CHAPTER 2

STRUCTURE OF CELLS AND

ORGANELLES
2.2 CELLULAR COMPONENTS
 CELL MEMBRANE

• A lipoprotein layer that surrounds the cells and organelles.

• Basic structure consists of a bimolecular phospholipids
fluid layer with globular protein units floating, forming a
mosaic pattern.
• The fluidity depends on the length of the fatty acid
chains, their saturation & the amount of cholesterol.
• Made of two layers of phospholipids
a) Head - hydrophilic
b) Tail - hydrophobic
Cholesterol control Carbohydrates acts as receptors for
mechanical stability, chemicals like hormones, adhesion
flexibility & to neighbouring & for immune
permeability. responses.
 Functions of Cell Membrane
▪ Can protects the cells from any reaction happening outside
the cell.
▪ Serves as boundary between the cell and environment.
▪ Can controls the passage of substances in and out. (e.g.
protein channels – allow only specific polar molecules).
▪ Act as receptor sites in recognising external stimuli. (e.g.
hormone and antigen molecules).
▪ Allow compartmentalisation and division of labour.
▪ Certain membranes can perform special functions :
- light reaction in the internal membranes of chloroplast.
- oxidative phosphorylation in the inner membrane of
mitochondria.
 CELL WALL
Carbohydrate layer of cellulose found outside the plasma
membrane of plant cells.

a) Primary cell wall (Found in young cells and cells that are not
highly differentiated such as meristem, parenchyma &
collenchyma).
• Thin layer, found just outside the plasma membrane of most
plant cells.
• Consist of randomly arranged microfibrils of cellulose in an
amorphous matrix.
• Matrix –made up of complex
polysaccharides (pectins and
hemicellulose).
• Porous, elastic & strong.
b) Secondary cell wall (Harder & usually thicker layer, formed
between the plasma membrane and primary cell wall).

• The fibrils are arranged in layers of parallel rows, which are

perpendicular to those of upper or lower layers.
• The matrix is impregnated with lignin, forming a hard and
impervious layer.
 Functions of Cell Wall

▪ Protects cell from physical injuries & haemolysis.

▪ Supports plant through cell turgidity or mechanical
strength.
▪ Form a system of transport pathways for water &
mineral ions.
▪ Controls excessive loss of water (waxy cuticle on the
surface).
▪ Provides food storage in the form of hemicellulose in
some seeds.
▪ Provides large surface area to volume ratio in root
hair cells where absorption can take place.
 CYTOPLASM

• Is protoplasmic part of the cell, which is outside the

nucleus and surrounded by the plasma membrane.
• The cytoplasm in plant cell usually referred as
protoplast excluding the sap vacuole.
• The pH is 6.8 ± 0.2.
• Has a considerable high density with a variety of
solutes.
• Can be divided into cytosol (ground substance) &
cytoskeleton (cell inclusion).
 CYTOSOL
• The soluble part of cytoplasm.
• The solutes can be divided into three groups.
• Micromolecules such as gases & mineral ions
True
solutes or • Mesomolecules such as monosaccharides,
crystalloids disaccharides, amino acids, organic acids,
nucleotides & vitamins.

• Include macromolecules such as proteins,

Colloids
glycogen in liver & muscle tissues.

Particles, • Include glycogen granules, starch granules, fine

droplets & fats droplets & minute vesicles which contain
vesicles liquid.
 Function of Cytosol

▪ Stores vital chemicals including fats.

▪ Site for certain metabolic pathways such as
glycolysis, synthesis of fatty acids, amino acids &
proteins.
▪ Enables organelles to move about in it (include
mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, lysosomes &
vacuoles.
 CYTOSKELETON

• Determine the 3D shape (animal cells) & give certain

firmness (plant cells).

• The fine fibrils divided into three types:

a) Microtubules
b) Microfilaments
c) Intermediate filaments
a) Microtubules

• Fine, unbranched tubules.

• Usually stable (some may be unstable as they can
change their length suddenly).
• The spindle fibres are microtubules.

