ChE 313: Heat and Mass Equations

Lecture 1—Introduction to Heat Transfer

Fundamentals of Heat Transfer: Rate of Conductive Heat Transfer
𝑄 = ∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 Fourier Rate Equation:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 ) [No phase change, no 𝑞 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
= −𝑘∇𝑇 = −𝑘 ( + + )
reaction] 𝐴 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
q = Rate of heat transfer [=] Q/t [=] J/s → W
q’’ = heat flux = q/A
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑢𝐴
Differential Energy Equation Steady State conduction through a plane wall:
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 = ∇ ∙ 𝑘∇𝑇 + 𝑞̇ 𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐴
𝜕𝑡
= −𝑘 → 𝑞𝑥 = (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝐿 1
With constant 𝑘:
𝜕𝑇 𝑘 2 𝑞̇ 𝐿 1
= ∇ 𝑇+ Thermal Resistance: 𝑅 = =ℎ
𝑘𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝐶𝑝
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
With no heat sources: 𝑞𝑥 =
𝜕𝑇 𝑘
𝑅
𝜕𝑡
= 𝛼∇2 𝑇 where 𝛼 = 𝜌𝐶
𝑝
Convection: heat surface occurring between a surface Conduction: Heat transfer through stationary medium:
and a moving fluid: 𝑞 = −𝐴𝑘∇𝑇
𝑊
𝑘[=]
𝑞 = 𝐴ℎ∆𝑇 = 𝐴ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 𝑚∙𝐾
𝑊 Newtons Law of cooling:
ℎ[=] 2 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑚 ∙𝐾

Unsteady-State Conduction (aka Fourier Field Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance:
Equation): 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ −ℎ𝐴𝑡
= exp ( ) = exp(−𝐵𝑖 𝐹𝑜 )
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉
𝜕𝑇 𝑞̇ ℎ𝑣
= 𝛼∇2 𝑇 + 𝐵𝑖 = 𝐴
𝐹𝑜 =
𝛼𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑘 𝑉 2
( )
𝐴
Take 𝜌, 𝑘, 𝐶𝑝 at the mean temperature over time of the
𝛼 = Thermal Diffusivity
solid material
Systems with negligible surface resistance: Temperature Time Charts
𝜕𝑇 Unaccomplished temperature change:
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑇∞ − 𝑇
𝜕𝑥
𝑌=
𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑜
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) Relative Time:
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 𝛼𝑡
𝑋= 2
𝑥1
∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1 Relative position:
𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 𝑥
∆𝑇
ln (∆𝑇2 ) 𝑛=
1 𝑥1
Relative Resistance:
Thermal Resistance: 𝑘
∆𝑥 𝑚=
𝑅= [𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒] 𝑥1 ℎ
𝑘𝐴
1
𝑅= [𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒]
ℎ𝐴

1
Lecture 2—Convective Heat Transfer
Local Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients:
𝜕(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑞𝑥 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) = − 𝑘𝐴 |
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
𝜕(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝜕𝑦 | 𝑦=0
ℎ𝑥 = −𝑘
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

Mean convective heat transfer coefficients Mean convective heat transfer coefficients
Total Heat Transfer Rate: Mean Convection Coefficient:
𝐿
𝑞 = (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) ∫ ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝐴𝑠 1
ℎ = ∫ ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑠 𝐿
0
1
ℎ= ∫ ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑠

Navier-Stokes Equation:
𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝜈 𝜕2𝜈 𝜕2𝜈
𝜌 ( + 𝜈𝑥 + 𝜈𝑦 ) = 𝜌𝑔 − ∇𝑃 + 𝜇 ( 2 + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2

Momentum Diffusivity: Thermal Diffusivity:

𝜇 𝑘
𝜈= 𝛼=
𝜌 𝜌𝐶𝑝

Reynolds Number: Prandtl Number:

𝐿𝑢𝜌 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 A measure of the relative effectiveness of momentum and
𝑅𝑒 = ~
𝜇 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 energy transport by diffusion

𝜐 𝜇𝐶𝑝 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Pr = = ~
𝛼 𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
[𝑂𝑖𝑙𝑠] 𝑃𝑟 > 1
[𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠] 𝑃𝑟 = 1
[𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠] 𝑃𝑟 < 1

