order and the lastly added 11th and 12th orders are Andosols and Gelisols
respectively, Andosols are found in volcanic cruption areas and contains high content
allophane. Gelisols are found in arctic regions.
 The two largest orders in India are Inceptisols followed by Entisols.
 Soil of India:
 Largest area is occupied by alluvial soils 75 Mha.
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 Black soils 9Vertisols mostly), 72 Mha, are characterised by Gilgai (shining surface),
Micro- relief (ups and down), self-churning, smectite (expanding clays) and they are
the Russian equivalent of Chernozems.
 2/3rd of TN is of red soil. the parent material for red soils is mostly granite.
 Laterite is older than lateritic soils. Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils.
 Laterite means brick.
 Desert soils come under Aridisols.
 Problem soils occupy 10 Mha. Saline soils- 7.2 Mha and alkali soils- 2.8 Mha.
 Problem soils are highest in UP.
 Saline soils are formed mainly in aird and semi-arid regions due to rising of salt level
in the water table. Also it is due to secondary salinisation due to poor quality
irrigation water.
Type of soil pH EC(dS/m) ESP (%)
Saline < 8.5 >4 < 15
Alkali > 8.5 <4 > 15
Saline-Alkali < 8.5 >4 > 15
 Saline are called white alkali soils and are said to cause boron toxicity. Treated by
leaching.
 Alkali soils are called black soils and are reclaimed by applying Gypsum
 Saline tolerant varieties: rice, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum and millets.
 Sensitive crops: Pulses and oilseeds.
 Acid sulphate soils: pH less than 3.5 due to Liydrogen Sulphide gas production, found
in Kerala and Sunderbans. Causes AKiochi disease. Cat clays are associated with
these soils.
 Acid soils have very low pH. Reclaimed by liming with limestone or calcite
(CaCO3), Dolomite CaCO3. MgCo3. 2H2O. slaked lime Ca (OH2) and Burnt lime or
quick lime CaO.
 SAR= Na+ (Ca++ + Mg++) /2

 Soil Management:
 The optimum physical condition of the soil for crop growth is called soil tilth.
 Other practices are choice of crops, following land capability classification, conserve
soil and water, avoid salinity, alkalinity and water-logging, adopt crop rotation
especially with legumes, apply soil amendments and follow balanced fertilization.
 Soil Testing:
 Mainly to test the fertility status of the soil that is to find out the nutrient deficiencies
and soil amendments.
 Half a Kg soil sample is taken and analysed for pH, total soluble salts by EC, Organic
Carbon by Walkley and Black Method, Available N by alkaline permanganate
method, avai P by Olsen’s or Bray’s Method, avai K by Neutral Normal Ammonium
Acetate method.
 pH below 6 is termed acidic, 6-8.5 neutral to saline, 8.6 to 9 tending to be saline and
pH above 9 is termed as alkaline.
 Total soluble salts: EC in dS/m: Below 1is normal, 1-2 critical for germination, 2-4
critical for growth of sensitive crops, above 4 injurious to most of the crops.
 Soil test report gives soil texture, pH, EC, OC, Avai NPK, Gypsum and Lime amount
to be added, Green Manure/Compost in the Flooding and draining.
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 STATUS OF AVAILABLE NPK IN SOILS
Nutrient LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Organic carbon Below 0.5% 0.5 – 0.75% >7.5
Available N (Kg/ha) <280 280-560 >560
Available P (Kg/ha) 10 10-25 >25
Available K (Kg/ha) <110 110-280 >280
 Soil Fertility, manures and fertilizers:
 Soil productivity and fertility are synonymous terms. Soil productivity is soil fertility
+ something.
 There are 16 essential elements for plant growth. There are divided into Macro and
micronutrients based on the amount of plant uptake.
 Major nutrients consist of Primary elements. Beneficial elements are I, Se, Ga, AI.
 Ballast elements are AI and SI.
 Arnon gave the criteria for essentiality of the nutrients and Nicholas gave the term
functional or metabolic nutrients.
 Law of minimum was given by Father of AG. Chemistry Leibig and Law of
Diminishing Returns was given by Mitscherlich.
 Nutrient such as nitrate, chloride and sulphate are not absorbed by the soil colloids
and remain mainly in the soil solution.
 Diffusion mechanism enables nutrient movement without the movement of water.
 It is the mechanisms predominant are supplying most of the P and K to plant roots.
 Nitrogen role: greenish colour, efficient utilization of P and K. Its def symptoms
(yellowing) occur in the older leaves because of its high mobility, Def hastens
maturity whereas toxicity delays maturity because of prolonged vegetative flush,
succulent, leathery growth and also causes lodging. Toxicity also impairs the quality
of barley, tobacco, sugarcane and fruits.
 Nitrogen is available both in anionic and cationic form.
 Phosphorus promotes root growth, new cell formation, formation of grains and
maturation of crops, influences the vigour of plants and improves the quality of the
crops, increases resistances to diseases, N fixing in legume crops. Its deficiency
causes reddish or purplish discolouration of stem and foliage due to abnormal increase
in the sugar content and formation of anthocyanin.
 Potassium: to resist pest and diseases, cold and adverse conditions, starch production
and production and translocation of sugars, improves the quality of tobacco and citrus.
Luxury consumption is noticed. Deficiency symptoms ringing of alfalfa leaves with
rows of small white spots: reddish brown discolouration of cotton leaves, drying,
scorching and curling of leaf margins in potato and ‘interveinal chlorosis and ‘firing’
along the edges of maize leaves.
 Nitrogenous fertilizers:
 Sodium Nitrate: 1st nitrogenous fertilizer. Chilean Nitrate 16% N in nitrate form.
Particularly useful in acid soils
 Ammonium sulphate: 20.6% and 24% S. When close to seeds affects seed
germination
 Anhydrous Ammonia contains highest N content of 32%.
 Urea contains 46% N and non-proteined organic form of N, amide form of N1.
 Ammonium nitrate: 33-35% N (half as nitrate form and other half as Ammonical
form), acidulating and explosive.
 Nitro-chalk is obtained by mixing Ammonium nitrate with about 40% limestone or
dolomite. It has 20.5% (50% in Ammonical form and 50% in Nitrate form).
 Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate: Ammonium Nitrate + Ammonium sulphate. Contains
26% N (3/4th in Ammonical form and 1/4th in nitrate form.
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 Ammonium chloride: 26% N, possesses good physical condition, similar in action to

ammonium sulphate, not recommended for tomatoes, tobacco and other such crops.
 CAN: Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Kisankad 25-28% N (1/2 ammonical and ½
nitrate).
 Slow release N fertilizers: Neem coated urea, Tar coated urea, urea formaldehyde
(urea form), Urea super granules, etc.
 Dried bone meal – 10-12% highly available N.
 Phosphatic fertilizers:
 Rock phosphate: 25-35% water Insoluble Phosphoric acid. Bone meal contains 20-
25% P2O5.
 Super Phosphate: Most widely used water-soluble P fertilizer in India. SSP: 16-18%
P2O5,DSP-32% P2O5, TSP-44-49% P2O5.
 Citrate soluble P: Dicalcium phosphate- 35-38% P2O5 Basic slage –6-20% P2O5
byproduct of steel industries.
 Gypsum: 20% S and 23% Ca.
 Potassic Fertilizers:
 India imports K fertilizers mainly from Germany and France.
 MOP: KCI 50-63% K2O
 SOP:K2SO4 48-52% K2O.
 Wood ash – 5-6% Potassium carbonate.
 Complex fertilizer:
 Diammonium Phosphate: (DAP) – 18:46:0
 Suphala: Nitro phosphate – 20:20:2, 15:15:15, 18:18:9.
 Manures:
 FYM has 0.3%, 0.15%, 0.3% N, P2O5 and K2O.
 1 tone of cattle dung can give only 2.95 Kg of N, 1,59 Kg of Phosphoric acid and 2.95
Kg of potash.
 Night soil is also called Poudrette.
 Soil erosion and conservation:
 Soil degradation is defined as the loss in soil productivity due to physical, chemical
and biological deterioration.
 Causes are excessive pressure on land to meet the growing demands of population .
They are in the form of over exploitation of natural resources like overgrazing,
excessive deforestation, faulty methods of agricultural practices, shifting cultivation
or Jhuming.
 There are 2 types of soil erosion Normal crosion (geological crosion) and Accelerated
erosion.
 In normal erosion, rate of soil loss = rate at which soil is formed.
 Accelerated crosion is one where rate of soil of loss is far greater than the rate at
which it is formed.
 Area affected by soil degradation is 187.9 Mha (57.1%) of the total geographical area.
 Deterioration in the form of water erosion (148.9 Mha), Wind erosion (13.5 Mha),
chemical deterioration – 13.8 Mha, Physical deterioration like water logging (11.6
Mha) and Biological deterioration.
 Water erosion: Erosion by water – splash erosion, sheet, rill, gully, stream bank and
landslide erosion.
 Splash erosion is the splashing effect of raindrops on soil particles.
 Sheet erosion is not clearly recognised but can be seen as muddy run-off.
 Rill erosion leads to formation of finger like rills and gully crosion is the severe form
of rill erosion wherein grooves form deep channels called pullies. Land becomes
unfit for cultivation.
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 Size of gullies:
Symbol Description Specifications

G1 Very small Up to 3 m deep and 18m bed width. Side slopes vary
G2 Small Up to 3m deep and greater than 18m bed width. Side slope
very
G3 Medium Depth between 3 and 9m. Bed width greater than 18m. Side
slopes uniformly sloping between 8 and 15%
G4 Deep and (a) 3m-9m deep. Bed width less than 18m. Side slope vary.
Narrow (b) Depth greater than 9m. Bed width varies. Side slope
vary, mostly steep or even vertical, with intricate and
active branch gullies.
 The mechanism of water crosion is detaching effect of raindrops and surface flow of
water carries the detached soil particles to far places.
 Wind erosion:
 Wind erosion normally occurs in arid and semi-arid regions.
 3 types of soil movement are seen in wind crosion : saltation, suspension and surface
creep.
 Saltation is the most important process in wind erosion and control of wind erosion is
mainly based on elimination of movement in saltation. Particles of size 0.1 to 0.5mm
are lifted.
 Major portion of soil carried by wind is moved in a series of bounces called saltation.
 Suspension: Very fine particles less than 0.1mm in diameter are carried into
suspension over long distances. They are kicked up into air by action of particles in
saltation.
 Surface creep: Particles larger than 0.5mm but smaller than 1.0mm are pushed and
spread along the surface by impact of particles in saltation to form a surface creep.
 The mechanism of wind erosion is Initiation, transportation and deposition.
 Factors affecting soil loss:
 Universal soil loss (USLE) was given Weischmeir and Smith.
 A= RKLSCP where A denotes soil loss in the , R-Rainfall erosivity, K-soil
erodibility, L-slope length, S-slope%, C-crop management factor, P-Soil Management
factor.
 Soil loss is calculated by comparing soil loss with an ideal plot of 22m long (72 ft)
and 9% slope.
Rainfall crosion index = Kinetic energy of the storm x Max 30 minute intensity
 Intensity of the rainfall is more important than duration and frequency of rainfall in
causing soil loss.
 Soil texture, structure, infiltration, permeability, organic matter content etc affects soil
erosion.
 Lateritic soils are less erodible than black soils.
 Speed and extent of run-off is decided by slope% and length.
 Velocity of water flow is proportion to square root of slope% or vertical drop.
 Hence if land slope% is increased 4 times then velocity is doubled.
 If velocity is doubled, erosive power of How is increased by 4 times i.e. erosive
power is proportional to square of the velocity.
 Size of the particles carried by the flow is proportional to the 6th power of the velocity
of flow. If velocity is doubled, size of the particles carried is increased by 64 times.
 Quantity of soil transported is proportional to the 5th power of the velocity of flow. If
velocity is doubled, then quantity of soil transported is increased by 32 times.
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 So erosion is geometrically increasing with slope%.

 Loss of plant nutrients increases with increase in degree of slope.
 Soil loss is less when land is left undisturbed under a natural cover and soil loss
increases steeply when vegetation is removed and land is cultivated.
 Legumes and grasses are stronger in preventing soil loss.
 Monoculture of cereals should be avoided.
 Some important e.g. of order of soil loss.
Cultivated bare fallow Maize – wheat under Natural grasses
Fallow land up and down cultivation
Cultivated fallow > Jowar > natural cover
Overgrazed fallow or Maize > Natural fallow