Functions:
▪ Form cytoskeleton that determines the shape
▪ Divide the cytoplasm into compartments
(specialised enzymes can isolated from others to
function better).
▪ Pull chromosomes or chromatids during mitosis or
meiosis.
b) Microfilaments

• Fine filaments made of protein.

• Dynamic, can change length very quickly depend on
the locations & functions.
• Exists in bundles & normally found in layers in the
cytoplasm.

Functions:
▪ Cause membrane invagination & evagination during
endocytosis & exocytosis.
▪ Cause protrusion of pseudopodium.
▪ Assist in the cleavage process during cytokinesis in
animal cells after nuclear division.
d) Intermediate filaments

• Bigger than microfilaments but smaller than

microtubules.
• Very stable & branched, forming a network of
cytoskeleton.
• Has own arrangement & types of protein.

Functions:
▪ Maintain the shape of cell.
▪ Distribute the organelles & support them in the
cytoplasm.
▪ Help some specialised cells to perform the functions.
 NUCLEUS
• The largest organelle & function to control all activities
of the cell.
• Spherical or oval in shape (cylindrical or lobed in
white blood cells) – shape can later be changed.

• Can be divided into :

a) Nuclear envelope
b) Nucleoplasm
c) Nucleolus
d) Chromosome
a) Nuclear envelope

• Double lipoprotein membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

• Smooth outer membrane, may have ribosomes &
continuous with the ER membrane.
• Smooth inner membrane, no ribosome & not folded.
• Disappears at prophase & reappears at the end of telophase.
• There are nuclear pores in
the envelope (relatively big,
specifically for the transport
RNA & ribosome subunits
from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm).
• There is a perinuclear space
between the outer & inner
membrane of the envelope.
Functions of nuclear envelope:

▪ Protects the inner structure especially the chromatin.

▪ Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm so the
reactions occur in the nucleus are not affected by
those of the cytoplasm.
▪ Controls the shape of the nucleus (provides 3D
space for processes such as synthesis of DNA & RNA).
▪ Controls the passage of substances like ribosomes &
RNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
b) Nucleoplasm (nuclear sap/karyoplasm)

• Part of protoplasm inside the nucleus, separated by

nuclear envelope.
• Have the same composition as cytoplasm (mainly
water with crystalloids & dissolved colloids) & has
DNA, histone & pentoses that not found in cytoplasm.
• Contains various enzymes for metabolism including
that for glycolysis, Krebs cycle, phosphorylation & the
synthesis of NAD, replication & transcription of DNA.
c) Nucleolus

• Spherical structure, site for ribosomes synthesis.

• Location not fixed (center or on one site of the
nucleus), shape can change.
• One nucleolus per nucleus (in rare cases, there can be
two per nucleus).
• Has three region (region with chromosomes/DNA,
with fibrils, with granules)
• The nuclear membrane disappears during prophase
and reappears during telophase.
d) Chromosomes

• Formed from DNA & histone during metaphase.

• No shape & not organised during interphase. Exist of
chromatin, long DNA molecules with certain part
attached with histone.
• The chromosome shapes vary during the cell cycle.
• Therefore, the shapes are determined by the positions of
centromere.
The structural organisation of chromosome:
• During prophase, each DNA molecule winds around a group of
8 histone molecules, forming a complex unit called
nucleosome. During interphase, a certain amount of DNA forms
nucleosomes, & the genes are inactivated.
• 6 such nucleosomes may coil regularly to form secondary
structure (form compact chromatid).

Functions of Chromosomes:
▪ Control all the activities
of the cell.
▪ Enables genes to be passed
down from one generation
to the next generation.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• ER is a network of flattened sacs & tubules that
interconnect to form a complex structure in the cytoplasm
for internal transport of substances
• Each flattened sac or tubule is called cisternae.
• ER membrane is the typical lipoprotein type (not folded
& the proteins on both sides are on different types).
• The content of cisternae is a sol matrix.
• The outside of cisternae form a complex network of inter
cisternal space (same composition as cytoplasm but with
microfilaments attached on its outer membrane to
maintain the ER shape).
• ER membrane may connect to the outer membrane of
nucleus, which may continue to expand.
• ER size depends on the type of cell.
a) Rough ER
Have a lot of ribosomes attached to its outer surface.