Nusselt Number: Stanton Number:

ℎ𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ 𝑁𝑢
𝑁𝑢 = ~ 𝑆𝑡 ≡ =
𝑘 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 𝑅𝑒 ∙ 𝑃𝑟
Conduction only on surface layer
Grashof Number: Raleigh Number:
𝛽𝑔𝜌2 𝐿3 Δ𝑇 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟
𝐺𝑟 = =
𝜇2 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡

Euler Number: Froude Number:

𝑃 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 2
𝑢∞ 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑢 = 2 = 𝐹𝑟 = =
𝜌𝑢∞ 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
Buoyant Force:
𝐹𝑏𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝛽𝑔𝜌0 Δ𝑇

2
Lectures 3 & 4—Convective Heat-Transfer Correlations
Forced Convection: Natural Convection:
𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓1 (𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟) 𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓3 (𝐺𝑟, 𝑃𝑟)
𝑆𝑡 = 𝑓2 (𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟)

Exact Analysis of the Laminar Boundary Layer (In steady Analytical Approach (steady state, incompressible, two-
state): dimensional isobaric flow):
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇 0.332 1/2 1/3
𝜈𝑥 + 𝜈𝑦 =𝛼 2 | = (𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 ) [ 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 𝑥

Local Nusselt Number: [Flat plate/plane, laminar] Mean Nusselt Number: [Flat plate/plane, laminar]
ℎ𝑥 𝑥 ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.332𝑅𝑒1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3 𝑁𝑢 = = 0.664𝑅𝑒𝐿 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3
𝑘 𝑘

General Thermal Considerations: Von Karman Analysis:

𝜕𝑄 𝑃 [Incompressible flow, average Cp value is used]
= ∬(𝑒 + )𝜌(𝑉 ∙ 𝑛)𝑑𝐴 ℎ𝑥 𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜌
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.36𝑅𝑒𝑥 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3
Where n is the flow direction 𝑘
𝑉𝑥 2
𝑒 = + 𝑔𝑦 + 𝑢
2

The Coefficient of Skin Friction:

[𝑃𝑟 = 1 and no form drag] Other special cases:
𝜏0 2𝜇𝐶𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝑥 ℎ 𝐶𝑓
𝐶𝑓,𝑥 = 2 = 2 𝜕𝑦 | 𝑆𝑡 ≡ = [𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑃𝑟 = 1]
𝜌𝑢∞ 𝜌𝑢∞ 𝑦=0 𝜌𝑢∞ 𝐶𝑝 2
2 1.328
𝜇𝐶𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝐶𝑓 = [𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒]
ℎ𝑥 = | √𝑅𝑒
𝑢∞ 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 16
𝐶𝑓,𝑥 𝐶𝑓 = [𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑖𝑡]
ℎ𝑥 = (𝜌𝑢∞ 𝐶𝑝 ) 𝑅𝑒
1
2 𝐶𝑓,𝑥 = 0.0576𝑅𝑒𝑥 −5 [𝑅𝑒𝑥 ≤ 107 ]
Reynolds analogy:
ℎ𝑥 𝐶𝑓,𝑥
𝑆𝑡𝑥 = =
𝜌𝑢∞ 𝐶𝑝 2

Film Temperature:
This is the temperature at which we obtain fluid properties.
It’s our only estimate if fluid properties are not given/unknown in a scenario.
𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇∞
𝑇𝑓 ≡
2

Critical Reynolds Number

5 6
External Flow: 2x10 to 3x10 (Provided in question) Internal Flow: 2300 (Remember!)

