PHILOSOPHY

Types of test:

I. Multiple Choices
II. Modified True or False

Synoptic – one/similar perspective

Topics
- Human experiences of embodiment
- Being in the world
4 Principles
1. Principle of Equality/Identity
Parmenides of Elea (515-460 BCE)

Goal Mathematics: Principle of Equality

- To develop critical and analytical Logic: Principle of Identity

reflection (A =A)
Philosophy – critical thinking “Whatever it is, it is”
- Deep understanding “My view is my view. Your view is your view”
- Appreciate the littlest things
2. Principle of
Philo – love Sophia – wisdom Inequality/Noncontradiction
Philosophia – love for wisdom Mathematics: Principle of Inequality
Partial Seeing vs. Holistic Seeing Logic: Principle of Noncontradiction
1st man: side – wall (A ≠-A)
2nd man: tusk – spear “Whatever is, is not not-is”
3rd man: trunk – snake “My view is not your view. Your view is not my
4th man: legs – tree view”

5th man: ear – fan 3. Principle of Transitivity

(Modus Ponens)
6th man: tail – rope
Aristotle of Stagira (384-322 BCE)
Conclusion: they disputed
Mathematics: Principle of Transitivity
Thinking Process – “logic” Greek word “logos”
which means thought/reason Logic: Modus Ponens

1. Description/Observation (If A=B, and B=C, then A=C)

2. Comparison “If the cake is made with sugar then the sugar is
3. Enunciation sweet. The cake is made with sugar. Therefore,
the cake is sweet.”