 Soil And Water Conservation Measures
 The key to soil and water conservation is to follow land capability classification
 Land capability classes are based on intensity of hazards and limitations. As class
increases, the intensity of limitations increases.
 Class V has no crosion hazard but it is placed in class V only due to the fact that it
limitations are practically difficult to remove.
 Class VIII includes Bad Lands rock outcrops, sandy beaches, marshes, deserts, river
washes, mine spoils and other nearly barren lands.
 The colours for the various classes from I to VIII are Green, yellow, Brown, Pink,
Grey, Orange, Red and Purple.
 Sub class indicates dominant limitation and is denoted by e, w, s, c – e for erosion, w
for wetness, s for soil limitations and c for climate.
 If two limitations are found, the dominant limitations are written first.
 The order of priority in case of equal extent of limitations is e, w, s, and c.
 Arid lands start with class IV, semi-arid with class III or IV, sub-humid where crop
yield is affected frequently by drought with II or III, Humid climate with occasional
dry spells with II and humid climate with well distributed rainfall with CLASS I.
 Soil and water conservation measure are divided into Agronomic and Engineering
measures.
 Agronomic measure:
 The principles are to intercept raindrops and stop splash effect, to increase intake rate
and to stop overland flow.
 1. Contour farming: It is farming across the slopes along the contour bunds within
6% slope, Important examples of soil loss: Maize + cow pea (Contour cultivation) <
maize (up and down cultivation).
 Potato (contour cultivation) < Potato (up and down cultivation)
 2. Mulching: synthetic and natural.
 3. Selection of crops: crops selected should provide maximum cover of soil.
Legumes are very effective particularly cowpea and mung. Crops can be divided into
crosion resistant (Ground Nut) and crosion permitting crops (URAD).
 Important e.g. of soil loss: Urad > Maize > Gora paddy > G. Nut.
o Jowar > Black gram > G. Nut.
 Biditobacco- fallow > Sun hemp- Biditobacco-fallow> Bajra-fallow> Bajra-Mung.
 4. Strip cropping: Alternate strips of erosion resisting and erosion permitting crops.
 Wind strip cropping is growing alternate rows of tall and short crops across the
direction of wind.
 5. Mixea cropping: Better protection and yield than strip cropping.
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 Engineering measures: To increase the opportunity time and to divide the long
slopes into short ones so that the velocity of flow is reduced.
 The methods are basin listing using basin leister (excavate some soil to allow rain
water to enter), sub-soiling (to remove the surface hard pans),contour bunds upto 6%
slope, graded bunds in rainfall areas with a vertical interval of 0.3 (s+3) where S is
slope %, Bench terracing (series of benches or platforms, Grassed waterways using
Pannicum repans, Brachaeria mutical or cyanodon.
 Gully control measures: Check dams, sodding, Gully plugging with brush woods,
wire meshes, sand bags, boulders, live hedges (Vetiver), bricks masonry items, etc
earthen plugging.
 In case of small gullies, diversion check bunds and in case of medium gullies, cheek
dams at vertical interval of 1.2m and terracing the side slopes are done.
Soils of India
1. Red Soils (Alfisols):
 Red colour in red soils due to the presence of various oxides of iron
 Light texture, porous structure, deficient in organic matter
 Absence of lime and low soluble salts
 Slightly acidic to neutral in reaction
 pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.5
 Rich in Kaolinite (1:1) type of clay minerals
 Formed from ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
 The parent material for red soils is mostly granite
 It covers an area of 117.2 m ha (36 %)
 Distribution – Areas of Madras and Mysore, part of A.P, M.P, Orissa, Bihar, Santhal
paragana (Bihar) , Mirzapur, Jhansi district of U.P
 Red soil in Tamil Nadu occupies the largest area.
2. Black soils (Vertisols) :
 Covers an area of about 74 m ha accounting for 24 % of the total geographical area
 Generally rainfed
 The soils are dark or dark brown in colour
 Developed from Basaltic rock under semi arid condition
 The soils are locally known as ‘Regur’ or black cotton soil, deep black soil, and
medium black soil.
 The texture ranges from sandy loam to heavy clay.
 One of the characteristics of the swells on wetting during the season and shrinks and
cracks in summer season
 The base exchange capacity of deep black soil is quite high
 The pH varies from 7.5 to 8.5
 The soils are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and they are rich in potash and lime
 The clay content ranges from 40-69 % and occasionally upto 80 %
 Cation exchange capacity is 35-50 meq/100g soil
 Rich in montmorillonite and beidelithoc group of clay minerals
 Occurrence – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M. P, Rajasthan, U.P, A.P and Madras
3. Alluvial soils (Entisols):

 Soils of recent origin
 It is grey or greyish- brown in colour and texture of alluvial soils is sandy loam to
clay loam
 Most fertile soil
 Base exchange capacity is comparatively low and pH varies from 7.0 to 8.0
 Occupies the largest area i.e. 75 m ha
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 The alluvial soils are found in the areas of Rajasthan, Punjab, U.P, Bihar and West
Bengal
 Sufficient in P and K but deficient in Nitrogen and organic matter
4. Laterite and lateritic soils (Ultisols):

 Occupy 25 mha of the total geographic area
 Texture of top soil is loamy or clayey.
 Associated with undulating topography in region with a relatively high annual rainfall
 It is deficient in lime and are slightly to moderately acid in reaction
 The pH values from 5.0 to 6.0
 They are low in base exchange capacity
 Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils
 Predominate in Kaolinite type of clay minerals
 Deficient in P, K, Ca, Zn, B etc
 Shifting cultivation is mainly practised in these areas
5. Desert soils (Arid soils):

 Covers an area of about 29 m ha
 Developed in Arid regions. It is mostly sandy
 Desert soils contain large amount of soluble salts and varying proportion of lime
 They have a high pH and are very poor in fertility constituents
 Composed of Quartz but feldspar and horn blend grains also occur with a fair grains
also occur with a fair proportion of calcareous grains
 Desert soils are largely found in parts of Rajasthan, South Punjab and in the range of
Kutch.
6. Saline and Alkaline soils:

 Developed in the arid and semi arid regions
 Poor drainage is also responsible for their development
 Saline are called Alkali soils and are said to cause Boron toxicity. Treated by leaching
 Alkali soils are reclaimed by applying Gypsum
 Pulses and oilseeds are very sensitive to this soils
 Saline soils occupies 7.2 m ha and alkali soils – 2.8 m ha
 Highest in Uttar Pradesh
 pH is greater than 8.5
 Difficult to manage
 Exchangeable sodium percentage is more than 15
 Electrical conductivity is more than 4 mm hos/cm
 Occurrence- Indo-gangetic alluvium in the north and the deltic region
7. Forest and Hill soils:

 Estimated to be 75 m ha
 Occurrence –Himachal Pradesh, J& k, U. P, Uttarakhand, Bihar , Maharashtra, Kerala
and North Eastern Region
Important points to remember:

 Soil profile – A vertical section of the soil body which shows different layers
 Soil texture – The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
 Soil structure – Arrangement of soil particles e.g., granular, columner, compact
 Solum – A+B horizon
 Regolith – A+B+C horizon
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 A well developed soil have : A, B, C horizon

 The most abundant soil found in India is alluvial soil
 Anion exchange capacity is found maximum in the case of – Kaolinite
 Cation exchange capacity is found minimum in the case of – Kaolinite
 Black soil is the second largest group of Indian soils
 Cation exchange capacity is highest in – Montmorillonite
 Denitrification is more in water logged soils
 In no tillage systems, the surface soil layers have high bulk density
 Lime is used for reclamation of acidic soils
 Maximum absorption of water by roots takes place through the root hairs
 Maximum population of microorganisms found in soils are – Bacteria
 Most resistant mineral present in soil is – Quartz
 Montmorillonite (2:1), illite and Kaolinite (1:1) are clay minerals
 Pedology – study of soil development
 Gypsum or sulphur is used for reclamation of saline soils
 The most abundant mineral present on the earth is Feldspar
 pH – the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in the soil
 Tolerance of soil salinity in crops – Barley> wheat > Beans>Upland paddy
 Igneous rock- Granite, Basalt; Sedimentary rocks – sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite;
Metamorphic Rocks – marble, slate
 Check basin irrigation method is best suited for undulating topography
 Red soils are best suited for irrigated agriculture
 Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration of normal soils -10-12:1
 The maximum moisture is available to plants at field capacity
 The main source of heat for soils is solar radiation
 Number of master horizons in soil are -5
 Micronutrient defiant in Indian soils – Zinc
 Fertilizers not produced in India – Muriate of Potash
 Degree of soil salinity is indicated by its Total soluble salt content
 Maximum saline and alkali soils are found in Uttar Pradesh
 Alkali soils are generally found in Arid and semi-arid climate
 Gravitational water is less available for plant or not available (-0.1 to –0.3 bar)
 Capillary water- water held between –0.1-31 bars, most available for plant growth,
capillary water held between –15 bar is easily available to crop production
 Hydroscopic water- water is held below permanent wilting point, except few
microbes, all plants fail to absorb hydroscopic water.
 Dark colour of soils is due to presence of Titanium and Mn
 Total essential nutrients – 17. Recently added mineral is ‘Ni’.
 Ultra micro nutrient – Molybdenum
 Among the soil fauna, protozoa are the most abundant
 Edaphology – Study of relationship between plant and soil
 Petrology – study of Rocks
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13. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

 Ext. Education is the process of bringing desirable changes in human behaviour
 Grow more food campaign (1947)
 Grow more food enquiry committee (1952)
 Etawah pilot project, Etawah dist. of UP, (1948), fore runner of community dev.
Project in India, started by Albert Mayer
 Community Dev, project (1952)
 National extension service (1952)
 Panchayat Raj System (PRS), Balwant Roy Mehta committee, introduced PRS (3
Tier, Dist->, Block->, Village), 2 Tier by Ashok Mehta committee.
 First Agricultural University as SAU, G.B.Pant AU. (1960), Uttaranchal
 IADP (Intensive Agr. Dev. programme)—1960
 IAAP (Intensive agri. Area Prog.)----1964
 HYVP (High yielding variety prog.) for wheat and paddy---1965-66
 SFDA (Small Farmer Dev. Agency) ---1971-72
 Rural Credit Review Committee----1960
 NDP (National Demonstration project.)---1960
 DAAP (1970-71) forth five year plan
 Drought prone area programme – 1970-71
 Command area development programme - 1974
 Tribal area development Programme---1972
 Training and Village system----1974
 KVK—(first was in Pondicherry, TNAU) Teaching by doing, 1974
 TRYSEM (Training Rural youth for self employment)—15th Aug. 1979
 IRDP(integrated rural development program me) ---2nd Oct.1980-81
 JRY (Jawahar Rojgar Yojana) started by Merging National Rural employment prog
and Rural Landless employment guarantee prog. ---1989
 Employment Assurance Scheme.—Oct 1993
 ICAR started IVLP (Institute village linkage prog.)—1995
 Forming System Research Extension ---1970
 Lab to land Programme and National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) – 1979
 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) – 1998
 National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) – 2006
 Important Projects and Associated Persons
Name of Project Associated persons
 Gurgaon project : F.L Brain
 Shantiniketan : Rabindranath Tagore
 Rural Reconstruction : Daniel Hamilton
 Marthandom Project : Spencer Hatch
 Sewagram : Mahatma Gandhi
 Etawah pilot project : Albert Mayor(first project)
 Nilokheri experiment : S.K Dey
 Majdoor Manjil : S.K Dey
 Community Development : S.K Dey
 Indian village scheme : S.N Gupta
 National Demonstration scheme(NDS) : Kalwar and Subramaniam
 Young farmer association : Deskmukh
 3 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Rajasthan) : B.R Mehta
 2 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Karnataka) : Ashok Mehta
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 T & V system : Daniel Benore
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14. CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY

Plant tissue culture:
 Father of plant tissue culture – Haberlandt (German)
 Practical demonstration of totipotency by vasil and Hildebrandt (1964)
 Micro propagation technique was first devised for Orchids
 Morel and martin – meristem culture. Apical meristems. Used for production of
disease free plants
 Anther culture – Maheswari and Guha
Molecular markers:
 These are heritable difference in the nucleotide sequence of DNA at particular
position on homologous chromosome
 Detected by southern blot reaction and PCR reaction
 Southern hybridization developed by E. M southern (1975)
 Polymerase chain reaction by KARY MULLIS (1985)
Types:
1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP):
 First marker (1980)
 Co-dominant in nature
 Highly reproducible
2. Sequence Tagged sites (STS)
 Robust markers used in human and plant genome mapping
3. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD):
 Dominant marker
 Non reproducibility
4. Sequence tagged Microsatellite Sites (STMS):
 Co-dominant and reproducible
 Used for developing a physical map
5. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP):
 Co-dominant
6. Single Nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs):
 Used for genotyping human population for certain genetic diseases.
Genomics:
 First bacterial genome sequenced (1995) – Haemophilus influenxae
 First multi-cellular organism sequenced – Caenorhabditis elegans
 First plant sequenced (2000) – Arabidopsis thaliana
 First crop plant sequenced – Rice
Transgenic:
 An organism where a foreign gene is involved
 First transgenic developed in - Tobacco
 First transgenic crop plant – “ Flavr savr” tomato for delayed ripening (1994 – for
commercial cultivation) by calgene company
 Global transgenic covers mainly six crops i.e. soybean, corn, cotton, canola, squash and
papaya’
 Common traits engineered – herbicide, Insect (only cry genes from Bt) and virus
resistance
 Transgenic crop cultivated area is highest in USA (59%) followed by Argentina, Canada
and Brazil
 Crops having highest transgenic cultivation area is soybean followed by corn and cotton
 In India, only transgenic crop cultivated commercially is cotton
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 In India, released of transgenic variety is approved by Genetic Engineering Approval

committee (GEAC) under ministry of environment and forest.
 Biosafety procedures for transgenics are governed by Environmental Protection Act
(EPA) 1986.
 Higher plants whose genome has been sequenced:
Organism Type Relevance Genome Number Organization Year of

size of genes completion
predicted
Arabidopsis Wild Model plant 120 Mb 25,498 Arabidopsis 2000
thaliana mustard Genome
Ecotype:Columbia Thale Cress Initiative[23]
Oryza sativa ssp Rice Crop and 420 Mb 32- Beijing 2002
indica model 50,000 Genomics
organism Institute,
Zhejiang
University and
the Chinese
Academy of
Sciences
Oryza sativa ssp Rice Crop and 466 Mb 46,022- Syngenta and 2002
japonica model 55,615 Myriad
organism Genetics
Physcomitrella Bryophyte Model 500 Mb 39,458 US Department 2008
patens organism of Energy
early Office of
diverging Science Joint
land plant Genome
Institute
Populus Balsam Carbon 550 Mb 45,555 The 2006
trichocarpa poplar or sequestration, International
Black model tree, Poplar Genome
Cottonwood commercial Consortium
use (timber),
and
comparison
to A. thaliana
Vitis vinifera Grapevine Fruit crop 490 Mb 30,434 The French- 2007
PN40024 Italian Public
Consortium for
Grapevine
Genome
Characterization
Carica papaya Papaya Fruit crop 372 Mb 28,629 Hawaii 2008
'SunUp' Agricultural
Research Center
and others
Cucumis sativus Cucumber Vegetable 367 Mb 26,682 Chinese 2009
'Chinese crop Academy of
long' inbred Agricultural
line 9930 Sciences,
Beijing
Glycine max Soybean Protein and 1,100 46,430 Purdue 2010
Soyabean oil crop Mb University
Soya
Zea mays ssp Corn Cereal crop 2,800 32,000 NSF 2009
mays (maize) Mb
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B73
Brachypodium purple false Model 272 Mb The International 2010
distachyon brome monocot Brachypodium
(grass) Initiative
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15. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