3
Laminar Flow
Exact Analysis: Reynolds Analogy:
ℎ𝐿 ℎ 𝐶𝑓
𝑁𝑢 = = 0.664𝑅𝑒𝐿 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3 𝑆𝑡 = = [Pr = 1, 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟]
𝑘 𝜌𝑢∞ 𝐶𝑝 2

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Colburn Analogy: [No form drag; 𝑃𝑟 ≠ 1; 0.5 < 𝑃𝑟 < Prandtl Analogy: [Negligible form drag]
50] 𝐶𝑓 /2
𝐶𝑓 𝑆𝑡 =
𝑗𝐻 = 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2/3 = 1 + 5√𝐶𝑓 /2(𝑃𝑟 − 1)
2 * Most accurate results for 𝑃𝑟 > 1
Note: for 𝑃𝑟 = 1, the Colburn and Reynold analogies are equivalent
Von Karman Analogy:
Extends the Prandtl Analogy to include the effect of the transition layer
𝐶𝑓
𝑆𝑡 = 2 [𝑃𝑟 > 1]
𝐶𝑓 5
1 + 5√ 2 {𝑃𝑟 − 𝑎 + ln [1 + 6 (𝑃𝑟 − 1)]}
* Most accurate results for 𝑃𝑟 > 1
Flow Parallel to Plane Surface with Unheated Starting External Flow at Constant Heat Flux over a Flat
Length Plate/Plane
1 1 1
3 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.453𝑅𝑒𝑥2 𝑃𝑟 3
𝑃𝑟 1/2 [𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.6]
𝑁𝑢𝑥 ≅ 0.33 3 𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝑋 4
4
[1 − ( 𝑥 ) ] 1
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308𝑅𝑒𝑥5 𝑃𝑟 3
[𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡, 0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 60]
For 𝑋 = 0, this equation simplifies to:
1/2
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝑃𝑟1/3
Cylinders in Crossflow:
𝜌𝑢∞ 𝐷 Mean Nusselt number:
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 𝑅𝑒 ≡
𝜇 (1) Hilbert correlation:
Separation angle at boundary layer: 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝐵𝑅𝑒𝐷𝑛 Pr1/3 [𝑃𝑟 ≈ 1]
𝜃𝑠𝑒𝑝 ≈ 80° [𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2 × 105 ] * Use with Table 20.3 (Slide 13)
𝜃𝑠𝑒𝑝 ≈ 140° [𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑅𝑒 ≥ 2 × 105 ]
(2) Churchill and Bernstein’s correlation:
1 1 4
Local Nusselt number: 5 5
2 3
ℎ𝜃 𝐷 0.62𝑅𝑒𝐷 Pr 𝑅𝑒𝐷 8
𝑁𝑢𝜃 = 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.3 + 1 ∙ [1 + (282000) ]
𝑘 2 4
* Use Figure 20.7 for low 𝑅𝑒𝐷 and Figure 20.8 for high 0.4 3
𝑅𝑒𝐷 (Slide 11) [1 + ( 𝑃𝑟 ) ]

[𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.2]
* All properties evaluated at 𝑇𝑓 ; calculation accuracy is
~20%
Single Spheres
(1) Whitaker’s correlation: (evaluate at 𝑇∞ unless specified)
0.71 < 𝑃𝑟 < 380
1 2
𝜇∞ 1/4 3.5 < 𝑅𝑒𝐷 < 7.6 × 104
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 2 + (0.4𝑅𝑒𝐷2 + 0.06𝑅𝑒𝐷3 ) 𝑃𝑟 0.4 ( ) [ 𝜇∞ ]
𝜇𝑠 1.0 < < 3.2
𝜇𝑠
(2) Ranz and Marshall’s correlation
1 1
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 2 + 0.6𝑅𝑒𝐷2 𝑃𝑟 3 [𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠]

4
Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance Flow across Banks of Tubes
Temperature within the material varies with time only Arrangement may be aligned or staggered
𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑡 Equivalent diameter of a tube bank:
= exp (− ) = exp(−𝐵𝑖 ∙ 𝐹𝑜) 4(𝑆𝐿 𝑆𝑇 − 𝜋𝐷 2 /4
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑉
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
[𝐵𝑖 < 0.1] 𝜋𝐷
ℎ𝑉 𝑆𝐿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟)
𝑆𝑇 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟)
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠: 𝐵𝑖 = 𝐴
𝑘 𝐷 = 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛼𝑡
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠: 𝐹𝑜 =
𝑉 2 ℎ depends on tube position in the bank:
(𝐴 )
- ℎ for first-row tube is approx. equal to that of a single
tube
- Larger ℎ for tubes in inner rows
- ℎ stabilizes for tube beyond the 4th/5th row