Functions:
▪ Produces proteins such as digestive enzymes
▪ Transport proteins to smooth ER or to the Golgi apparatus
through sacs pinched off from the surface membrane.
b) Smooth ER
• Have little or no ribosome on the surface.
• Embedded on the inner surface of the membrane.

Functions:
▪ Produces & transports lipids, sex hormones and in the brain
cells (animal cells).
▪ Detoxifies drugs & toxins with the help of enzymes (liver
cells).
▪ Involved in the storage & transport of calcium ions (striated
muscles).
▪ Forms cellulose, hemicellulose & pectin – transports them to
the central plate to form new cross walls after mitosis
(meristem cells)
▪ Forms lysosomes – vesicles that use for internal transport &
reactions.
 Mitochondria
• The ‘power house’ of the cell, where energy in the
form of ATP is formed.
• Each mitochondrion can divide to form two
mitochondria (happens when the cells become active
or just before cell division).
• Usually spherical, oval or sausage-shaped
(shape is changeable).
• Have an envelope with
liquid matrix.
• The envelope made up
of two layers of lipoprotein
membranes.
 Function of Mitochondria

▪ Carry out Krebs cycle (part of cellular respiration

within their matrices).
▪ Carry out oxidation & complete breakdown of fatty
acids (into CO2 & H2O to produce ATP) & amino
acids.
▪ Carry out oxidative phosphorylation (produces
ATP from ADP & phosphate.
▪ Produce their own proteins (required for the
oxidative process) from DNA with the help of RNA.
 GOLGI APPARATUS
• Consists of a stack of flattened sacs, which produce vesicles full
of secretion for internal or external uses.
• Found in large number in glandular cells, neurones, muscle
tissues, root cap cells & meristems.
• Formed from ER.
• Each consists of a stack of flattened sacs called cisternae,
which rough & circular with a network of tubules around their
periphery.
• Vesicles can bud off carrying secretion of protein, glycoprotein
or lipid (the whole cisternae can be completely budded off as
vesicles).
• The membrane is of lipoprotein type (form new cisterna at
one side & budded off completely on the other side).
• Microfilaments bind the cisternae to keep them in a stack.
 Functions of Golgi apparatus

• Forms lysosomes through the budding of larger

vesicles or fusion of several smaller ones.
• Processes proteins transported from ER to form
glycoprotein before it packaged into vesicles to be
exported from the cell.
• Packs digestive enzymes and export it to glandular
cells.
• Produces cell wall materials in vesicles.
• Can process lipids to form glycolipids, package,
transport and store them within the cells.
• Exerts some forms of control over internal transport of
vesicles.
 LYSOSOMES

• Spherical vesicles that contain digestive hydrolases.

• It is spherical shape, bound by a layer of lipoprotein
membrane
• Found in cells that carry out endocytosis.
• The size varies from 0.1 to 0.5 µm.
• The membrane is the usually single layer of
lipoprotein but the enzymes it carry do not digest it.
• Their content is acidic, homogeneus in nature and
contain many types of hydrolases.
 Funstions of Lysosomes

▪ It can digest foreign substances or cells that are

endocytosised.
▪ It certain bond such as that of thyroglobulin.
▪ It can carry out autophagy, old or worn out
organelles are digested
by their digestive
enzymes.
▪ Export enzymes by
exocytosis.
▪ Carry out autolysis in
which whole cell are
digested for rebuilding
new tissue.
 RIBOSOMES
• Exists freely in the cytoplasm or on the surface of rough
ER.
• Found in all cells particularly cells that produce a lot of
proteins.
• Their number is not fixed. It is found in large numbers in
the glandular cell that produces a lot of proteins and its
numbers can increase.
• Spheroid in shape, consisting
of two subunits in which one
is larger than the other.
• The subunits can be attached
to form a bigger functional
units in presence of
magnesium ion.
 Function of Ribosomes