 Ozone layer is mainly found in the lower stratospheric layer, more appropriately 25
km height from the ground
 Troposphere and stratosphere contain 99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere
 World agriculture started about – 10,000 years back
 Indian agriculture started about – 6000 years back
 First biosphere reserve in India is – Nilgiri biosphere reserve
 Among different Biogeochemical cycle, only phosphorus does not have any
atmospheric reservoir
 “Red Data Book” related to categories of threatened, endangered, extinct species
 Biogas contain 50-60 % methane
 Green house gases – Co2, CH4, N2O, CFC
 Of all the green house gases carbon dioxide contributes for maximum in Global
warming
 Green house gas produced in rice field is – Methane
 Jatropha is used to produce “Bio fuel”
 Itai-Itai and Manimata disease is due to Cadmium and Mercury Toxicity.
 Kyoto protocol signed in 1997, adopted in 2005.
 1 kg weight fish has 1 80 mg DDT in body what be in ppm - 80ppm
 Which chemical is used for preservation – benzoic acid
 After Bhopal gas tragedy use of which pesticide was banned – Aldicarb
 Lactose is – glucose + glactose
 Blue asbestos has – a) sodium iron silicate b)sodium aluminium silicate c) silicon
aluminium sulphate d) none ans a)
 In lithosphere which has maximum concentration: Fe/O/Si/Na
(46.6%)>Si (27.72%)>Al (8.13%)>Fe (5%)>Ca (3.63%)>Na (2.83%)>K
(2.59%)>Mg (2.09%) up to 16 Km of earth crust.
 Upper 5 Km of earth crust contain 74% i.e. 3/4th Sedimentary rocks(shale 52%+sand
stone 15%+limestone & dolomite 7%), 18% Igneous rocks (granite 15% + basalt
3%) and 8% other rocks are found in whole earth crust contain 95% igneous rocks
and 5% sedimentary rocks (shale 4%, and sandstone 0.75%, limestone 0.025%)
 Biodiesel is produced from: trans-esterification of vegitable/animal lipid or oil is a
monoalkyl ester of long chain fatty acid
 Ethanol is produced from: fermentation of charbohydrate containing matter eg Corn,
Sugar cane
 In India 10% blending is done in gasoline.
 Metals have: a) unfilled ‘p’ orbital, b) unfilled ‘d’ orbital, c) both a & b, d) none
ans-b
 Acid rain has pH: a) 5.6, b) 5.8, c) 5.4, d) 4 ans-a
 Cattle population per 100 Km2 is maximum in: a) Bihar, b) Haryana, c) UP, d)
Maharashtra Ans-b
 Orange is resistant to: a) HF, b) NH3, c) NO2, d) SO2
 Cd is present in which fertilizer: phosphatic fertilizer
 Natural radiation contribute what % of total radiation – 83%
 Which one is extinct whale: killer whale/ sperm whale/ blue whale/ Indian dolphin
 Who said environment can satisfy the need not the greed: a) MS Swaminathan b)
Manmohan Singh c) Mahatma Gandhi
Ans- c
 Fecundity means: ability to reproduce
 Ability to maintain internal stability is called: Homeostasis
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 Agent Orange is the code name for a herbicide and defoliant—contaminated

with TCDD
 N2O can be detected by: a)FID b)TCD c) ECD d) All
ans-c
 Spectrophotometer is based on principle of: absorption spectrum
 Biogas contain: 60% Methane and 40% carbon dioxide
 Bird evolves in- Jurassic period (150 millions year ago)
 Coca cola contain SnCl2 which is: emulsifier/ antioxidant/ stabilizer ans-b
 Largest source of S is: volcanic eruption
 Convert 0.09 ppm to mg/m 3: 1ppm= mg/l = mg/1000cc = mg1000000/1000m3=
1000mg/ m3 ans=90
 Convert 9 ppm to %: 1ppm= 1/106 so in % 1 x 100/106 = 10-4 %
Ans= 9 x 10-4
 Definition of Niche: functional role of a species in an ecosystem
 Cybernetics: science of control or regulation
 Vienna convention on protection of ozone layer was held in year: 1985
 Highest CEC in which soil: sandy/ clay/ loamy
ans-b
 Degradation of pesticide is maximum in which soil : sandy/ clay/ loamy
ans-b
 Denitrification occur in which type of soil: water logged/ anaerobic condition
 Bioaccumulation occur due to: fat or lipid solubility
 Traditional detergent contain: phosphorus/ sulphur/ nitrogen
ans-a
 Hg retention time in soil:
 Jet stream has sound intensity:
 Sulphur contain of diesel is:
 Ethanol + petrol = % of O2
 What get leaked in ship wreck at Haldia in 1993– soda ash
 Radioactive nuclei involved in Delhi health hazard in 2010- Co-60, gamma radiation,
5.25 year half life
 Full form of PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls
 What is biodiversity index:
 A Q I- Air quality Index- 0-500, higher the AQI poor the quality of air
 W Q I- water quality index – 1-100, higher the WQI better the quality of water,
detrmined by 9 parametrs (pH, BOD, Fecal coliform, nitrate, phosphate, TDS,
temperature change & turbidity)
 SQI – soil quality indicator –
 What is bio-concentration factor (BCF) – % of bioaccumulative substances in tissue
of aquatic organism in relation to concentration of that substance in to environment
i.e. water whwre organism live = Corg/Cinv X 100, assume accumulation is through
water only
 BAF – bio accumulation factor – assume both organism and their food are equally
exposed
 % of water in ocean: 97.5%
 Fresh water = 2.5% (2% cryosphere or ice, 0.4% ground water, 1% lake (0.02), soil
(0.005), atmosphere (0.0005), river (0.0001), & biota water
 Maximum fresh water trapped in: ice cap
 C-14 is emitter of which ray: α/ β/ γ ans- β
 Fluoride problem is maximum in which state: Rajasthan
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 Sink of Pb is: smelter/coal

 Journal of environmental conservation and monitoring published from :
 Difference between point source and non point source of pollutants
 Point source – easily identifiable – sewage/industrial/commercial waste
discharge
 Non – point source – diffused not easily identifiable – runoff /
agriculture/atmospheric fall
 Fog is: liquid (water) in gas/ solid in gas/liquid in liquid ans- liquid in gas
 In photochemical smog which has maximum concentration: ozone/PAN/SO2
ans-a
 Recently recognized hot spot in India: NE Himalya
 Typhoid is due to: Salmonella typhae
 SARS is due to : a) coronavirus b) neumoravirus
 Most important process of photoreaction in atmosphere is: photosynthesis
 Which parameter is important in methane emission: a) pH b) EC c) ESP
ans-a
 Golden langur and Chinkara deer are example of: a) endangered species b) extinct
ans-a
 Which state has two biosphere reserve: Assam
 Which is not considered in EIA: human interest
 In AAS Bears-Lamberts low cannot be directly applied why:
 What is commensalism
 Commensalism = one benefited(+) & other has no effect(0)
 Byssinosis is coused by: cotton
 DDT is soluble in: lipid or fat
 Pb is: a) chalcophile b) siderophile
ans-a
 NOx concentration in atmosphere is: 310ppb
 NO2
 SO2
 Estuaries has which type of water: brackish Water
 Vivisection is called – a) mass cutting of forest b) ivory trade c) animal for lab
purpose ans- c
 Anthropogenic to natural emission of metal in environment is called:
 Atrazene is a: pre-emergence herbicide
 Nitrogen fixing plants - LEGUMINOUS
 Biofertilizers – Azolla
 1KWH=3.6MJ
 First wind energy farm in India: Mandvi
 Energy obtained from wind will be: a) squire of velocity b) cube of velocity
 Height of troposphere: 11km
 Which is not a physical process for air pollution control: a) wet scrubbing b)
electrostatic precipitator c) bag house
ans a)
 Minimum organic matter decomposition occur in which climate: a) cold & wet b) hot
& humid c)cold & dry ans a)
 Protozoa found up to what depth in soil: 15 cm
 Aldehyde to ethan conversion is done by – a) Xymase b) converage c) diesterage
 TCME in Japan
 Environmental (protection) rule – 1998 and act 1986
 Denitrification occure in- waterlogged soil
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 Abulation is – emission of methane from water body as bubble

 Pyrolysis take place in absence of – oxygen
 Maximum erosion is due to – a) wheat b) clover C) potato d) sorghum
ans a)
 Not naturally managed ecosystem is - a) agriculture b) forest c) marine
ans a)
 90 -95% nitrogen in mineral soil are in the form of – a) organic matter b)ammonia c)
nitrate ans-a
 Maximum degradation occur by – a) physical b)chemical c)water d) air
ans a)
 Which do not influence the climate of a place – temperature of land & sea/volume of
ice caps/ocean current /shifting of wind belt
ans a)
 Tickling filter is used for – a) coagulation b) separation
ans a)
 Dry habitat vegetation is called – xerophytes
 Sinc of Pb – a) atmosphere b) soil and sediments c) ocean
ans a)
 Source of Pb – a) smelter b) coal
ans a)
 Ecological pyramid is – a) tropical structure b) energy flow
ans a)
 Crop rotation does not affect – a) drainage to toxicity b) pest biological control c)
nutrient build-up ans a)
 Soil properties which not change – soil texture
 What is biome – a large area characterized by major vegetation type
 What is ecology –
 Which is not a fumigant – a) DDT b) EDB c) ALP
ans a)
 SI unit of energy – joule
 IGFRI is at – Jhansi
 Minimum Pb concentration in blood that inhibit ALA enzyme – 0.3 ppm
 Earth day is celebrated on – 22 April
 What is biotic potential- is the maximum reproductive capacity of a population if
resources are unlimited
 Azolla is used in – paddy field
 Low of minima was given by – Liebig
 Relation hip between absorbance and transmittance : A= Log 1/T
 BOD at 25oC is measerd for how many days – 3 days
 BOD at 20oC for 5 days
 Jet planes release – Nox
 SI unit of pressure – Pascal
 pH of sea water – 8.2 ± 0.2
 mass of nitrogen in dry air – 75%
 Air pressure will be highest on – see level
 Silent spring was written by – Rachel Carson
 Buffering capacity refers to – ability to resist change in pH
 1987 protocol which called for 50% cut off in CFC by 2000 is called – Montreal
protocol
 In Scandinavia fish kill was due to – acid rain
 Which is not given by uranium degradation – a)Ba b) Kr c) xe d) neutron
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 Year of natural conservation – 1980

 Process of heating at high temperature without fusion–a) smelting b) roasting c)
combustion d) calcinations
 Erosion is caused by – deforestration/ agriculture/ all
ans-c
 Methane contribution to global warming – CO2 (74%) > CH4 (16%) > N2O (9%) >
CFCs (1%)
 GWP of nitrous oxide is what times of carbon dioxide – 200 , methane(20)
 Mega- diversity centre in world – 12
 India has 3 hot spots of biodiversity Viz. the western ghat, The North eastern region
and the Eastern Himalayas
 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) also called “Earth Summit” was held in Rio De
Janerio, Brazil in 1992. Came into force in 1993
 Biodiversity Act of India, 2002, implemented in 2004
 Centre of origin and centre of diversity proposed by – N. I Vavilov
 Protection of Plant varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPVFR)- 2001
 National Biodiversity Board located in New Delhi
 Indian Institute of Biodiversity (2001-2002) located in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh
 Largest and oldest centre of crop diversity – China centre
 Crop origin centre having highest diversity – Hindustan centre
 International treaty on Plant genetic Resources for food and agriculture (ITPGRFA)
signed under FAO in Rome in 2001
 WTO came into being in 1995; its head quarter is in Switzerland
 Plant quarantine order, 2003
 Sanitary and Phytosanitary standards under GATT, 1994
 UPOV convention held in 1961. Headquarter located in Geneva
 Total no of Hot spot of Biodiversity in the world – 34
 Citrus gene sanctuary located in – Garo hills, Meghalaya
 Rhododendron and orchids gene sanctuary located in – Sikkim
 IPGRI located in Rome, Italy
 Biodiversity ‘Hot spots’ term given by – Meyer
 Examples of In -situ conservation – Biosphere reserves, national parks, Sanctuaries,
Sacred groves etc.
 Examples of Ex- situ conservation – Field gene bank, Botanical gardens, Herbal
gardens, Clonal repositories, Cryo-gene bank etc.
 New seed development policy, 1988
 PFS order enacted in – 1989
 Wildlife (protection) Act – 1972
 Forest (conservation) Act – 1980
 Institute of Bioresource management and sustainable use located in – Manipur
 The “Cartagena protocol on Biosafety” was adopted in 2000
 2010 is declared as the “International Year of Biodiversity” by FAO
 India contributes 7.5% biological diversity in the world.
 India contributes 2.5% Global landmass in the world.
 33% of sp. In India is endemic.
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16. SEED TECHNOLOGY
 Seed is a ripened mature ovule that consists of embryo, seed coat and cotyledons
 Smallest seeds – Orchid seeds
 Largest seeds – Double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica)
Types of seeds:
1. Dicotyledonous seeds:
(A) Exalbuminous seeds (Non-endospermic seeds):
 Seeds which do not have endosperm at maturity.
 Examples – Pea, Gram, Bean, Tamarind, Cucurbits, Gourd, Cucumber,
Groundnut, Jute etc.
(B) Albuminous seeds (Endospermic seeds):
 Endosperms present until maturity. Cotyledons are thin acting as food
sucking organ
 Example : Castor, Papaya, Cotton
2. Monocotydonous seeds:
(A) Albuminous seeds
 Examples – Maize, Wheat, Rice, Coconut
(B) Exalbuminous seed:
 Examples – Pothos, Amorphophallus, Alisma etc.
 Storage substance:
- Rice – Oryzein
- Wheat – Glutenin
- Barley – Hordein
- Maize – Zein
- Pea – Legumin
- Soybean – Nodulin
- Sunflower – Inulin
- Grain legumes – Phaseolin
 TYPES OF GERMINATION:
1) Epigeal:
 Cotyledons emerge above the soil surface by elongation of hypocotyls and
generally became green
 Examples – Green gram, Black gram, Groundnut, Soybean, Pumpkin, Okra,
Cucumber, Mustard, Cotton, Jute, Castor, Tomato, French bean etc.
2) Hypogeal:
 Cotyledons do not emerge above soil surface. The hypocotyl may elongate and
emerge above soil surface but the epocotyl grows first
 Examples – Rice, Lathyrus, Maize, Wheat, Barley, Coconut, Broad bean, Pea
etc.
 SEED TESTING:
- The first seed testing station was founded by Prof. F Nobbe at Germany in 1869
- The International seed testing Association (ISTA) was established in 1924 in
Norway
- Central seed testing Laboratory (CSTL) – established at IARI, New Delhi in 1960
now shifted to Varanasi, U.P
 GROW OUT TEST:
- Refers to those test in which appropriate samples of seeds are grown to
determine the genetic purity of a given seed lot of released cultivars
 TETRAZOLIUM (TZ) TEST:
- Given by Lakon (1942)
- Tetrazolium test is a quick, easy and popular method of testing seed viability
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- This test utilised the chemical 2, 3, 5 – Triphenyl Tetrazolium chloride or