For the overall ℎ for a bank of tubes:

Bergelin, Colburn, and Hull correlation
2 𝜇𝑤 0.14
𝑗 ′ = 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 3 ( ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝜇𝑏
ℎ
𝑆𝑡 =
𝑐𝑝 𝐺𝑚
[𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 1 < 𝑅𝑒 < 1000]
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦: 𝐺𝑚 = 𝜌𝑢
* Read off value from Figure 20.12 (log-log scale)
Forced Convection for Internal Flow
𝜌𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷 Mean Temperature:
𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≡
𝜇 A convenient reference—takes average over the cross-
𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 = average/mean fluid velocity over tube cross- sectional area
∫𝐴 𝜌𝑢𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑑𝐴 𝑅
section 2
𝑟 2 𝑇𝑚 = = ∫ 𝑢𝑇𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 [1 − ( ) ] 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅2 0
𝑅
Assumptions:
(1) Incompressible (liquid)
(2) Constant property fluid
(3) Fully-developed region of circular tube
No general expression for turbulent flows

5
 Fully Developed Conditions:
This requirement must be met: 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 4.364 [Constant surface heat flux for circular
𝛿 𝑇𝑠 (𝑥) − 𝑇(𝑟, 𝑥) tubes]
[ ] =0 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 3.658 [Constant surface temperature for circular
𝛿𝑥 𝑇𝑠 (𝑥) − 𝑇𝑚 (𝑥) 𝑓𝑑,𝑡
tubes]
The Entry Region [𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑠 ]
1. Graetz solution:
𝑟 2 𝛿𝑇 𝑎 𝛿 𝛿𝑇 Average Nusselt number:
2𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 [1 − ( ) ] = (𝑟 ) Sieder-Tate correlation:
𝑅 𝛿𝑥 𝑟 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
𝑃𝑒𝐷 1/3 𝜇𝑏 0.14
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86 ( ) ( )
2. Boundary conditions: 𝐿 𝜇𝑤
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑅 [𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒]
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 > 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 𝑅
𝛿𝑇
= 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 > 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 0 Equation to check for fully-developed flow conditions
𝛿𝑟
assumption [Laminar flow]:
3. Substituting in boundary conditions: 𝐿𝑒
∞ = 0.0575 ∙ 𝑅𝑒
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑒 𝑟 𝛼 𝑥 𝐷
= ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑓 ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−𝛽𝑛2 ∙ ] , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑒 𝑅 𝑅𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅
𝑛=0 𝐿𝑒 = the tube entry length
𝛼 𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
∙ = = > 𝑒 to justify the assumption of fully-developed flow
𝑅𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟𝐷 𝑃𝑒𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
conditions
𝑃𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑒 ≡ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes Free/Natural Convection
(1) Dittus-Boelter correlation Fluid motion past a solid surface due to buoyancy forces
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝐷0.8 Pr 𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: (temp diff → density diff)
[𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔] 𝑛 = 0.3, 𝑜𝑟
[𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔] 𝑛 = 0.4 Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient:
1 𝛿𝜌 1
0.7 < 𝑃𝑟 < 160 𝛽 = − ( ) [=]
𝜌 𝛿𝑇 𝑃 𝐾
[ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 10,000 ] 𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓(𝐺𝑟, Pr)
𝐿/𝐷 > 60
