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Author Keywords
Methods, creativity, qualitative analysis, mixed
methods, complex systems, ethnography,
ethnomethodology, creativity research tools.
Copyright is held by the author/owner(s).
Presented at:
ACM Classification Keywords
Supporting creative acts beyond dissemination. H5.m. Information interfaces and presentation: H.2
Creativity & Cognition 2007, June 13, 2007. User interfaces.
Washington DC, USA..
Beyond models but more for subjective accounts that are not refutable.
In the end of the nineteenth century, psychology was a Thus, scientific paradigms should not be seen has static
young science. Influenced by venerable fields such as truth system but more like dynamic systems valid
mathematics, and in search of respectability, during a certain time range. In this respect, subjective
psychologists were looking for measurable evidences of and inductive researches such as Gardner and
human behaviour. This psychometric perspective led to Csikszentmihalyi should be considered legitimate, even
many research attempting to understand intelligence in if there is not a reference system to validate them. The
terms of numbers. Today, many researches about hypothesis here is that there could be appropriate ones
creativity follow this perspective such as Sternberg [14] in the future. Natural and social sciences are always
(psychometry and creativity), Simonton [12] confronted to a dilemma: describing subjective
(stochastic historiometry). In their perspective, rational phenomena with objective systems. The authority of
methods can assess creativity. They build operational formal and abstract descriptions of knowledge often
models of creative skills based on controlled reduced our understanding of phenomena that resist to
experiments. These models explain why humans react objectivation. But if we consider that science is not
to certain tasks, however, they never explain why or limited to human lifespan and that the multiplicity of its
how breakthrough and insights happen through paradigms over history is essential, then subjective
creative activities. In contrast to these researches, approaches are of great interest.
other creativity researchers such as Gardner [5]
(multiple intelligences) or Csikszentmihalyi [3] (flow One of the more extreme subjective approaches is
theory) have developed qualitative models of creativity, ethnomethodology [6]. Created in the sixties by
involving non-measurable elements such as emotion or Garfinkel, this method places the subjectivity as a
cultural settings. Yet, many scientists think that there is central point in science. By using techniques of
no sufficient empirical evidence to these introspection and participant observation, Garfinkel
conceptualizations. A common criticism made to their annihilates the distinction between the observer and
works is that these theories derive rather more strongly the observed. This new epistemological posture is
from intuitions and reasoning than from a directly inherited from phenomenological works that
comprehensive and full grounding in empirical research. tried to give a new perspective on human experience.
According to current scientific paradigms, these Merleau-Ponty aphorism “les objets nous regardent”
critiques are justified. (“objects are watching us”) [8] emphasized the idea
that perception cannot be detached from active
However, these critiques result from the assumption participation in the world: the action as a constitutive
that scientific epistemological frameworks are entities element of perception. In this perspective, research on
that should aim for prediction and replicable events. human related phenomena such as creativity should be
Philosophy of science and especially critical rationalism considered from inside a body, and not just from an
theory of Popper [10] explained how every empirical external instrument of measure.
theory should not aim for objectivity and abstraction
In the same period, in semiotics and aesthetics, many Einstein) to be a major problem for the scientific
researchers in creativity in Art took phenomenological method, which traditionally used a strong version of
arguments to explain the importance of subjective scientific determinism. In this case, scientific are using
participation in order to experience complex the "correspondence principle" (Bohr [2]) which aims at
phenomena. In “Opera aperta“ (The Open work) Eco the reduction of a new hypothesized scientific theory to
[4] describes the significant amount of artistic another scientific theory (usually a precursor to the
installations that physically engaged the audience, former) which requires that the new theory explain all
especially in the area of kinetic art. This shift from the the phenomena under circumstances for which the
spectator to the “spectactor” (Weissberg [16]) is preceding theory was known to be valid (the
caracteristic to the desire of artists to create an "correspondence limit"). In the same way, at the
alternative to classical reception models of art beginning of the twentieth century, Jean Piaget has
(revelation) throughout a physical, embodied developed a pragmatic approach to study human
experience. Embodiment and corporeality, multiple development called “genetic epistemology” [9]. To
perspectives are phenomenological accounts of operationalize this approach, he created the clinical
experience that precisely resist to scientific models. method, which consisted in experiments with small
They are unique phenomena that are not replicable or samples, something crazy in his time.
measurable.
Based on these background insights, we introduce in
This is the point where artists and subjective the next section ‘creative epistemology’, a prototypical
philosophers and scientists go over a line that framework to explore creativity.
traditional researchers refuse to cross. Yet, all these
subjective explorations are researches, even if there is Creative Epistemology
no scientific framework that fits to them. They are Creativity research resists to models and to current
“proto-sciences” in the sense that they cannot provide scientific paradigms. Until future developments of these
predictive accuracy or a priori knowledge. They are not paradigms, researchers should look for correlations
creating model of phenomena but create descriptive between diverse creative phenomena. I propose to use
accounts of subjective realities. Yet, certain areas of “creative epistemology”, an approach that aims at
science resist to scientific models themselves. Quantum capturing data about the creative processes in the
physics holds that certain events such as radioactive perspective of later analysis. Creative epistemology is
decay and movement of particles are completely articulated around five axes:
random when taken at the level of single atoms or - Perspectivism [1]
smaller. Schrödinger's cat is a famous thought
- Participant observation
experiment in which a cat's survival cannot be
determined theoretically before the experiment is done. - Applied phenomenology
The philosophical consequences of quantum physics - Documentation
were once considered by many (including Albert - Complex systems correlations
Creativity Research by Children Classrooms open to a centre piazza, kitchens are open
If we look at creativity beyond scientific discoveries and to view, and access to the surrounding community is
artistic breakthroughs, we can minimize theoretical assured through wall-size windows, courtyards, and
conflicts. Children for example are very creative. They doors to the outside in each classroom. Entries capture
explore the world on various perspectives, create links the attention of both children and adults through the
between unrelated objects and invest a lot of time in use of mirrors (on the walls, floors, and ceilings),
expressing multiple representations of their photographs, and children's work accompanied by
experiences. They can give valuable account of their transcriptions of their discussions. In each classroom
reality and collect material useful for adult researchers. there are studio spaces in the form of a large, centrally
But this can happen only if they are part of an located atelier and a smaller mini-atelier that
environment designed for this purpose, providing them encourage bricolage and deconstruction of the world, in
with tools and techniques for observation and a phenomenological perspective.
reflection. There are some examples of environments
that provided children with these tools. As children proceed in an investigation, generating and
testing their hypotheses, they are encouraged to depict
Reggio Emilia approach their understanding through one of many symbolic
One of the most famous is called the Reggio Emilia languages, including drawing, sculpture, dramatic play,
Approach to preschool education [15]. It was started by and writing. Teachers foster children's involvement in
the schools of the city of Reggio Emilia in Italy after the processes of exploration and evaluation,
World War II. The organization of the physical acknowledging the importance of their evolving
environment is crucial to Reggio Emilia's early products as vehicles for exchange. Many artefacts are
childhood program, and is often referred to as the produced in this process and documentation is a central
child's "third teacher." concept.