bromide which is a cream or light yellow colour compound.
- This chemical is reduced to an insoluble and stable red colour compound
called Formazen in the presence of Dehydrogenase group enzymes
- This test should not be applied to any sample containing dry germinated seeds.
 CLASSES OF IMPROVED SEED:
A) Nucleus seed:
 It is the initial seed of an improved variety which is always limited in
quantity
 It is produced by the originating plant breeder
 Purity – It is genetically and physically cent percent pure
 Certification – exempted from certification by seed certifying agency but
should be certified by the breeder
 Use – for breeder seed production. It is not meant for general distribution
B) Breeder seed:
 It is the progeny of nucleus seed or breeder seed
 It is produced under strict supervision of original or sponsoring plant
breeder at the research farm of the concerned crop research institute or
agricultural university
 Production – produced in isolation from other varieties.
 Purity – genetically and physically cent percent pure
 Certification – No certification
 Use- For foundation seed production. Not meant for distribution
 Tagging – Gold coloured tag signed by the breeder.
C) Foundation seed:
 It is the progeny by breeder seed
 Production – produced by National Seeds Corporation under the strict
supervision of research scientists and experts from NSC at Govt. Seed
multiplication farms. It is produced in isolation
 Purity –genetically 100% pure. Physical purity – 98%
 Certification – undertaken by seed certification agency
 Use – For production of registered seed or certified seed production. Not
for general distribution
 Tagging – White Tag signed by the certifying agency
D) Registered seed:
 Progeny of either foundation seed or registered seed
 In India, registered seed is generally omitted and certified seed is produced
directly from the foundation seed
 Production – By progressive cultivators at the farms under strict
supervision of NSC.
 Purity – genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98%
 Certification – It is done by the SSCA
 Use – For production of certified or registered seed
 Tagging – Purple colour
E) Certified seed:
 Progeny of either foundation or registered or certified seed
 Production – produced on the fields of progressive farmers under the
strict supervision of SSCA
 Purity - genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98%
 Certification – Done By SSCA
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 Use – available for general distribution to the farmers for commercial

production
 Tagging – Blue colour Tag
IMPORTANT POINTS:
 The Indian seed act was enacted in 29th Dec, 1966 and has been in force since oct. 2nd
1969
 The Indian seed Act was amended on sept.9, 1972
 Indian patent Act -1970
 National Seeds Corporation was initiated in 1961. It started functioning in July, 1963
with its headquarters in New Delhi.
 National seed project (NSP) established in 1976
 New seed bill – 2004
 Nordic seed bank - Norway
 Dockage – the impurity percentage of a seed lot
 Seed lot certificate colour is orange or green
 Seed sample certificate colour is blue
 Harvesting index is maximum in carrot
 The two most important factors influencing the life span of seeds under storage are
relative humidity and temperature
 Headquarters of ISTA- Zurich, Switzerland
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17. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
 Father of agricultural engineering in India – Professor Mason Vaugh

 First bachelor’s degree course in agricultural engineering in India – Allhabad
agricultural Institute ,Allahabad (1942-43)
 Indian society of agricultural engineers (ISAE) – 1960 at IIT Kahargpur and presently
its headquarter is at New Delhi
 ISAE publications: 1) Journal Of Agaricultural Engineering (JAE)
2) Agricultural Engineering Today (ATE)
 1960- 61 – atractor manuufacturing started in india by first manufacture m/s eicher
good earth
 Average man can develop maxium power of about 0.1hp (74.6 watts) for doing farm
work
 Power developed by an average pair bullocks is about 1hp (746 wants) for usual farm
work
 The averge force a draft animal can exert is nearly one –tenth of its body weight
 Unit power availavle for crop production (india) is about 1.35 kw/ha but for desirable
level of agricultural production power requirment could about 2.15 kw/ha
 Thermal efficiency for diesel engine – 32 to 38%
 Thermal efficiency for petrol engine – 25 to 32%
 Of the total energy produced in india the share of thermal power is about 56%,hydro
electrical
 Power (36%) ,nuclear power(16%) and rest comes from deisel and gas based power.
 The farm holding in india are classified as (a) marginal(<1ha),(b) small(1-2 ha) , (c)
semi medium (2-4ha) ,(d) medium (4-10),(e) large(>10 ha)
 At present agricultural machinery population is estimated at about 150 million which
includes about 3 million tractor .(2.5 lakh tractor/year ,10000 power tiller /year)
 The most popular tractor is found in 31-40 hp segment , which accounts for 60% of
the total sales in the country
Biogas
 Biomass: mixture of methane (45-70%) and carbon dioxide(30-35%)
 Cattle dung : water ratio for biogas slurry : 4:5or 1:1
 Buffaloes : 15 kg dunr/day, bullocks or cows : 10 kg dung /day and calves : 5kg
dung/day
 Suitable condition for biogas production – ph(7-8), temperature(35 c)
 Biogas calorific value -4500 kcal/m^3
Wind energy
 The speed required for operation of wind mill – 10 to 15 km/hr
 Two types of wind mill (horizontal axis and vertical axis rotr)
1. Horizontal axis rotor –axis of rotion is parallel to the direction of wind
i . Multi blade
ii. Propeller – most commonaly used
iii. Sail type
2. Vertical axis rotor axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of wind
 Components of wind mill :- tower ,head ,roto ,transmission gear ,pump,generator
 Power available wind mill depends upon (1) wind speed (2) cross section of wind
swept by rotor
(3) Overall conversion efficiency of rotor , transmission system,generator
Solar energy
 Temperature of sun 5777 k
 Radition range from sun ,0.4 um – maximum available range,
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<0.4 um – ultraviolet radiation (8% of radition),

0.4-0.7 um visible radiation (46%)
>0.7 um infrared radiation (46%)
 Solar constant : solar radiation received per second by surface of unit area held
normal to the direction of sun rays at mean earth –sun distance. Its value 1350 w/m2
or 1.94 cal/s/m2
 Radiation measurement
o Pyrheliometer : beam radiation (direct radiation)
o Pyranometer : total radiation (global radiation)- accurate
o Solarimeter : total radiation (global radiation )- inaccurate
o Pyrometer: very high temp measurement
 Collection of solar radiation (three ways)
1 By flat plate collector : temp range 40 centigrade to 100 centigrade
2 Focussing or concentrating colletore (>100 °c)
3 Photovoltaic cell (soller cell) : directly convert solar energy in to electricity made
of Silicon separated by thin brrier with conversion efficiency is about 10%
 Portable water contained <550 ppm of salt ,sea water contained 30000-40000 ppm of
salt ,groundwater contained<2000-3000 ppm of salt
 Solar still –device converts saline water in to portable water.
 Green house is structure made of polythene/rain forced fibre to provide controlled
condition for crop production
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18. AGRICULTURAL PHYSICS
SUN AND THE EARTH SYSTEM

 The sun is a star and is a part of the Milky Way Galaxy. Sun rotates in an anti-
clockwise direction i. e. from west to east. The temperature at the surface of the sun
is around 6000C.
 The earth is at a mean distance of 150 million km from the sun. The mean surface
temperature of the earth is 15 C.
 the shortest distance between the sun and the earth is called perihelion (147 million
km) occurring on 3rd January and the longest distance is called Aphelion (152 million
km) occurring on 4th July.
 Solar constant is defined as the total amount of solar radiation received per unit area
per init time in the absence of atmosphere, the radiation being perpendicular and the
earth at its mean distance from the sun. its value is 1.94 cal/cm2/min or 1.94
Langley/min.
 There are four seasons in a year namely winter solistice (2nd Dec), Spring equinox (21
March), summer solistice (Jun 21st) and autumn equinox (23rd September).
 During equinox, the sun is at the equator during solistices, the sun is at either tropic of
cancer (summer solistice) or Capricorm (winter solistice).
ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPOSITION

 The vast expanse of air , which envelops the earth all around, is called the
atmosphere.
 It can be broadly divided into four layers namely troposphere (upto 18 km in the
equator and 8 km in the poles), stratosphere (8 or 18 km – 50 km), mesosphere
(50km- 80km) and thermosphere (80km- 400km).
 Pure dry air constitutes mainly of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%). Co2
(0.03%), hydrogen, helium, water vapor, ozone, dust particles, smoke, salts and other
impurities.
 Like a green house, it allows short wave radiation to enter into it and reach the earth’s
surface but is nearly opaque to long wave terrestrial radiation from the sun (Green
House Effect)
 Some of the important Green house gases are CO2 CFC1s- Chlorofluorocarbons, CH$
Nitrous oxide, etc.,
 The atmosphere protects the earth from the harmful radiation of the sun with the help
of the Ozone (O3) layer
METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY (WEATHER AND CLIMATE)

 The study of envelope of air surrounding the planet and of the phenomena associated
with the atmosphere is called Meteorology.
 A component of Meteorology is the study of weather. Weather is the present
condition of the atmosphere at a particular. It is mainly concerned with its day-to-
day effects on life and human activities.
 Climatology is the study of long-term manifestations of the weather represented by a
statistical collection of weather conditions over a specific length of period usually at
least a few decades.
 The use of science of Meteorology for agriculture is called Agricultural Meteorology.
 The various elements that combinedly express weather are air pressure and wind,
temperature. Relative Humidity, precipitation (rainfall, snow, fog, hails, etc),
visibility.
 The climate is controlled by four factors called Climatic controls – Astronomical
factors, Geomorphological factors, solar factors and Anthropogenic factors.
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 The Nine Climatic controls are latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, land and sea
distribution, semi-permanent pressure system, storm tracks, occan currents, mountain
barriers and air masses.
WEATHER ELEMENTS
Pressure:
 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time.
 It is measured by means of an instrument called (Aneroid) Barometer. It is measured
as force per unit area. The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called
millibars (mb). One millibars force of one gram on a sq. cm. A pressure 1000mb =
weight of 1.053 kg. Sq. cm. Normal pressure at sea level is 76 cm (1013.25 mb).
 An Isobar is an imaginary line joining places of equal atmospheric pressure reduced
to sea level.
 On the earth’s surface there are seven pressure belts. They are equatorial low (the
doldrums) the sub-tropical high (horse latitudes) the sub-polar low and the polar high.
Except the equatorial low, all others have matching pairs in the Northern and the
Southern Hemisphere.
Wind:
 Horizontal movement of air is called wind. The vertical movement of air is called air
current
 Lines joining places of equal wind speed are called Isotachs
 Winds of high speed are called Squalls.
 Due to horizontal differences in air pressure. air flows from areas of high pressure to
areas of low pressure.
 Wing direction is determined with the help of a wind vane and the speed or velocity
of the wind by Robinson’s Cup Anemometer. In a wind vane. The head denotes the
direction from which the air is blowing and the tail denotes the direction to which the
air blowing.
 The two most well understood and significant winds for climate and human activities
are the ‘trade winds’ and the ‘westerly winds’.
 Winds which blow throughout the year from one latitude to other in response to the
latitudinal differences in air pressure are called prevailing winds or planetary winds
(e.g. Trade Winds)
 The winds blowing from sub-tropical high-pressure areas (30 N and S latitude)
towards the equatorial low-pressure belts are the extremely steady winds known as the
trade winds. They blow from west to east.
 Near the equator, the trade, winds clash with each other and on the line of
convergence, they rise and cause heavy rainfall.
 The Westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts
towards the polar low-pressure belts. They blow from southwest to northeast in the
Northern Hemisphere and from northwest to southeast in the southern Hemisphere.
 The westerlies are best developed between 40 and 60 latitudes. These latitudes are
called ‘roaring forties’, ‘furious fifties’ and ‘shrieking sixties’.
Periodic winds:
 The winds that reverse their direction periodically with season are called periodic
winds. The monsoons are the best example of large-scale modifications of the
planetary wind systems.
 The word monsoon is derived form the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means season.
 The monsoon winds thus refer to wind systems that have a pronounced reversal of
direction.
 In India, 80-90% of the rainfall is obtained from two monsoons namely southwest
Monsoon and “North East’ or “Retreating monsoon’.
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 Normally, the southwest monsoon reaches the Kerala Coast by the end of May,
advances along the Konkan coast in early June and extends over the entire country by
the end of July. The rains continue up to the end of September, when the southwest
monsoon recedes.
 In November and December, Northeast monsoon is the main contributor of rain over
the southeastern part of the peninsular region especially Tamil Nadu.
 The monsoon depressions can be said to be the single factor that controls the
distribution of rainfall over the whole of India. These low-pressure systems. Which
originate near the head Bay of Bengal and travel across the country in a west and
northwesterly direction.
 Heavy rainfall mainly occurs to the south of the tracks of these depressions. 3 to 4
depressions are found in a month during these monsoons.
 When they take a normal Northwesterly track, there is flood in the Northern India
and drought in the peninsula. When they follow an abnormal track across central
India, there is flood in the Peninsular parts and drought in the Northern part of India.
 These depressions terminate in Gujarat and Rajasthan. When a depression reaches
these states. They get abundant rains; otherwise they are subject to a prolonged
drought.
 Occasionally there are one or two monsoon breaks during the monsoon seasons.
These types of breaks normally bring floods in the rivers of Northern Bengal and
Bihar.
Thunderstorms and Hails:
 Nimbostratus clouds indicate thunderstorms.
 Sudden change in the weather of particular place with heavy downpour is called
thunderstorms and hail is rain in the form of ice crystals. Thunderstorms and hail are
predominant weather phenomenon before and after monsoon seasons. Important ones
are Kalbaisakis in Bengal and Andhis over North West India.
Cyclonic storms:
 Caused due to the creation of low-pressure zones. They cause severe damage to the
coastal zoos on an average 2-3 storms may be expected in a year.
 They are associated with the high wind speeds and tidal winds
Western Disturbances
 Series of disturbances in the form of cloudy weather and light rainfall in the plains
and snow fall in the hills.
 These disturbances affect the Rabi crops.
Rainfall:
 Line joining places of equal rainfall are called Isohyets.
 Most of the rainfall of India is obtained from the Southwest and North East Monsoon
seasons.
 The constancy by which a place receives rainfall is studied with the help of Co-
efficient of variation (CV). High CV means very little or scanty rainfall. In parts of
Saurashtra and Kutch, the CV of rainfall is 40-50% whereas in western Rajasthan it is
80-90%.
 Rainfall measuring device – ordinary and automatic/self-recording rain gauge.
Drought:
 Below 75% of the normal rainfall and severe drought when it is below 50%.
 In Indian history the year 1987 was recorded as the worst drought affected year
followed by 2000.
 Palmer’s drought Index is calculated with data on rainfall, ET and soil moisture.
Evapo-transpiration and Water balance:
 Evapo-transpiration = Evaporation from the soil surface + transpiration from plants.
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 The extent to which the water needs of a crop are met in a locality depends on the
rainfall input the losses due to run off and the evapo-transpiration.
 In India areas of high annual PET are extreme west of Rajasthan (Jaisalmer) and
extreme south of Tamil Nadu (Tuticorin).
 Evaporation is determined using USWB Class A Open pan Evaporimeter.
 ET is measured using Lysimeters.
Temperature:
 Temperature is the degree of hotness of a substance.
 Lines joining places of equal temperature are called Isotherms.
 Sunshine is not a limiting factor in crop production any where in India.
 High humidity and warm temperatures are conducive to most plant pest and diseases.
Weather modification:
 Cloud seeding technique- Silver Iodide is used for cold clouds and sodium chloride is
used for warm clouds.
General Points:
 Crop yield formulation is done using Regression Techniques.
 India has been divided into 15 Agro-climatic Zones.
Institutions Involved:
 Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
 India Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune, Maharashtra.
 Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
 International Crop Research Institute for semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad,
AP.
 National Centre for Medium Range weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), New Delhi.
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19. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN INDIA
1871 : Dept. of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce (DRAC) (chief function:

collection of statistics (revenue) and not agril. research) during the tenure of
Lord Mayo.
1877-78 : India faced severe famine and GOI resolved to set up a Central Dept. of
Agriculture controlled by imperial Secretariat.
1881 : Dept. of Agriculture were set up in provinces
1892 : Agriculture chemist and an Assistant Chemist were appointed to look after
research and teaching.
1899-1900 : Famine
1901 : Inspector general of Agriculture and an imperial mycologist were appointed
to advice to imperial and provincial govts. On agricultural matters.
1903 : An Entomologist was employed.
1901-05 : Agricultural colleges were established at Pune, Kanpur, Sabour, Nagpur,
Lyallapur and Coimbatore.
1905 : Agricultural Research institute was established at pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon.
The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was
Named as PUSA.
1919 : Constitutional reforms made agriculture as state subject.
1928 : Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord Linlithgow recommended
setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and
coordinate agricultural research throughout India.
THE COMMODITY COMMITTEES:

Ministry of Food and Agriculture started several committees concerned with research
and development activities related to specific crops. Some had their own research
stations and some are self financed.
Year Committee Research station/ Institute
1921 Cotton committee Technological laboratory now CTRL Matunga)
1931 Lac cess committee Indian lac Research institute, Namkum (1936),
Bihar
1936 Jute Committee Jute Agricultural; Research institute,

Barrakpore Jute Technological Research
Laboratory, Calcutta, West bengal (Continues
at Page 41)
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES
 C.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, is the first
Agricultural University established in the year 1960.
 Central agricultural University, Shillong, is the latest established Agricultural
University
 There are 30 State Agricultural Universities.
 Maximum 4 Universities in Maharastra
 Project Directorates:
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Name Place
Rice Hyderabad
Oilseeds Hyderabad
Poultry Hyderabad
Pulses Kannpur
Wheat Karnal
Biological Control Bangalore
Water management Rahuri
Cropping Systems Research Modhipuram
Cattle Meerut
Vegetable Research Varanasi
National Research Centers (NRCs) :

Integrated Pest Management New Delhi (IARI)
Groundnut Junagarh
Sorghum Hyderabad
Soybean Indore
Cashew Puttur
Citrus Nagpur
Mushroom Research and Training Solan
Spices Calicut
Agro-forestry Jhansi
Weed Science Japalpur
Camel Bikaner
Equines Hisar
Meat Izatnagar
Methuen Jharnapani
Yak Dirang
Cold Water Fisheries Haldwani
Orchids Gangtok
Mustard Bharatpur
Plant Biotechnology New Delhi (IARI)
 National Bureaus (6):

NBPGR : National bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, IARI
NBAGR : National Bureau of Animal Genetics Resources, Karnal, Haryana
NBAGR : National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Allahabad (UP).
NBSSLUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur.
NBAIM : National Bureau of Agricultural Important Microorganism, Mau (UP)
NBAII : National Bureau of Agricultural Important Insects, Bangalore (Karnatka)
 Other Institutes:
 Under Ministry of Rural Development:
NIRD: National Institute for Rural Development. Hyderabad. Gauhati.
 Under Ministry of Foods and Agriculture and Cooperation :
o MANAGE: National institute for Agriculture Extension Management.
Hyderabad.
o NAARM: National Academy for Agricultural Research Management.
 Organization: Streams of Extension in India:
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1. The ICAR extension system, comprising mainly Research Institutes and

Agricultural Universities.
2. Extension System of Ministry of Agriculture and the State Departments of
Agricultural.
3. Extension System of the Ministry of Rural Development and State Development
Departments, and
4. Development work by the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Business
houses etc.
 Front-line Transfer of Technology Programmes of ICAR:
1964 National Demonstrations

1974 Operational Research Project
1974 Krishi Vigyan Kendra
1979 Lab to Land Program
1944 Sugarcane committee Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore
Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research,
Lucknow
1945 Coconut Committee Central Coconut Research Stations.
Kanyagulam and Kasargod
1945 Tobacco Committee Central Tobacco Research institute,
Rajahmundry
1947 Oil Seeds committee Financed research Schemes, head quarters
at Hyderabad.
1949 Arecanut Committee Arecanut Research Station, Vittal
1958 Spices and Cashewnut Committee Financed Research schemes
 The central commodity committees were later abolished (beginning in 1965) and the
research institutes under their control were transferred to ICAR.
 1965: Project for intensification of regional Research on cotton, Oilseeds and millets
(PIRPCOM) First coordinated research work on regional basis was initiated in
1956 as a joint effort by ICAR and Indian Central Committees on oilseeds and
Cotton. Seventeen centres were established throughout the country
Place State Research work on

 Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Cotton, Jowar, Groundnut
 Bellary, Dhadesagur, Karnataka Cotton, Jowar, Kharif Jowar,
Dharwad, Silakere Ragi, Groundnut
 Rajendranagar Andhra Pradesh Castir, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar
 Amaravati, Mohol Maharashtra Rabi Jowar
 Junagarh, Surat Gujarat Jowar, Groundnut cotton, Jowar
 Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh Kharif Jowar, Linseed
Hosangabad
 Ajmer Rajasthan Jowar, Bajra
 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Indian Mustard, Bajra
 Patiala Punjab Toria, taramaria
 Sirsa Haryana Cotton
 IARI New Delhi Cotton, Jowar, Bajra, linseed
 AII India coordinated Research Project:
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 1957: All India coordinated research project on maize was established with aid from
Rockfellar foundation.
 1965: ACRIPs were started on other crops as well as in other areas of Research.
Crops Place
 Maize New Delhi

 Jowar Hyderabad
 Barley Karnal
 Millets Pune
 Forage crops Jhansi
 National seeds project New Delhi
 Sugarcane Lucknow
 Sugar beet Pantnagar
 Cotton Coimbatore
 Jute and allied fibres Barrackpore
 Soybean Indore
 Tobacco Anand
 Cotton Project (WB assisted) Nagpur
 Fruits Bangalore
 Citrus Bangalore
 Tuber crops Dholi (Bihar)
 Potato Simla
 Vegetables New Delhi
 Medicinal and Aromatic plants New Delhi
 Spices and Cashewnut Kasargod
 Coconut and Arecanut Kasargod
 Under utilized and under exploited New Delhi
plants
 INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH:

 1928: Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord linlithgow recommended
setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and
coordinate agricultural research throughout India.
 23rd May, 1929 : Imperial Council for Agricultural Research was established
 President : Mohammed Habibullah
 Vice-President: Vijaya Raghavacharya
 Secretary : Mr. S.A. Hydari
 Governing body has 16 members.
 March, 1946 : The name Imperial council of Agricultural Research Institute was
changed to Indian council of agricultural research by then president Sir Jogendra
Singh.
 Reorganization or ICAR:
 In 1963, the Agricultural review Team headed by Dr. Marion W. Parker of USDA
was appointed. Based on its recommendations ICAR was made a fully automonous
organization in 1966.
 IARI, New Delhi, NDRI, Karnal and IVRI, Izathnagar were made national Institutes.
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 A policy was mad to appoint an agricultural scientist as the Chief Executive of ICAR,
with the designation of Director General, Dr. B. P. Pal became first DG of ICAR in
1965.
 Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE):
In June 1972 Gajendragadkar committee was established to review the recruitment
and personal policies of ICAR and its institutes, which submitted its report in 1973.
Department of Agricultural research and Education was created in 1973 in the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture.
 An Agricultural research service was initiated in 1973 for the recruitment of Scientific
personnel under Agricultural Scientists recruitment Board.
 Entire country was divided into 8 agroecological zones and 15 agro ecological zones
and 15 agroclimatic zones.
 Research Stations:
CARI : Central Agricultural research institute Port Blair
CARI : Central Avian Research Institute Izatnagar
CARIANGI : Central Agricultural research Port Bihar
Institute for Andaman and Nicobar Groups of
Islands
CAZRI : Central Aril Zone research Institute Jodhpur
CLAE, IISS : Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering Bhopal
CIBA : Central Institute for Barkishwater Aquaculture Chennai
CICFRI : Central Inland capture Fisheries Barrackpore
CIFA : Central Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture Bhubaneshwar
CICR : Central Institute of Cotton Research Nagpur
CIFT : Central Institute of Fisheries Technology Cochin
CIHNP : Central Institute of Horticulture of Northern Lucknow
Plains
CIPET : Central Institute of Post-harvest Engineering Ludhiana
and Technology
CIRCOT : Central Research Institute for research on Bombay
Cotton Technology
CIRB : Central Research Institute for Research on Hisar
Buffaloes
CIRG : Central Institute for Research on Goats Makhdoom
CMFRI : Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Cochin
CPCRI : Central Plantation Crops Research Institute Kasargod
CPRI : Central Potato Research Institute Kufri, Simla,
CRIAF : Central Research Institute for Arid Fruits Bikaner
CRIDA : Central Research Institute for Dry land Hyderabad
Agriculture
CRIJAF : Central Research Institute for jute and Allied Barrackpore
Fibres
CRITF : Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits Srinagar
CRITF : Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits Lucknow
CRRI : Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack
CSSRI : Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Karnal
CSWCRTI : Central Soil and water Conservation Research Dehradun
and Training Institute
CSWRI : Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute Avikanagar
CTCRI : Central Tuber Crops Research Institute Trivandrum
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CTRI : Central Tobacco Research Institute Rajahmundry

CTRL : Central Technological Research Laboratory Matunga
IASRI : Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute New Delhi
ICARRCG : ICAR Research Complex for Goa Goa
ICARRCNEHR : ICAR Research complex for North Eastern Hill Barapani
Region
ICARRCNER : ICAR Research complex for North Eastern Shillong
Region
IGFRI : Indian Grassland and fodder Research Institute Jhansi
IIHR : Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Hassergatta,
Bangalore
IIPR : Indian Institute of Pulse Research Kanpur
IISR : Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research Lucknow
IISS : Indian Institute of Soil Science Bhopal
ILRI : Indian Lac Research Institute Namkum,
Ranchi
JTRL : Jute Technological Research Laboratory Calcutta
NAARM : National Academy of Agricultural Research and Hyderabad
Management
NCAEPR : National Centre for Agricultural Economics and New Delhi
Policy Research
NIAG : National Institute of Animal Genetics Karnal
SBI : Sugarcane Breeding Institute Coimbatore
VPKAS : Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandan Shala Almora
WTCER : Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region Bhubaneswar
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Deemed Universities
CIFE : Central Institute of Fisheries Education Bombay
IARI : Indian Agricultural Research Institute New Delhi
IVRI : Indian Veterinary Research Institute Izatnagar
NDRI : National Dairy Research Institute Karnal
NIASM : National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management Maharastra
NAARM : National Academy of Agricultural Research and Management Hyderabad
Indian Agricultural Research Institute:

1905 : Agricultural Research Institute was established at Pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon.
The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was named as
PUSA. The Phipps laboratory in division of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, IARI is named after him.
1911 : Renamed as Imperial Agricultural Research Institute.
1923 : Institute started offering Diploma of Associateship.
1934 : Major Earth quake damaged the buildings at pusa.
1936 : Shifted to New Delhi.
1936 : B. Vishwanath became the first Indian Director of the Institute.
1946 : The Diploma of Associate ship was Recognised equivalent to M. Sc.
1947 : Name has been changed from Imperial Agricultural Research Institute to Indian
Agricultural Research Institute.
1958 : Recognized as “Deemed University” under UGC Act at 1956, PG School was
established.
NON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES

 EEI, Anand, Gujarat
 EEI, Jorhat, Assam
 EEI, Hyderabad, AP
 EEI, Nilokhen, Haryana
International Institutes of crop Improvement:

CGIAR : Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research. Was established
in 1971 by the joint efforts of Food and Agricultural Organisation world
baulk and United Nations Development Programme.
CIAT : Centro International de Agriculture Tropical (International Centre for
Tropical Agriculture), Palmira, columbia.
CIMMYT : Centro International de Majoramiento de Maizy Trigo (International Centre
for Maize and Wheat Improvement) el Baton, Mexico.
CIP : Centro International de Papa (International Centre for Potato), Lima, Peru,
IBPGR : International Board for Plant Genetics Resources Rome, Italy.
ICARDA : International centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Alleppo, Syria.
ICGES : International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Triesta,
Italy and New Delhi, India.
ICRISAT : International Centre for Research in Semi-Arid Tropies, Patancherru,
Hyderabad, India.
IFRI : International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, USA.
IIAS : International Institute for Applied System Analysis, Luxemburg, Vienna.
IITA : International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan Nigeria.
INSFFER : International Network on Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Evaluation on Rice,
New Delhi, India.
ILRAD : International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
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ILCA : International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa.