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at/near
(2) Colburn correlation 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 𝑅𝑎 ≅ 109 , where 𝑅𝑎 = Raleigh number
2
𝑆𝑡 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝐷−0.2 𝑃𝑟 −3
Laminar-Free Convection [Constant surface temp AND
0.7 < 𝑃𝑟 < 160 constant heat flux]:
1
[ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 10,000 ] 𝐺𝑟𝑥 4
𝐿/𝐷 > 60 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑃𝑟) ( )
4
1
* 𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟 evaluated at film temperature, 𝑆𝑡 at bulk 4 𝐺𝑟𝐿 4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 𝑓(𝑃𝑟) ( )
3 4
(3) Sieder-Tate correlation * Evaluate fluid properties at 𝑇𝑓 —refer to Table 20.1
2 𝜇𝑏 0.14
𝑆𝑡 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝐷−0.2 𝑃𝑟 −3 ( ) Churchill-Chu correlations:
𝜇𝑤
1/6 2
0.387𝑅𝑎𝐿
0.7 < 𝑃𝑟 < 17,000 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = {0.825 + }
[1 + (0.492/𝑃𝑟)9/16 ]8/27
[ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 10,000 ]
𝐿/𝐷 > 60 [𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡]
* All properties evaluated at bulk temperature, except
1/4
𝜇𝑊 0.670𝑅𝑎𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.68 +
[1 + (0.492/𝑃𝑟)9/16 ]4/9
[𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟, 𝑅𝑎 < 109 ]
6
Lecture 5—Boiling and Condensation
• Energy transfer processes involving these two phenomena may achieve relatively high heat-transfer rates, while
the accompanying temperature differences may be quite small
• Additional considerations:
o Latent heat of vapourization (ℎ𝑓𝑔 )
o Density difference →buoyancy force 𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )
o Liquid surface tension (bubble size, droplet size) (𝜎)
𝛿𝐺
𝜎 = ( ) | 𝑇,𝑃 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝛿𝐴
𝐺 = Gibbs free energy
𝐴 = surface area of the bubble/droplet
o Surface characteristics
• Applications of boiling and condensation heat-transfer:
o Cooling of electronic devices (heat management in electronic devices)
o Cooling of nuclear reactors
• Boiling
o 2 types:
▪ Pool boiling: occurs on a heated surface submerged in a liquid pool (e.g. boiling water on a stove)—we
focus on this type in this course
▪ Flow boiling: occurs in a flowing stream, 2-phase flow (e.g. oil transport)
o 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 depends on pressure
• Boiling curve:
o Log-log scale
o Highly non-linear
o Power-controlled heating apparatus
▪ Change voltage and current
▪ Alter 𝑇𝑆 to vary ∆𝑇𝑒 (temperatures measured by thermocouples)
▪ Use a camera to observe bubbling
o Regimes of boiling:
▪ Regime I—free convection boiling [∆𝑇𝑒 < 5℉]
• Little vapour formation
• Liquid motion due mainly to single-phase free convection
▪ Regime II—nucleate boiling [5℉ < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 80℉] has 3 phenomena
• [∆𝑇𝑒 ≈ 5℉] Onset of nucleate boiling (ONB)
• [5℉ < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 15℉] Isolated vapour bubbles
o Liquid motion strongly influenced by bubble nucleation at the interface
o ℎ and 𝑞/𝐴 increase sharply with ∆𝑇𝑒
o Heat transfer primarily due to contact of liquid with the surface
• [15℉ < ∆𝑇𝑒 < 80℉] Jets and columns
o Increasing number of nucleation sites causes bubble interactions and coalescence into jets and
slugs
o Liquid/surface contact is impaired
o 𝑞/𝐴 continues to increase with ∆𝑇𝑒 while ℎ begins decreasing
▪ Regime III/Regime IV
• Critical heat flux (CHF) occurs at [∆𝑇𝑒 ≈ 80℉]
o The maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling
o Beyond this point, a vapour film starts forming (bubbles collapse), providing a considerable
resistance o heat transfer