“Men are mortals. I am a Man. Therefore, I am

mortal”
 4. Principle of the Excluded Middle
“Either it is or it is not, never both”
“Either my view or your view is right, never
both”
Syllogism – a group of statements, at least two
of which are premises, with the final statement
as conclusion.
Etymology: Syllogism = Logizesthai
(logism, to reason) + sun(syl, with) = to reason
with, or argument
Premises
 Major Premise – is any premise that
contains the major term (predicate) of
the conclusion (not right)
 Minor Premise – is any premise that
contains the minor term (subject) of the
conclusion (your view)
 Hypothetical Premise (if) – assumed to
be true
If your view is not my view (major premise) and
my view is right (miner premise), then your
view is not right (conclusion)
3 Philosopical Views
1. Cosmocentrism
2. Theocentrism
3. Anthropocentrism
COSMOCENTRIC VIEW
- Ancient period (600 BC-600 AD)
- The concern here is about the world
(kosmos in Greek)
- The question that concerned them was
the origin of the universe – the arche
(strating point in Greek)
- Cosmology
Thales of Miletus (620-546 BC)
Thales’ observations of nature and his
philosophical reflections led him to the water is
the underlying principle of all things
Anaximander (612-545 BC)
He thought that water could not simply explain
the hot, cold etc.
- Boundless (apeiron in Greek)
Anaximenes (585-528 B.C.)
air is the fundamental principle
Phytagoreans – number as the first principle
Atomists – atoms (tiny, indivisible entities)
THEOCENTRIC VIEW
- Medieval Period (600-1500 AD)
- The world became secondary to God
(theos in Greek)
- Christianity greatly influenced
philosophy
- God became the focus
- Avicenna, St. Augustine and St. Thomas
Aquinas
- Theodicy
Avicenna (980-1037)
- First muslim philosopher
- In this world, the existence of beings
can be traced to another being
responsible for its existence
- Since an infinite chain is impossible, it
has to end at some point
Existence > essence > whatness and
quiddity
That being which is the starting point of the
entire chain of existence is God
St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274)
His Summa Theologica (Theological Summary) is
most remarkable for its exhaustive explantion
of Christian faith
Source of famous “five ways” of proving the
existence of God
Thales of Miletus
Anaximander
Anaximenes
St. Thomas Aquinas
ANTHROPOCENTRISM VIEW (Plato)
- Modern Period (1500-1900) > Industrial
Revolution
- Subjectivity and Individualism
- Man (anthropos in Greek) is the center
of philosophical questions
- The result both of the rise of modern
science and the diminished authority if
the Church (Protestantism)
- Science as a technique rather than a
doctrine
Rationalism and Empiricism
Rationalism (reason) – knowledge is
acquired through reason independent of sense
experience
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Clear and distinct ideas are the foundation of
knowledge
“I think, therefore, I am”
Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibriz (1646-1716)
Empiricism (Aristotle) – this holds that
all knowledge is ultimately derived from sense
experience
Two kinds of Wisdom according to Aristotle:
1. Theoretical Wisom
2. Practical Wisdom
John Locke (1632-1704
He claimed that the human mind at birth is like
a blank sheet of paper (tabula rasa) that is later
filled through sense experience
David Hume (1711-1776)
George Berkeley (1658-1753)
FIVE WAYS (Quinque Viae) OF PROVING THE
EXISTENCE OF GOD
THE FIRST WAY: ARGUMENT FROM MOTION
1. Our sense prove that some things are in
motion
2. Things move when potential motion
becomes actual motion
3. Only an actual motion can convert a
potential motion into an actual motion
4. Nothing can be at once both actuality
an potentiality in the same respect
5. Therefore, nothing can move itself
6. Therefore, each thing in motion is
moved by something else
7. The motion
SECOND WAY: ARGUMENT FROM EFFICIENT
CAUSES
1. We perceive a series of efficient causes
of things in the world
2. Nothing exists prior to itself
3. Therefore, nothing is the efficient cause
of itself
4. Neither does the thing that results
5. Nothing in the series exists
6. Efficient causes do not extend ad
infinitum into the past
7. FIRST EFFICIENT CAUSE
THIRD WAY: ARGUMENT FROM POSSIBILITY
AND NECESSITY
1. Assume that every being is a contingent
being
2. For each contingent being, there is a
time it does not exist
3. Nothing would be existing now
4. Not every being Is a contingent being
FOURTH WAY: ARGUMENT FROM GRADATION
OF BEING
1. There is a gradation to be found in
things: some better or worse than
others
2. Predications of degree require
reference to the “uttermost” case
3. The maximum in any genus is the cause
of all in that genus
FIFTH WAY: ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN
1. We see that natural bodies work
toward some goal, and do not do so by
chance
2. Most natural thing lack knowledge
ARGUMENT FROM MOTION
ARGUMENT FROM EFFICIENT CAUSES
ARGUMENT FROM POSSIBILITY AND
NECESSITY
ARGUMENT FROM GRADATION OF BEING
ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN
Methods of Philosophizing (Doxa and
Episteme)
Greek words:
Doxa – opinion
Episteme – knowledge
Basic Understanding of Opinion (John Corvina)
 It is a belief instead of reality (some of
which unjustified)
 It tends to be false (some are biases
and prejudices)
 It is rather abstract than concrete
 It is more subjective than objective
(relative and variable)
 It is more controversial
 Opinions are subjective prepositions
and are NOT very well supported by
evidence or reasons
Fallacies – errors in reasoning
Research – deals with facets > other side is true
Fallacies and their meaning (DHPCAFHP)
1. Dicto Simpliciter – an argument based
on unqualified generalization
Ex. 'Exercise is good. Therefore
everybody should exercise
2. Hasty Generalization – an argument
where the generalization is reached too
hastily
Ex. Christine has a terrible experience
with a boyfriend. She decides that all
boys are mean.
3. Post Hoc – a fallacy in which one event
is said to be the cause of a later event
simply because it occurred earlier
Ex. I sneezed at the same time the
power went off. My sneeze did
something to make the power go off.
4. Contradictory Premises – an argument
that contains premises that contradict
each other
Ex. If God can do anything, can He make
a stone so heavy that He won’t be able
to lift it?
5. Ad Misericordiam – an argument
appeals to pity without satisfying the
point of the matter
Ex. I am filing for reconsideration of the
offenses complained about. Since I am a
well-known athlete, I can make your
University great again.
6. False Analogy – an argument that
contain situations that are altogether
different that no analogy can be made
between them
Ex. Women will be attracted to you if
you wear Axe cologne or use Axe bath
wash
 7. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact – the
fallacy entails treating future
hypothetical situations as if they are
fact
Ex. John, if you would have taken a
shower more often, you would still be
dating Tina.
8. Poisoning the Well – irrelevant adverse
information about a target
preemptively presented to an audience,
with the intention of discrediting and