IRRI : International Rice Research Institute, Los Bonas, Philippines.
ISNAR : International Service for national Agricultural Research. The Hague,
Netherlands.
WARDA : West African Rice Development Association, Monrovia, Liberia.
Agricultural and Rural Development Programmes:

 The evaluation of Agricultural and Rural Development can be grouped into five
stages.
Stage I : Pre Independence era
1903 : Model villages by Daniel Hamilton
1908 : Tagore Started Youth organisation in the villages in the Kaligram Pargana
1921 : Rural Reconstruction Institute, shantiniketan
1921 : Marathandam Project by Spencer Hatch
1921 : Gurgaon Experiment by F. L. Brayne
1921 : Sevagram Project by Mahatma Gandhi.
Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri (Gwalior) by Col. Shitole
1932 : Rural reconstruction Movement by V. T. Krishnamachari in Barod
1945 : Indian Village service by A. T. Mosher and B. N. Gupta, D. Tharugad
1946 : Firka development Scheme by T. Prakasha, D. Tharugad
1947 : Mazdoor Manzil at Nilokheri by S. K. Dey
Stage II : Post Independence era
1948 : Grow more food campaign
1948 : Etawah Pilot Project by Albert mayer.
1952 : Grow more food campaign enquiry committee.
Stage III : Community Development era
1952 : Community Development Project was started in 55 blocks, under the
dynamic leadership of S. K. Day.
1953 : National Extension service.
1954 : NES Programme
1957 : Balwantraj Mehta committee on community.
Development Project recommended Democratic decentralization
(Panchayatiraj).
1958 : Rajasthan became first state to adopt Panchayati Raj followed by Andhra
Pradesh.
Stage IV : Intensive Agriculture development era

1960 : IADP Intensive Agriculture district Programme also called as Package
Program in seven districts, later extended to nine more districts.
1964 : IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Programme.
1964 : ICDP Intensive Cattle Development Project
1966 : HYVP High Yielding Varieties Programme.
1966 : MCP Multiple Cropping Programme.
1971 : MKP Minikit Programme for Rice was started and later extended to
wheat, maize and other millets etc.
Stage V : Developmental Programmes with social Justice
1970 : SFDA Small farmer’s Development Agency
1970 : MFAL Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Iaborers Programme.
1970 : DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme.
1974 : FWP Food for Work Programme.
1974 : MNP Minimum Needs Programme.
1974 : T&V Training and Visit system formulated by Daniel bonor and Baxtor
of Israel. Turkey was the first started in Rajasthan Canal area in
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Rajasthan and Chambal area in Madhya Pradesh.

1974 : KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mohan singh Mehta committee
recommended KVKs. First KVK was established by TNAU at
Pondichery.
1974 : CAD Command Area Development Programme.
1979 : IRDP Integrated rural Development Programme.
1979 : TRYSEM Training Rural youth for Self-Employment.
1980 : NREP National Rural Employment programme
1980 : NARP National Agricultural research Project.
1982 : DWCRA Development of Women and Children-in Rural Areas.
1982 : CAPART Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and rural Technology.
1983 : NAEP National Agricultural Extension Project.
1983 : RLEGP Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme.
1986 : TMO Technology Mission on Oilseeds.
1989 : JRY Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, formed after merger of (NREP and
RLEGP).
1993 : EAS Employment Assurance scheme
1994 : IVLP Institute village Linkage programme.
1994 : MSY Mahila Samrudhi Yojana.
1994 : PMRY Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana.
1995 : NSAS National social assistance scheme.
1999 : NATP National Agricultural Technology Project
1999 : JGSY Jawahar Gram Samuridhi Yojana (JRY).
1999 : SGSY Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (IRDP, TRYSEM,
DWCRA, SITRA – merged into SGSY).
VARIETIES OF IMPORTANT CROPS:

 Rice TN-1 : (First introduced drawf variety into India), IR-8, Jaya (Blast Resistant),
Padma, Mashuri, Kakatiya, Pusa Basumati, Pusa Jaldidan, Lunisree, Ratna,
TKM-6 (Stem borer resistant), Kataribogh (Tungro resistant), ADT-27 (indica
x japonica), Santchousong (High protein content), Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen, Bala
(Drought resistant), IR-20 (Resistant to Blast, BLB, stemborer, leafhopper).
 Wheat : Introduction from Mexico: Lerma Rojo and sonara-64.
Single gene dwarf varieties: Safed lerma, Sharbati sonara, pusa Lerma, Chotu
lerma.
Double gene dwarf varieties: Shera, Arjun, Janak.
Triple gene dwarf varieties: Heera, Moti.
HD series, Kundan, C-306 (drought resistant).
 Chickpea: Pusa 256 PBG-1 203, Pusa 209: Gaurav ICCC-32, Ajay.
 Pigeonpea: UPAS-120 9short duration), ICPH-8 (First Hybrid), (Arhar) Pusa 33.
Pusa Agati, ICPL 37. Hira, Mukta, Bahar, Prabat. SBH-8.
 Sugarcane: Noble Canes: CO-419, Co-997
 Soybean: Bragg, Lee Clark-63, Shilajeet, Pusa 16, 20, 24, PK-327
 Tomato: Pusa Sheetal, Pusa-120, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Margologe, Sioux,
Pusa Gauray, Best of All.
 Mango: Malika (neelam x dasheri)
 Amrapali (dasheri x neelam)
 Ratna (neelam x alphonso)
 Bannana: Poovan (larplur, Chakrakeli), Basrai, Champa
 Hill Bananas: Sirumali, virupakshi
 Culinary varieties: Monthan, Gross Mitchell, Mindoli Robusta Rasthali
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 Rose: Chitra, Dr. B. P. Pal, Priyadarshini, Nehru Ceremony, Jawhar, Abisarika,

Banjara, Randhawa.
 Califlower: Pusa Deepali, Pusa synthetic, Pusa Katki, Early Snowball, Kanwari ,
Early, Patna, Patna Main crop, Snowball-16, Sutton’s Snowball Japanese improved,
Dania, Aghani, Poosi.
OIL PERCENTAGE:
Crop Percenatge
Sesamum : 46-52%
Groundnut : 44-50%
Castor : 35-58%
Safflower : 24-36%
Rape seed and mustard : 33%
Soybean : 20%
Niger : 37-43%
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20. AGRICULTURAL POINT
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:

 U.P has highest total fertilizer consumption
 Crop under highest irrigation is 1st wheat, 2nd rice.
 Irrigated area to Net sown area highest in Sugarcane followed by Wheat
 Largest imported fertilizer is potash.
 26 % of Indian population are under below poverty line
 The parameter to group under BPL is
 In urban area less than 2100 cal/day
 In rural area less than 2400 cal/day
HORTICULTURE IN INDIA
 Coconut: Area: kerala>Karnataka>TN
 Production: Kerala>TN>Karnataka
 Cashew: Area: Kerala>MH>TN
 Production:MH>Kerala>AP
 Tractors: India in 4th position (highest in UP)
 For India standard ratio for fertilizers has been assumed to be 4: 2: 1.
 At present only urea constituting more than 60% of the total fertilizer consumption.
 State having maximum area under irrigation – Punjab
 Major source of irrigation in India – canal
 Maximum area under fruit crops – mango
 Maximum production under fruit crops – Banana
 First agricultural census in India conducted in 1970
 As per National forest policy, for ecological balance, the forests cover should be on
1/3rd area (i.e. 33 %) of the country
 Contribution of Agricultural Research in total productivity growth has been as high as
48 %
 Nobel Peace Prize (1970) for ‘Green Revolution’ awarded to U.S scientist Nobel
Laureate Dr. N. E Borlaug (Norman Earnest Borlaug)
 In India, the NPK nutrients ratio being used = 6.5: 2.5:1 as recommended ratio of 4: 2:
1
 Animal husbandry output constitutes about 30% of the country’s agricultural output
 11 March- Water Resource Day
 21 March- World Forest Day
 22 March- World Water Day
 22 April- World Earth Day
 5 June- World Environment Day
 1 July- National Agricultural Day
 16 July- ICAR Day
 16 Oct.- World Food Day
 23 Dec.- National Farmers Day
SOME IMPORTANT PROGRAMMES:
 Command Area Development and Water Management →1974 -05
 National Horticultural Mission →2005 May
 Marine Fishing Policy →2004
 National Commission on Farmers →2004
(Head MS Swaminathan)
 Bharath Nirman → 2005-06
 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme → 2006
 Kisan Credit Card Scheme →1998-99
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National Agriculture Insurance Scheme →1999-2000

Vishesha Krishi Upaj Yojana (Objective –Promote agricultural exports in fruits
vegetables and flowers
 National Agricultural Innovation Project → July 2006(world bank aided Objective
:To boost research and development in agriculture and to create skilled scientific
human resource )
 National Food Security Mission-2006-07(target for wheat, rice, and pulses to increase
the production by 10, 8 and 2 Mt respectively)
ABOUT F.A.O. AND W.T.O.
 FAO Established on Oct 16 1945 head quarter located at Rome (Italy)
 DG of FAO – Jacques Diouf
 Oct 16 is called as world food day
 WTO Established on Jan 1 1995
 Head quarter of WTO- Geneva Its DG –
 India is founder member of WTO
 Russia is not the member of WTO
 WTO is not a wing of UNO
 WTO is the result of Uruguay round
 Hot topic in WTO ministerial conference(2008-09)-reduction in agricultural subsidies
by developed countries
 Kyoto protocol →Aims at cutting global emissions of green house gases (global
warming) this agreement came in to force on Feb, 16, 2005. Till now America
hasn’t accepted the Kyoto protocol.
REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE
Revolution Related to
 Green Revolution (1966-67) : Food grain production
 White Revolution : Milk production
 Yellow Revolution : Oilseeds production
 Grey Revolution : Manures and Fertilizers
 Blue Revolution : Fish production
 Red Revolution : Meat/tomato production
 Round Revolution : Potato production
 Silver Revolution : Egg production/ poultry
 Pink revolution : Prawn production
 Golden Revolution : Fruit production(apple)
 Brown Revolution : Non- conventional energy source
 Black Revolution : Bio fuel (Jatropha) production
 Rainbow Revolution : Agriculture
 Food chain Revolution : Reduction in wastage of food
grains, fruits and vegetables
 Prabhani Revolution : Okra
FIRST IN AGRICULTURE
 Hybrid Pigeon Pea : ICPH-8 (ICRISAT, Hyderabad)
 Hybrid sunflower : BSH-1 (Pro- Agro)
 Hybrid cotton : H 4 (Surat Farm, Gujarat)
 Semi-dwarf variety of basmati rice : Pusa Basmati 1 (IARI)
 Aromatic Rice Hybrid : Pusa RH 10 (IARI)
 Sorghum hybrid : CSH 1 and CSH 2 (IARI)
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 Public sector hybrid of forage Sorghum : Pusa Chari Hybrid 106

 Mango hybrid for commercial cultivation : Mallika (Neelam×Dasheri)
 Public sector insect resistant multicut forage : PCH 106
 Viral disease : Leaf curl of Tobacco
 Plant Parasitic Nematode : Anguina tritici
 Plant Parasitic Bacteria : Fire Blight of apple
 Sorghum high yielding variety : CSV-1
 Rice variety introduced in India : IR- 8
 Developed dwarf variety of rice : TN 1
 Rice hybrid variety of India : Jaya
 Hybrid of Mustard : Pusa Jai Kisan
 Hybrid variety of Bajra : HB 1
 Hybrid developed by using local male parent : Hare Chhole no- 1
 Man made cereal : Triticale
 Rice resistant variety developed for yellow : IR- 20 (TN-1× TKM- 6)
stem Borer
 Organophosphate compound : Parathion
 Napier × Bajra (NB) hybrid : Pusa Giant
 Hormone : Secretin
 Maize hybrid : Ganga 101 (1961)
 High productive early duration hybrid : DRR H 2
released by DRR (rice)
 Country to adopt hybrid rice : China
 Hybrid rice released in India : APHR-1 and APHR-2
 Egyptian variety of cotton : Sujata
 Super rice variety for saline/alkaline : Lunishree
conditions
 Country to introduce zero tillage : USA
 Sugarcane variety : Co- 205
 Scented basmati rice for normal and sodic : Yamini (CSR 30)
soils
 Interspecific variety of cotton Varalaxmi
:
 Tobacco hybrid GTH 1
:
 Safflower hybrid DSH- 129
:
 Crop to have its genome decoded Rice
:
 Single cross maize hybrid Paras
:
 Pathogenic resistant gene :
HM 1
 Systemic fungicide Carboxin
:
 Organic fungicide Dithiocarbamate
:
 Fungicide :
Bordeaux mixture (inorganic in
nature)
 Person to record plant diseases : Theophrastus
 Plant to have its genome decoded : Arabidopsis thaliana
 Autopolyploid variety released for : Pusa Giant Berseem
commercial cultivation in India
 Organochlorine compound : DDT
 Carbamate compound : Sevin/ carbaryl
 Laureate of the “world food” prize : Dr. M.S Swaminathan
 Director general of ICAR : Dr. B.P Pal
 President of ICAR : Mohammad Habibullah
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 Indian scientist who collected and identified : K.R Kirtikar

the fungus
 Agricultural University : G.B university of Agriculture and
technology, pantnagar (1960)
 Plant pathologist of India : J.F Dastur
 Plant parasitic bacteria was reported by : T.J Burill
 Plant parasitic nematode was reported by : Needham
 Mycoplasma disease reported by : Do et al and Ishiit et al.
 Virus was first discovered by : Iwanowsky
 Scientist to study fungi and their species : Micheli
 Transgenic plant : Tobacco and tomato
 Biotechnological crop introduced in India : Bt. Cotton
 Hormone artificially produced by culturing : Insulin
bacteria
 Commercial bio insecticide : Sporeine
 Maize hybrid developed in India : Ganga- 2
 ‘00’ or canola type/ variety of Gobhi sarson : PGSH- 51
 Short duration pigeon pea hybrid : PPH 4
 Leaf curl resistant cotton hybrid : Fateh LHH- 144
 Sorghum × Sudan grass hybrid : Sudan Chari no 1
 Fungicide used : Sulphur (powdery mildew of vine)
 Insecticide used : Paris Green
 First Bt cotton variety : Bollguard (cry1 Ac gene used )
 Fumigant used : Hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
 First hybrid in India : Pusa Meghdoot (bottle gourd)
 Commercial fertilizers : SSP
 First fertilizers used : Calcium nitrate
FATHERS OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES
Fathers of Name
 Agronomy : Pietro Decrescenzi
 Agricultural chemistry : Justus von Liebig
 Antibiotics : Alexander Flemming
 ATP cycle : Lipmann
 Biology : Aristotle
 Botany : Theophrastus
 Bacteriology : Leuwenhoek
 Biochemistry : Justus von Liebig
 Cytology : Robert Hooke
 Cytoplasmic Inheritance : Carl Correns
 Cooperative movement in India : F. Nicholson
 DNA finger printing technique : Alec Jeffrey
 Economic Ecology : Dr. M.S Swaminathan
 Ecology : Reiter
 Extension Education : A. Seaman/ Leagnes
 Experimental Genetics : Thomas Hunt Morgan
 Forest pathology : Robert Haring
 Fermentation : Louis Pasteur
 Field plot experimentation : Jean Baptiste Boussingault
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 Fruits and vegetables preservation : M. Nicolas Apart