7
 o The film is insulating—thermal conductivity decreases by approx. 20 times
• Regime V—film boiling
o Heat transfer is by conduction and radiation across the vapour blanket
▪ Regime VI
• Radiation comes into play at ∆𝑇𝑒 > 1000℉
• Potential burnout for power-controlled heating
o When the peak value of 𝑞/𝐴 is slightly exceeded, the required amount of energy can’t be
transferred via boiling
o This leads to an increase in Radiation comes into play at ∆𝑇𝑒 accompanied by a further decrease in
𝑞/𝐴
o This condition continues until point B (burnout point) is reached
o Wire will have long since reached its melting point
• Correlations of boiling heat transfer data
o No adequate analytical solution available
o Various correlation of experimental data achieved for different regimes:
▪ [𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑰]: use correlations for natural convection (Churchill-Chu)
▪ [𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑰𝑰]: partial natural convection and particle nucleate boiling
▪ [𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑰𝑰𝑰]: nucleate-boiling regime, of great engineering importance
▪ [𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑰𝑽]: unstable film boiling, not of great engineering interest
▪ [𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑽]: stable-film boiling, requires high 𝑻𝑺 , few experimental data available
▪ [𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑽𝑰]: contribution of radiation is appreciable
• Condensation
o Occurs when 𝑇𝑆 < 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 for an adjoining vapour
o 2 types of condensation:
▪ Film condensation:
• Entire surface is covered by the condensate, which flows continuously from the surface, providing an
external resistance to heat-transfer between vapour & surface
• Characteristic of clean uncontaminated surfaces—not common in real-life
▪ Dropwise condensation:
• Surface is covered by drops ranging from a few micrometers to observable agglomerations
• Thermal resistance greatly reduced due to absence of a continuous film
• Associated with higher heat-transfer coefficients than film condensation—BUT uncertain nature
• Requires special surface treatments (e.g. coating, painting)
o Film condensation on a vertical plane
▪ Thickness (𝛿) and condensate flow rate (Γ) increase with increasing 𝑥 (vertical direction)
▪ Vapour is generally superheated and may be part of a mixture including non-condensables
▪ Shear stress at the liquid-vapour interface causes a velocity gradient in the vapour and liquid

8
 Boiling
Excess Temperature: Boiling Curve:

∆𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

Correlations of Nucleate Boiling Heat-Transfer (Regime

III):
𝑁𝑢𝑏 = 𝜙(𝑅𝑒𝑏 , Pr𝐿 )

Nusselt number:
𝑞
(𝐴) 𝐷𝑏 ℎ𝐷𝑏 * Always calculate ∆𝑇𝑒 then check the boiling curve to
𝑁𝑢𝑏 = = determine which region you’re examining
(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝐿
Rohsenow’s correlation:
Bubble Reynolds number: * Based on Addom’s pool-boiling data for
𝐷𝑏 𝐺𝑏 0.024-in. diameter platinum wire, immersed in water
𝑅𝑒𝑏 ≡ 1
𝜇𝐿 𝑞 𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 2 𝑐𝑝𝐿 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
3
= 𝜇𝐿 ℎ𝑓𝑔 [ ] [ ]
Bubble mass velocity: 𝐴 𝜎 𝐶𝑠𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝐿1.7
𝑞/𝐴
𝐺𝑏 = 𝑐𝑝𝐿 = heat capacity of the liquid
ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝐶𝑠𝑓 = correlating coefficient for surface-liquid combo—
𝐷𝑏 = maximum bubble diameter leaving the surface see Table 21.1 for values
𝜎 = liquid surface tension * Evaluate liquid and vapour properties at 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑘𝐿 = thermal conductivity of the liquid
𝜇𝐿 = liquid viscosity * Alternatively, you may use Figure 21.2 (log-log scale)
ℎ𝑓𝑔 = latent heat of vapourization of the liquid
General Rohsenow’s correlation:
1
3
𝜎 𝑞 𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 2 𝑐𝑝𝐿 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
𝐷𝑏 ∝ √ = 𝜇𝐿 ℎ𝑓𝑔 [ ] [ ]
𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 𝐴 𝜎 𝐶𝑠𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝐿𝑛
* Note: there may be inconsistences in literature values
for 𝑛 and 𝐶𝑠𝑓
Other Correlations for Boiling Heat-Transfer Data:
1
𝑞 𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 4
|𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 0.18ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑣 [ ] [𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥]
𝐴 𝜌𝑣2

1/4
𝜌𝑣 𝑔𝑘𝑣3 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )[ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 0.4𝐶𝑝𝐿 ∆𝑇𝑒 ]
ℎ = 0.62 { } [𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒]
𝐷𝑜 𝜇𝑣 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )

𝐷𝑜 = tube outer diameter

* For all liquid and vapour properties, use 𝑇𝑠 to evaluate!