ridiculing
Ex. Oh, you are seeing Dr. Thomas? He
really gives me the creeps, so just watch
out.
9. Bandwagon - is a fallacy based on the
assumption that the opinion of the
majority is always valid: that is,
everyone believes it, so you should too.
It is also called an appeal to popularity,
the authority of the many, and
argumentum ad populum (Latin for
"appeal to the people").
Ex. Everyone is going to get the new
smart phone when it comes out this
weekend.
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave (CSPPFCOOF)
Cave – an analogy for the human condition and
his experience (for our education or the lack of
it)
Shadows – the only reality people in the cave
could recognize. Flawed reflections of reality
Prisoners – represents all individuals trapped in
ignorance
Puppeteers – represent individuals and
organizations who construct knowledge
Fire – a source of manufactured light
Chains – represent anything that keeps the
prisoner from having the freedom to learn
Outside Region – represents the higher level of
understanding and education, where “forms” or
“truths” are present
Obejcts (outside region) – represent the
“forms”, as the highest kinds of truth or reality
Freed Prisoner – represent the those individuals
who wish to enlighten and educate others
3 Forms
1. Platonic Idealism – Platonic Truth
2. The World of Forms
3. The World of Appearances
World of Appearances (senses)
 Sensible world
 Sensory knowledge
 Mere shadow or representation of True
knowledge
 Changing
 Realm of the Body
World of Forms (intellect)
 Intelligible world
 Intelligible knowledge
 Eternal truths
 Unchanging
 Realm of the Soul
Opinion – belongs to the world of appearances
Knowledge – belongs to the world of forms
“Learning is remembering” –Plato
• Math and Philosophy
Things that do not change (constant) –
world of forms
• Morals – respect, love
• Pursuit of Wisdom – experience,
education
• Pursuit of Happiness
 Correspondence Theory
• Oldest Model of Truth
• The simplest to understand because
this is how we often verify truths
• True propositions (statements) are
those that correspond with reality
Geocentrism – earth is the center of the
solar system
Heliocentrism – sun is the center of the
solar system
Coherence Theory
• Similar to the principle of
transitivity
• This states that the truth of any
(true) proposition consists in its
coherence with some specified sets
of proposotions
• All humans are mortal
I am a human
I am mortal
Greek Words
Apeiron – boundless
Logos – thought/reason
Kosmos – world
The arche – starting point
Theos – God
Summa Theologica – Theological Summary
Anthropos – man
Tabula rasa – blank sheet of paper
Quinque Viae – five ways
Doxa – opinion
Episteme – knowledge
2 views regarding body and soul
1. Dualism
2. Monism
Body + soul = self
What does human person as an embodied
spirit mean?
Man has a body and a soul that together
consists what he/she can him/herself
Dualism/Duality of Body and Soul
The duality of body and soul is the view held by
those who believe that our body is separate and
distinct from our soul. The soul, though
conceived in many ways, is that aspect of our
being that is not material. Our body shows our
corporeality but we are more than our body
because we have a soul or a spirit
Dualism
Body Soul (mind)
Material Immaterial
The soul or spirit is philosophically discussed as
mind since mental capacities and abilities are
attributed to it
Plato and Rene Descartes
Monism – unity of body and soul
In contrast to dualism, monism is much simpler
and avoids many unresolved questions. To say
that the body and soul together make one
entity does not require much proof as opposed
to offering a dualist view.
St. Thomas Aquinas
Following Aristotle’s notion of form and matter,
Aquinas claimed that body and soul are not two
entities that interact with each other but are
one being made up of matter and form.
Body – matter Soul – form
Primary Reflection
“I place myself outside of the thing that I am
inquiring on. An ob-jectum (thrown in front). It
has nothing to do with myself nor do I have
anything to do with it.”
This is the body talked about in anatomy,
physiology and other sciences. Because this is
an objective and universal idea, this can be the
body of anybody else, and consequently of
nobody.
Thus, it is simply our immediate consciousness
of what happens
Thus, a human person concludes that “I HAVE A
BODY”
Secondary Reflection
“I recognize that I am part of the thing I am
investigating, and therefore, my discussion is
subjective (thrown beneath). I have something
to do with it and it has something to do with
me. Because I participate in the thing, I cannot
tear it apart into clear and fixed ideas; I have to
describe and bring its unique wholeness in my
concrete experience”
We reconstruct the experience while
integrating what we have discovered from it,
thus, a transcendence of knowledge through
reflection on experience
Thus, a human person concludes that “I AM MY
BODY”
Primary: I have a body – Having
Secondary; I am my body – Being
Pagkakaroon – possession (object)
Pagiging – being (self)
Self
I – the capacity of a human being to think or
even to feel
- exists as a thinking substance
- one’s subjectivity
My body – is the main basis for reflection
and self-consciousness
- primary datum of existence
- is the manifestation of my existentiality
of who I am
- the in-fleshing of one’s “I”
Everytime I claim “I am my body”, I
recognize that my existentiality is
dependent on my body. My body reveals
my truth, my thought, my feeling, and
myself-being; for my body and I are one.
How the Human Body Imposes Limits and
Possibilities for Transcendence
 The Concept of ‘Dread’ – man is
simply thrown into the world and is
left alone to face what he can do
because he did not will for it.
 The Concept of ‘Being with others
‘– man has to establish relationship
with others in the world (find you
happiness)
 The Concept of ‘Concern’ – the
human person’s relatedness to
entities is basically things which he
encounters in the world. He is
always ‘together’ with others.
 The Concept of ‘Guilt Feeling’ – in
philosophy, guilt feeling is
something that is lacking or missing
in a person. As such, a human
person is a guilty creature.
 The Concept of ‘Conscience’ –
conscience plays a primary role in
recovering from being ‘lost or
fallen’ in the world (itama ang mali)
  The Concept of ‘Resoluteness’ –
resoluteness is man’s readiness to
be called by conscience
 The Concept of ‘Temporality’ –
imposes limits to one’s human body
as it is of relating to earthly life (live
life to the fullest)
 The Concept of ‘Death’ – the
human person’s temporal existence
will find its end on death (create an
impact, be remembered)

Religion (Faith) – latin word “re” = again,

“ligare” = to bind together = to bind together
again

Will to Survive vs. Will to Power

Friedrich Nietzsche’s Will to Power

Realizing one’s “higher self” therefore means

fulfilling one’s loftiest vision and noblest ideal.

Übermensch – higher self

How to reach your higher self?

The individual has to liberate himself from

environmental influences that are false to one’s
essential beings, for the “unfree man” is a
“disgrace to nature”