 Genetics : Gregor Johann Mendel
 Genetic engineering : Paul Berg
 Green Revolution : Dr. N.E Borlaug
 Golden revolution in India : Dr. K.L Chadha
 Golden rice : Dr. Ingo Potrykus
 Hybrid Rice : Yuan Long Ping
 Hybrid cotton : C.T Patel
 Indian phytopathology : E.J Butler
 Indian Rust : Dr. K.C Mehta
 Indian Mycology : E.J Butler
 Indian Ecology : R. Mishra
 Indian plant breeding : Dr. B.P Pal
 Immunology : Edward Jenner
 Indian Green Revolution : Dr. M.S Swaminathan
 Microbiology : A.V Leuwenhoek
 Mycology : Pler A. Micheli
 Medicinal Bacteriology : Robert Koch
 Modern Genetics : T.H Morgan
 Mutation Theory : Hugo de vries
 Modern Botany : Linnaeus/ Bauchin
 Modern Cytology : Swanson
 Nematology : N. A Cobb
 Nitrogen Fixation : Winogradsky
 Ornamental Gardening : M.S Randhawa
 Plant Pathology : Anton De Bary
 Plant Physiology : Stephen Hales
 Pedology : VV Dokuchaev
 Parasitology : F. Platter
 Plant Tissue culture : G. Haberlandt
 Plant Anatomy : Grew
 Polygenic Inheritance : Kolreuter
 Pure culture technique : Oscar Brefeld
 Sociology : Auguste compte
 Statistics : R.A Fisher
 Soil Microbiology : S. N Winogradsky
 Soil testing Technique : M.L Troug
 Super Rice : Dr. G.S Khush
 Taxonomy : Carolus Linnaeus
 Tillage : Jethro Tull
 Virology : W.M Stanley
 Weeds : Jethro Tull
 White Revolution : Dr. Varghese Kurien
 Zoology : Aristotle
 Hybrid rice in India : E. A Siddiqe
FAMOUS NAME OF CROPS

Famous Name Crops
 King of cereals : Wheat
 Queen of cereals : Maize
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 King of fruits : Mango

 Queen of fruits : Pineapple
 King of temperate fruits : Apple
 King of spices : Black Pepper
 Queen of spices : Cardamom
 Queen of vegetables : Potato
 Poor man’s meat : Soybean
 Wonder crop : Soybean
 Famine reserves : Millets
 Camel of crops : Sorghum
 Queen of oilseeds : Sesame
 King of oilseeds : Mustard
 Queen of fodder crops : Lucerne
 King of fodder crops : Berseem
 Poor man’s fruit : Jackfruit, Ber
 Vegetable meat : Cowpea
 Poor man’s substitute for ghee : Sesamum
 Poor man’s friend : Potato
 Poor man’s food : Pearl millet
 King of arid and semi fruits : Ber
 King of weeds : Congress grass (Parthenium
hysterophorus)
 National fruit of India : Mango
 Glory of East : Chrysanthemum
 Autumn queen : Chrysanthemum
 Wonder tree : Neem
 Queen of night : Cestrum nocturnum
 Egg plant : Brinjal
 Bio energy plant : Jatropha
 Queen of flowers : Rose
 Brown gold : Dead pupae of silkworm
 Apple of paradise : Banana
 Poor man’s orange(India) and love of : Tomato
apple (England)
 Drosophila of crop plants : Maize
 Adams fig : Banana
 Butter fruit : Avocardo
 Queen of beverage crop : Tea
 China’s miracle fruit : Kiwi fruit
 Food of god : Cocoa
 Small holder’s irrigated crop : Oil palm
 Oldest cultivated tropical fruits : Banana
 Tree of heaven : Coconut
 King of coarse cereals : Sorghum
TERMS AND ASSOCIATED CROPS

Terms Crops
 Curing : Tobacco, Tea
 Stripping : Jute
 Nipping : Cotton
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 Wrapping : Sugarcane
 Propping : Banana, sugarcane
 Trashing : Sugarcane
 Dapog seedling : Rice seedling
 De-suckering : Tobacco, Banana
 De-tasseling : Maize
 Pegging : Groundnut
 Retting : Jute
 Ginning : Cotton
 Tapping : Gram
 Staking : Tomato
 Arrowing : Sugarcane
 Rationing : Sugarcane
 Tipping : Tea
CONCEPT AND RELATED PERSONS

Concepts Related Personality
 Super rice : G.S Khush
 Hybrid rice : Yuan Long Ping
 Golden rice : Ingo Potrykus
 Super wheat : S. Nagarajan
 Crop ideotype : Donald
 Green Revolution : N.E Borlaug
 Green revolution in India : M.S Swaminathan
 White Revolution : Varghese Kurien
 Evergreen revolution in India : M.S Swaminathan
 Rainbow Revolution : Nitish Kumar
 Golden Revolution : K.L Chadha
 Bt. Cotton in India : C.D Mayee
 Green Revolution Term : William Gadd
 Noblization of sugarcane : T.S Venkatraman
 Hybrid cotton : C.T Patel
 PURA concept : A.P.J Abdul Kalam
TOXINS PRODUCED IN PLANTS

Toxins Related Plants
 Gossypol : Cotton
 Neurotoxin : Lathyrus
 Erucic acid : Rapeseed and mustard
 Goitrogen : Soybean
 Saponin and plant estrogens : Alfalfa
 Aflatoxin : Groundnut
 Coumarin : Sweet cloven
 CN glucocides : Sorghum
 Steroidal alkaloids : Potato
 Alkaloids : Yam
 Resins : Mango
 Antivitamin E Factor : Field pea
 Polyphenolics : Safflower
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 Tripsin Inhibitor : Pigeon pea, French bean &

soybean
 Haemaggutinins : French bean
 Lathryrogenes : Lathyrus sativus
 Glucocides : White clover
 Eicosenoic acid : Rapeseed and mustard
 Polyphenolics : Sunflower
 Cucurbitacins : Cucurbits
 CN glucocides : Cassava
PARTS USED IN FRUIT CROPS:
Name of fruits Parts used
 Citrus : Juicy placental hairs
 Banana : Mesocarp and endocarp
 Coconut : Endosperm
 Guava : Thalamus and pericarp
 Apple : Fleshy thalamus
 Grapes : Pericarp and placenta
 Mango : Mesocarp
 Litchi : Aril
 Pomegranate : Juicy covering of seed
 Pear : Stalk of fruit and thalamus
 Almond : Seed
 Walnut : Cotyledon
 Fig : Fleshy receptacle and thalamus
 Pineapple : Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth &
seed
 Cashew : Cotyledon
 Jackfruit : Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth &
seed
 Bael : Fleshy layer of pericarp
 Jamun : Pericarp and thalamus
 CLIMATERIC: Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota

 NON CLIMATERIC: Litchi, Lemon, Citrus sp, Grape, Pineapple
Minimum support price of Agriculture products (Rs/Quintal)

(Based on marketing year, given for 24 major crops by CACP)
Crops MSP for 2007-08 MSP for 2008-09 MSP for 2009-10
 Wheat 1000 1080 1100
 Barley 650 650 750
 Gram 1600 1600 1760
 Rapeseed/Mustard 1800 1800 -
 Sunflower 1650 2215 -
 Cotton(long staple) 2030 2500 2500
 Bajra 560 840 -
 Jowar-Hybrid 600 840 -
 Paddy-common 745 930 1000
 Paddy-grade A 775 880 -
 Arhar 1590 2000 2300
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Critical stages of Irrigation:

Name of Crops Critical growth stages
 Sorghum : Primordial initiation, flag leaf,
flowering and grain development
 Maize : Tasseling, silking and grain
development
 Rice : Tillering, panicle initiation, milk
stage
 Wheat : Crown root initiation, tillering,
boot leaf stage, dough stage
 Pearl millet : Tillering, flowering
 Gram : Branching, Pod development
 Soybean : Flowering, Grain development
 Groundnut : Branching, peg penetration, pod
development
 Sunflower : Seedling, Bud initiation,
flowering
 Cotton : Square formation, ball formation,
ball development
 Sugarcane : Seedling, tillering, ground
growth
NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES IN PLANTS
Symptoms/diseases Caused due to
 Whip tail in cauliflower : Molybdenum deficiency
 Browning in cauliflower : Molybdenum deficiency
 Downward cupping in radish : Molybdenum deficiency
 Scald of leaves : Molybdenum deficiency
 Yellow spot in citrus : Molybdenum deficiency
 Drying black tips of shoots : Potassium deficiency
 Grey speck of oats : Manganese deficiency
 ‘Speckled yellows’ of sugar beet : Manganese deficiency
 Marsh spots of peas : Manganese deficiency
 Pahala blight of sugarcane : Manganese deficiency
 Frenching of Tung trees : Manganese deficiency
 Die back of shoots in citrus : Copper deficiency
 Little leaf in citrus : Copper deficiency
 Rough bark and cracking in apple : Copper deficiency
 Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower : Boron deficiency
 Heart rot of sugar beet and Marigold : Boron deficiency
 Top sickness of tobacco : Boron deficiency
 Snake heads in walnuts : Boron deficiency
 Internal necrosis in mango : Boron deficiency
 Hen and chicken disorder of grape fruit : Boron deficiency
 Corking and pitting of fruits in tomatoes : Boron deficiency
 Internal necrosis in aonla : Boron deficiency
 Brown heart of turnip : Boron deficiency
 Fruit cracking of tomato and : Boron deficiency
pomegranate
 Crown choking in coconut : Boron deficiency
 White bud of maize : Zinc deficiency
 Khaira disease of rice : Zinc deficiency
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 Apple (bitter pit) : Zinc deficiency

 Leaf bronzing in litchi : Zinc deficiency
 Little leaf in mango, litchi, cashew : Zinc deficiency
 Leaf scorch in mango : Excess of cl ions in water/ or
excess of MOP
 Buttoning in cauliflower : Nitrogen deficiency
 Tip burn of rice : O2 deficiency and excess of zinc
 Jonathan spot of apple : Water deficiency
 Bitter pit of apple : Calcium
 Interveinal chlorosis in apple and citrus : Magnesium deficiency
 Black heart of potato : Oxygen deficiency
MINERAL NUTRIENTS AND THEIR AVAILABLE FORMS:
Nutrients Plant part first affected Available forms

Nitrogen : Older leaves : NO3-, NH4+ ions
Phosphorus : Older leaves : H2Po42-, Po43- ions
Potassium : Older leaves : K+ ions
Calcium : Young leaves : Ca+ ions
magnesium : Older leaves : Mg2+
Sulphur : First in new leaves : So42-, So2 from air
Iron : New leaves : Fe2+, Fe 3+, FeSo4 with EDTA
Manganese : Older leaves : Mn4+, Mn3+, and Mn2+
Zinc : Small yellow new leaves : Zn2+, ZnSo4 with EDTA
Copper : New leaves : Cu2+ or Cu+, CuSo4 with EDTA
Molybdenum : Older / younger leaves : Mo3+, Molybdate ions
Boron : New leaves : Bo33-, H2Bo3-, HBo32-
PROBLEM SOILS:
Parameter Saline soils Sodic soils Alkali soils
pH < 8.5 < 8.5 > 8.5
EC >4 >4 <4
ESP < 15 > 15 > 15
CROP PRODUCTION UPDATES

RICE (Oryza sativa):
 Chromosome no. – 2n = 24
 Origin – South- East Asia
 Rice is the staple diet of 2.7 billion people in the world
 It occupies 150 m ha, producing about 573 Mt with average productivity of
3.83 t/ha
 India is the largest growing country in the world (44.6 m ha)
 China is the largest producer of rice
 There are 21 species in Genus Oryza, of these 2 are cultivated species: O.
Sativa (ASIA) and O. glaberrima (AFRICA)
 O. sativa have 3 varietal group : Indica (tropical), Japonica (temperate),
Javanica (Intermediate)
 India has richest rice germplasm collection in the world
 The process of tillering start in Rice 10 DAP
 Rice grain is a caryopsis type of fruit
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 Rice inflorescence is called panicle

 Optimum temperature for rice is 20-35˚C
 Rice is a short day plant
 Three system of rice cultivation
1. Dry cultivation – Rainfed
2. Semi dry cultivation – After 45-60 days treated as wet crop
3. Wet cultivation – 3-5 cm standing water
 45 % of rice grown is under irrigated condition
 There are 3 type of nursery
1. Wet nursery: 25-30 days (age of seedlings)
2. Dry nursery: 20-25 days
3. Dapog nursery: 14 day (30 m2 for 1 ha, 1 kg/m2). Introduced from
Philippines
 10 % yield loss caused by weeds in rice
 Punjab, Haryana, and western U.P are traditional basmati area in the country
 Pusa Basmati is world first high yielding, semi-dwarf Basmati variety
 Rice hybrid technology based on 3 line breeding (A line, B line & R line)
 Paddy harvested at 20 % moisture and stored at 14 %
 ‘Zn’ deficiency cause Khaira disease in rice (control : 25 kg znso4/ha)
 Blast disease is major problem in rainfed upland, rainfed lowland and hill area
 Neck blast damage is severe in Basmati varieties
 Chlorophyll meter method and leaf colour chart used for leaf ‘N’ status
determination (crude method)
 Maximum rice exporter – Thailand
 3 types of rice cultivation in India:
1. Aus/Autumn: August-September.
2. Aman/Kharif/Winter:
3. Boro/Summer: April-May
 Highest productivity – Japan
 Rice protein is called Oryzein
Wheat (Triticum aestivum):
 Chromosome no – 2n = 42
 Origin – Asia minor
 It is second important food crop in the country
 Four species: Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat), T. Durum (Durum or macaroni
wheat), T. diccocum (Emmer wheat), T. spherococcum
 Wheat revolution in 1967, due to variety ‘HD 2329’
 India is second in terms of area and production
 Before green revolution all varieties in India were tall type
 Seed rate = 100 kg/ha
 Variety – HD 2009, Up 262 and HD 2189 shows rust resistance
 In wheat, crown root initiation (CRI) is critical stage
 Phalaris minor is major weed in wheat fields
 Zinc and sulphur deficiency reported in Punjab, part of Haryana, west U.P and
Delhi
 Mn deficiency reported in Punjab
 Wheat diseases: three type of rust
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1. Leaf/Brown: Puccinia recondita