9
 Condensation
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plane:
𝛿(𝑥) Average heat-transfer coefficient for laminar flow:
Γ(𝑥) = ∫ 𝜌𝑢(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 𝑞𝑦
0 𝐴 𝑘
Γ = flow rate per unit width ℎ= =
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 𝛿
1/4
3
Nusselt analysis for laminar flow: 𝜌𝐿 𝑔𝑘 3 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 ) [ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝𝐿(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤) ]
ℎ = 0.943 ∙ { 8 }
Assumptions: 𝐿𝜇(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 )
(1) A pure vapour (i.e. condensable substance)
(2) System at 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 * Evaluate ℎ𝑓𝑔 at 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 and liquid properties at 𝑇𝑓
(3) Negligible shear stress at liquid-vapour interface
For turbulent flow on a vertical plane:
Energy transfer through the liquid film is purely 4Γ𝑐 4𝜌𝐿 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝛿
𝑅𝑒𝛿 = =
conduction, this same amount of energy is transferred 𝜇𝑓 𝜇𝑓
from the vapour as it condenses then cools to the 𝑹𝒆𝜹,𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 > 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
average liquid temperature
1/3
𝜌𝐿 𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝑘𝐿3
𝑞𝑦 (𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) ℎ = 0.0077 [ ] 𝑅𝑒𝛿0.4
=𝑘 𝜇𝐿2
𝐴 𝛿
𝑞𝑦 1 𝛿 𝑑Γ
= 𝜌𝐿 [ℎ𝑓𝑔 + ∫ 𝜌𝐿 𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑝𝐿 (𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇)𝑑𝑦]
𝐴 𝜌𝐿 Γ 0 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑝𝐿 = latent heat of condensation
Film Condensation on Horizontal Cylinder:
Nusselt’s analysis: ℎ𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 0.943 𝐷 1/4 𝐷 1/4
3 1/4 = ( ) = 1.3 ( )
𝜌𝐿 𝑔𝑘 3 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 ) [ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝑐𝑝𝐿(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤) ] ℎℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧 0.725 𝐿 𝐿
ℎ = 0.725 ∙ { 8 }
𝐷𝜇(𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 ) 𝐷
* Aspect ratio: when 𝐿 = 2.86, equal amounts of energy
can be transferred from the same tube in either
orientation

Lecture 6—Heat Exchanger Design

Overview of Heat Exchangers: Shell-and-tube Heat Exchanger:
- A device whose primary purpose is facilitating energy - Consists of a shell (large pressure vessel) with a bundle of
transfer between 2 fluids tubes inside
- 3 types: - Most have 1, 2, or 4 tube passes
(1) Direct mixing (open-type exchanger) - Our examples have 1 shell pass
(2) Contact but separated (close-type exchanger); flow - Shell and tube passes are independent design
patterns include parallel, counterflow, and crossflow parameters; however, together they give the contact area,
𝑞
(3) Hot and cold fluids flow alternately through same = ℎ ∙ ∆𝑇
𝐴
space (regenerators)—we focus on this type

Characteristic length:
𝐷𝑎 = 𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖 [𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠]

10
Heat Transfer Problem: Temperature Profiles of Single-Pass Heat Exchangers
- The rate of heat transfer (ℎ) depends on 𝐴, ∆𝑇, and
overall heat transfer coefficient (𝑈)
- 𝑈 is related to convection, conduction through tube
wall, tube arrangement, and other factors (e.g. build-up
scale, fouling)

Conceptual Analysis: [For an infinitely long tube]

- Modes of heat transfer (𝑈)—convection from shell (a) 𝑇𝐻,𝑜𝑢𝑡 and 𝑇𝐶,𝑜𝑢𝑡 converge
fluid to outside surface of tube wall, conduction across (b) Depends on slope
tube wall, convection from tube wall inner surface to
tube fluid With phase changes:
- Temperature difference (∆𝑇)—log-mean value
- Heat exchanger area (𝐴)—tube’s outside and inside
surface area, number of passes

[For “thin-wall” tubes] The thermal conduction

- Composite consists of a complete phase change, along
resistance is small and is negligible.
with subcooling, within the heat exchanger
* Note: if no info given on tube wall thickness, assume
thin wall
Thermal Analysis of Counterflow Heat Exchanger: Design and Analysis Principles:
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
ln(∆𝑇2 /∆𝑇1 )