▪ Provide the site for the formation of peptide bonds in

which amino acids are joined to form polypeptide or
protein.
▪ The subunits can form a complex with mRNA.
▪ Two site are found on the surface where two tRNAs
will each bring an amino acid to the corresponding
site, matching the codons of mRNA to that of the anti-
codon of the tRNA.
▪ Therefore, ribosomes can read the codons on the
mRNA & join specific sequence of amino acid to form
specific protein.
 CHLOROPLASTS
• Plastids, contain chlorophyll & carry out photosynthesis.
• Found in the green part of plant (e.g. mesophyll cells of
leaves & parenchyma on young stems).
• Consists two layers of lipoprotein membranes that smooth,
no foldings & granules.
• Internal membrane system (thylakoid system) within a
liquid called stroma.
• There are channels called
inter-granal lamella
(connects one thylakoid
of a granum to another
granum).
a) Stroma contains a collodial sol where enzymatic
reactions that require no light to take place.

Contains the followings:

• Enzymes
• End products of photosynthesis are usually attached
to lamellae (sucrose, starch & fat droplets).
• Intermediate compound (organic acids,
phosphorylated monosaccharides & their acids).
 Functions of Chloroplasts

▪ Carry out photosynthesis.

▪ Use membrane of thylakoids and lamellae to trap
lights and convert them to chemical energy in the
form of ATP.
▪ The ATP use to perform the fixation of CO2 to
become organic compounds in stroma.
▪ DNA & the protein synthetic system in the chloroplasts
produces specific proteins used in photosynthesis.
▪ Can divide especially in their premature protoplastid
stage in the meristem, mature chloroplasts do divide.
 CENTRIOLS (centrosome)
• Found in all animal cells except nerve cells (also found in
fungal & algal cells).
• Cylindrical in shapes & arranged perpendicular to one another.
• Each is made up of 9 triplets of microtubules.

• Centrioles organise the formation of

spindle fibres.
 VACUOLES
Vacuoles are sacs with lipoprotein membrane.

1) Sap or central vacuole

• Found in plant cells.

• Small & numerous in young plant
cells but big & can occupy 90% of
the volume of matured plant cells.
• Contains water, sucrose, amino acids & some mineral ions
(especially in excess or wastes such as silicates).
• Stores water & mineral ions (can balance water potential
when required & acts as a store for waste products).
• Saps vacuoles in mesophyll cells push the chloroplasts to the
edges (can receive maximum amount of light).
2) Food vacuole

• Found in cells that perform endocytosis such as phagocytic white

blood cells & protozoans.
• Contain bacteria, organic particles
& dissolved proteins.
• A place for food digestion
(any undigested food is
egested through the plasma
membrane).

3) Contractile vacuole

• Found in freshwater protozoans.

• Spherical in shape, able to absorb water & contract, forcing water
out through the membrane.
• Acts as an osmoregulatory mechanism to get rid of excess water in
freshwater protozoans.
 DIFFERENTIAL CENTRIFUGATION

• A technique of separating cell components, including

macromolecules using a centrifuge.
• Centrifuge uses centrifuging force equivalent to
many times that of gravitational force (g) to spin
down cell components of different S values
(sedimentation units) step
by step.
• Futher differential centrifuge
is ultra-centrifugation
using force with more than
100,000 times gravity.
 Animal tissues
Step by step cell
Homogenisation fractionation
Homogenete
Centrifugation at 600 g for 10 minutes

Nuclei & Supernatant

unbroken cells
Centrifugation at 10,000 g for 20 minutes

Mitochondria, ER & Supernatant

Golgi bodies
Centrifugation at 100,000 g
for 60 minutes

Ribosomes, microtubules Nucleic acids &

& microfilaments proteins
The method & precautions are as follows:

▪ The space within the ultracentrifuge should be

vacuumed to avoid any friction between the tubes &
the air.
▪ The temperature has to be lowered.
▪ Gel is added to stop the molecule at certain levels in
the tube.
▪ Dye is added to the mixture to detect separation.