2. Stripe / yellow: P. striiformis
3. Stem / black: P. graminis tritici
 Wheat grains stored well in less than 10 % moisture content
 Wheat protein is called Glutenin
Barley (Hordeum vulgare):
 Lugri is a fermented drink developed from Hull less barley grains
 ‘pearl barley’ is suited for Kidney disorders
 Seed rate – 75-80 kg/ha
 Critical stage in barley is active tillering stage (30-35 DAS)
 Resistance variety: RD 2052 – Molya disease
 Alfa 93, RD 2503, Rekha – malting quality
Maize (Zea mays):
 Quality protein maize (QPM) varieties released by using “opaque 2” genes.
Varieties – Shaktiman 1 & 2, HQPM 1, Sakti 1
 Hybrid varieties – Ganga 1, Deccan 107, 109
 Composites – Parbhat, pratap, Pusa comp.2, Pusa comp1
 Seed rate -20 kg/ha
 Maize grain contains 8-10 % protein & 4-5% oil
 Sweet maize variety – African tall
 Sweet corn variety – Composite madhuri and priya
 Pop corn variety – Amber, V L Amber, Pearl popcorn
 Baby corn – VL 42, Prakash
 Maize protein is called Zein
 Critical stages – Tasseling, milking stage
MILLETS:
 Millets belongs to C4 group of plants
 Higher productivity among the millet- Finger millet
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor):
 2n = 20
 Seed rate = 18 kg / ha
 Hybrids : CSH 1 to 6, CSH 9,10, 11, 13, 16, 17,18
 Major pest: Shoot fly, stem borer, midge, ear head bug
 HCN (Dhurin) present in early stage (40-50 days)
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum):

 2n = 14
 Seed rate = 5 kg/ ha
 80 % phosphorus in grain stored in the form of ‘phytate’
 Productivity high in UP>Gujarat> Haryana
Others:
 Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), 2n = 36
 Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), 2n = 40
 Fox tail millet (Setaria italia), 2n = 18
 Proso millet (Panicum millaceum), 2n = 36
 Little millet (Panicum sumatranse), 2n = 36
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 The inflorescence of sugarcane is called Arrow

PULSES:
 It is important dietary protein
 Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), 2n = 16
 Pigeon pea (Cajunus cajan), 2n = 22, highly sensitive to frost
 Green gram (Vigna radiata), 2n = 22. Very sensitive to water logging
 Black gram (Vigna mungo), 2n = 22
 French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), 2n = 22
 Cow pea (Vigna unguiculata), 2n = 22
 Lentil (Lens culinaris)
 Field pea (Pisum sativum)
 Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus)
WEEDS:
 The term weed was firstly used by Jethro Tull
 Weed is plant out of place
 Relative weed – e.g. rice in wheat field
 Absolute weed – e.g. Cyperus rotundus
 Mimicry weed – e.g. Phalaris in wheat field and wild rice in the field
 Noxious weeds – e.g. Parthenium
 National research centre for weed science located at Jabalpur (1988)
 Selective herbicide – Simazine, Atrazine, 2, 4- D, MCPA, Butachlor,
Pendimethalin, Isoproturon, Fluchloralin
 Non-selective herbicide – Diquat, Paraquat
 Systemic herbicide – propanil, 2,4-d, Atrazine, Simazine
 Contact herbicide – Paraquat, Diquat
 2,4-D used for broad leaved weeds
IRRIGATION:
 Measured by Tensiometer
 Drip irrigation discovered in Israel
 Egypt has 100 % cultivate area under irrigation
 Sprinkler method of irrigation can provide protection against frost
 The method of irrigation suitable for row crops is Furrow method
 Check basin method is the most common method among the surface methods
of irrigation
 USA has the highest area under drip irrigation
 Maharashtra has the highest area under drip irrigation
 Haryana has the highest area under sprinkler irrigation
AGROFORESTRY
 Agro forestry is a form of “multiple cropping”
 The systemic research in agro-forestry is taken by “ICRAF”
 ICRAF = International Centre for Research In agro-forestry
 National Research Centre for Agro-forestry – Jhansi (1988)
 The most important agro-forestry practice is known from the “kangeyan tract of Tamil
nadu” (Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus)
 Agri-silviculture = trees + crops
 Alley cropping =perennial hedges + crops
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 Agri-horticulture = fruit trees + crops

 Agri – Silvi – horticulture = trees + fruit trees + crops
 Agri-silviculture = trees + crops + pasture or animals
 Silvi- olericulture = trees + vegetables
 Horti – pasture = fruit trees + pasture/animals
 Silvi – pasture = trees + pasture/animals
 Horti-apiculture = fruit trees + honeybees
 Aqua forestry = trees + fishes
 ‘‘Taungya” originated from Myanmar; it means hill cultivation
 Alnus nepalensis is “non-leguminous nitrogen fixing” tree
 “Allelopathy” refers to inhibition of growth of one plant by chemical compounds
from the neighbouring plants.
Agro-forestry tree species having allelopathic effect on crop:
Tree species Effect on:
1. Alnus nepalensis Glycine max
2. Casuarina equisetifolia Cowpea, sorghum, sunflower
3. Eucalyptus tereticornis Cowpea, Sorghum, sunflower, potato
4. Gliricidia sepium Maize, rice, tropical grasses
5. Leucaena leucocephala Maize, rice, cowpea, sorghum, sunflower
Entomology updates
 The pesticide consumption is maximum in Andhra Pradesh and Pondicherry (union
territories )
 Per ha. Consumption is maximum in Punjab
 Lowest pesticide consumption state - Mizoram
 Monocrotophos is the highest consumed pesticide in India followed by Endosulfan
 Examples of Polyphagous pest – Termite, Helicoverpa armigera, Locust, White grub
 Cotton consume highest pesticide (54%)
 In Fruits, Apple consumed highest pesticide and in vegetables, Cauliflower consumes
the highest pesticide
 DIPA (Destructive Insect and pest act) passed in 1914
 Insecticide act – 1968
 International pest/ pandemic pest – Locust (Schistocera gregaria )
 NRC, IPM located in New Delhi, IARI
 Directorate of Biological control – Bengaluru, Karnataka
 Directorate of plant protection, quarantine and storage (DPPQS) – Faridabad, Haryana
 Central plant protection training institute – Hyderabad
 Central vector control research institute - Pondicherry
 Entomopathogenic virus – NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus), GV (Granulosis virus)
 Entomopathogenic bacteria – Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) for Lepidoptera
 Entomopathogenic fungi – Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae
 Entomopathogenic nematode – DD 136 (Nesaplettana carpocapsae)
 Insects which attack at night – cutworm, Armyworm, wheat stem borer (Sesamia
inferens)
 The word ‘larval equivalent’ is associated with Virus
 Crop for attracting insects – Trap crop
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 Examples of systemic insecticides – Rogor (Dimethoate), Metasystox, Phosphamidon,

Monocrotophos, Phorate
 Examples of contact insecticides – Malathion, Parathion, chloropyriphos
 Soil insecticide – Carbofuran 3G, Phorate 10G
INSECT VECTORS OF PLANT DISEASES

1.) Aphids :
 Tobacco mosaic – Aphis gossypii
 Cucumber mosaic - Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae
 Crucifer mosaic – A. brassicae
 Papaya mosaic – Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii
 Groundnut rosette virus - Aphis craccivora
 Cowpea mosaic - Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii
 Sugar beet yellow mosaic – Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)
 Potato leaf roll and crinkle disease - Myzus persicae
 Potato virus x - Myzus persicae
 Bean mosaic and potato mosaic - Myzus persicae
 Katte disease of cardamom – Pentalonia nigronervosa
 Foorkey disease of cardamom - Pentalonia nigronervosa
 Banana mosaic - Pentalonia nigronervosa
 Banana bunchy top - Pentalonia nigronervosa
 Chilli mosaic - Aphis gossypii
2.) Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)
 Cotton mosaic
 Cotton leaf curl
 Tapioca mosaic
 Chilli mosaic
 Tobacco leaf curl
 Papaya leaf curl
 Vein clearing disease (okra)
 Tobacco spotted wilt – Thrips tabaci and whitefly
 Bhendi yellow mosaic
 Pulse yellow mosaic
3.) Green leaf hopper (Nephottetix virescens):
 Rice grassy stunt
 Rice transitory yellowing
 Rice Tungro - Nephottetix virescens and Recilia dorsalis
 Rice yellow dwarf
4.) Zig- Zag leaf hopper (Recilia dorsalis):
 Rice dwarf
 Rice orange leaf
5.) Thrips (Thrips tabaci):
 Tomato spotted wilt
 Soybean spotted wilt – Frankliniella scultzei
 Chilli leaf curl – Scirtothrips dorsalis
6.) Eriophyid mite:
 Red gram sterility mosaic – Aceria cajani
 Sugarcane steak mosaic – Aceria sacchari
 Wheat streak mosaic – Aceria tulipae
 Mango bud mite – Aceria mangiferae
7.) Mealy bug:
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 Sugarcane – Saccharcoccus sacchari

 Pineapple – Dysmicoccus brivipes
 Citrus greening – Psyllid (Diaphorina citri)
8.) Mycoplasma disease:
 Sandal spike disease – Jassus indicus (Hopper)
 Sesamum Phyllody – Leaf hopper (Orosius albicinctus)
 Rice yellow dwarf – Green leaf hopper
 Little leaf of brinjal – Hopper (Cestius phycitis)
NEMATODES:
1.) Wheat:
 Cereal cyst nematode – Heterodera avenae (Molya disease)
 Seed gall / ear cockle nematode – Anguina tritici
2.) Paddy:
 White tip nematode – Aphelenchoides besseyi
 Rice stem nematode – Ditylenchus angustus (Ufra disease)
 Rice cyst nematode – Heterodera oryzicola
 Rice knot nematode – Meloidogyne graminicola
3.) Citrus:
 Citrus nematode – Tylenchulus semipenetrans
 Lesion nematode – Pratylenchus coffeae
4.) Banana:
 Burrowing nematode – Radopholus similus
5.) Potato:
 Golden cyst nematode – Globodera rostochiensis, G. pallida
 Tuber rot nematode – Ditylenchus destructor
6.) Tobacco:
 Root knot nematode – Meloidogyne javanica
Things to remember:
 Potato cyst nematode is a quarantine objective
 Biological control – Pseudomonas is antagonistic to the nematodes
 Tagetes is a trap crop for many nematodes
 Nematodes cannot be grown on artificial media to obtain material for inoculation
 Endoparasitic nematode – Meloidogyne
 Maximum number of plant parasitic nematode belongs to - Tylenchida order
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2010-11

Indian Agricultural Research Institute

1. Indian Agriculture: At A Glance

1. INDIAN AGRICULTURE: AT A GLANCE (2010-11)

Organizational Setup of ICAR: (Present scenarios-2009-10)

 Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research & Education Ministry of Agriculture,

Handbook of Agriculture (New entry-2010):

General Agriculture (New, ICAR wbsites):

General Agriculture by Muniraj Singh (New Entry):

 Economically Active population : Second

 Cereals – 409.9 gm/day

World Green Revolution:

CROP PRODUCTION SCENARIOS IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE (2008-09):

 PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS:

CROP PRODUCTION 2009-10 (Based on Advance Estimate)

LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION & AREA OF CROPS:2008-09

POINTS NEED TO REMEMBER

 Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) started since 1996-97

RECENT INSECTICIDE DATA (Updated up to Nov, 2009)

 Pesticides Banned for manufacture, import and use - 27

RECENT HORTICULTURE DATA (2009-10)

IARI Ph.D. General Agriculture 2009-10 (Answer based on given MCQs)

 Bordeaux mixture is Fungicide

Indian Agriculture: General View

 Total cropped area occupied by food grains- 76%

WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA

 Tomato : Lycorpersicon esculentunn,

 Fruit type : Bery

9. Single seeded nuts : Litchi

 Nutrients, Deficiency symptoms and Sources:

Type Deficiency Source

 Hemicellulose: Polymer consisting of L-arabinose. D-glucose, D-galactose, D-

 Mechanism of action of enzymes:

 Vitamins mainly act as “cofactors” for enzymatic activity.

o X-rays (5000-1,30,000 rads)

7. Transmission electron microscope:

 The only 5 C compound in TCA cycle is α- Ketoglutaric acid

 Total carbon fixed by ocean per year = 273 x 1011

 It occurs in C3 plants and temperate plants

o Only present in plants as K+ not bound to any components

Deficiency symptoms of Elements:

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:

 Thiamann – suggested the use of term “Phytohormone” in plants

4. Promotes stomatal opening

 Short day plants – soybean, potato, sugarcane, cosmos, chrysanthemum, tobacco,

 Rice stem nematode: ditylenchus angustus

1) Cotton jassid or leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (A.biguttula biguttula cicadellidae)

PESTS OF CHICK PEA (BENGAL GRAM)

Formula: Rec. Dose of ai./ha

0.75x100 =25kg granules/ha

Pesticide V1 x N1 = V2 x N2 (Spray fluid)

V1 = V2 x N2 (500 lit of spray fluid in required/ha)

 Glyphosate – Sugarcane ripener: gabbroic acid – seed less grape

3. SOIL & FERTILIZER

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION:

4. Bengal gram (Chickpea) –

5. Redgram/Arhar/Pigeonpea- Cajanus cajan

 Aspergillus flavus is the fungi which affect kernal during shortage,

 Australia has the maximum arable land per person

1. Net capital Ratio = Total assets

Working assets + Current assets

Total returns to fixed farm resources

Potential net income per hectare on the farm

* Chromatin Thread like (DNA + Nucleoprotein) DNA-genetic material

* Plastid when * Biconvex lens shaped (5mdia) Chlorophyll

Lysosome Sac of digestive enzyme / * Cell destruction if captured

3 Geometric (X1X2…*Xn)1n When deal with relative changes