If ∆𝑇1 = ∆𝑇2 , apply L’Hopital’s Rule:

∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = lim
∆𝑇2 →∆𝑇1 ∆𝑇
ln ( 2 )
∆𝑇1
∆𝑇1 {(∆𝑇2 /∆𝑇1 ) − 1}
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = lim [ ] = ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑇1 = ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇2
→1 ln(∆𝑇2 /∆𝑇1 )
∆𝑇1
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇

Generally, when ∆𝑇1 and ∆𝑇2 are not very different,

∆𝑇
especially if ∆𝑇2 < 1.5, you may bypass the ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
1
- 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0: the end of the exchanger that the cold fluid calculation:
enters ∆𝑇1 + ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇 =
- Heat-transfer area varies linearly with distance 2
Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient:
The numerical value of 𝑈 depends on which area of the inner tube it’s based on
𝐷𝑖 is typically chosen for use in the design equation

[If 𝑈 is based on the outside surface area of the pipe]

1
𝑈𝑜 =
𝐴𝑜 𝑟 1
+ ln ( 𝑟𝑜 ) ] /2𝜋𝑘/𝐿 +
𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑖 [𝐴𝑜 𝑖 ℎ𝑜

[If the thin-wall assumption applies/is used]

1
𝑈=
1 1
+
ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜

11
Example 6:
Given: Fluid passes through a tube; uniform heating at
the tube’s surface (i.e. heat flux to the fluid is constant
along the circumference and axis of the tube); heat flux
value (𝑞𝑠 /𝐴) and 𝐷
Find: Tube length required to obtain specified exit
temperature; surface temperature at tube outlet (fully-
developed conditions exist here)
1. Thermal balance:
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙) = 𝑞𝑎𝑑𝑣 (ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙)
𝑞𝑠
∙ 𝐴 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑚,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑖 ); 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷 ∙ 𝐿
𝐴 4. Use to find 𝑇𝐶,𝑜 and check assumed 𝑇̅𝐶,𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑠
2. Evaluate fluid properties at 𝑇̅𝑚
3. Determine fluid nature, then use appropriate
correlation to find ℎ
4. Find surface temperature:
𝑞𝑠
𝑇𝑆,𝑜 = + 𝑇𝑚,𝑜
𝐴∙ℎ
Example 3:
Given: tube diameter and length, fluid mass flow rate,
constant wall temperature
Find: exit temperature of the fluid
1. Energy balance:
(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐶. 𝑉. 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
+ (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐶. 𝑉. 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
= (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐶. 𝑉. 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝜋𝐷 ∙ ∆𝑥(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇)
𝑞𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑥+∆𝑥 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
2. Rearrange and take the limit as ∆𝑥 → 0
3. Separation of variables—should end with 𝑆𝑡 in
equation
4. To find 𝑅𝑒 and 𝑃𝑟, assume 𝑇𝐿 for a 𝑇𝑓
12
Example 9:
Given: Counterflow, concentric tube heat exchanger;
water used to cool oil; mass flow rate of cooling water;
inlet temperatures; desired outlet temperature of oil;
𝑁𝑢𝐷 value for laminar flow through annulus
Find: 𝐿
1. Draw system schematic and temperature profiles
2. Fluid properties. For oil, taken at 𝑇̅; for water, taken at
𝑇̅𝐶,𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑠 > 𝑇𝐶,𝑖
3. Enough info for the hot fluid, so find q:
𝑞 = 𝑚̇ℎ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝐻,𝑖 − 𝑇𝐻,𝑜 )
5. Calculate ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
6. Since the tube wall thickness is negligible:
1
𝑈=
1 1
+
ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜
7. Find ℎ’s. Note: use 𝐷𝑎 for ℎ𝑜
8. Find 𝐿: 𝑞 = 𝑈(𝜋𝐷𝑖 𝐿) ∙ ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
Common Assumptions for Solving Problems:
- Steady-state conditions
- Constant fluid properties
- Negligible heat loss to the surroundings
- Incompressible fluid (liquids ONLY)
- Fully-developed flow conditions at the outlet
- (Unless given info) Tube wall very thin
- (Highly conductive materials, e.g., metals) Uniform
temperature throughout