A. P.

CALCULUS BC FORMULA BOOKLET

GRAPHING CALCULATORS

Each student will be expected to bring to the examination a graphing calculator on which the student
can:

1. produce the graph of a function within an arbitrary viewing window;

2. find the zeros of a function;
3. compute the derivative of a function numerically, and
4. compute definite integrals numerically.

Pay special attention to calculator syntax; i.e., placement of parentheses, commas, variables, and order of
operations. Important functions include graph, root, solve, nDeriv, and fnInt.

CALCULATORS should be in RADIAN MODE.

CONTINUITY: The function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = c if

1) f (c) is a finite number;

2) x → c f (x) exists;
lim
3) lim f (x) = f (c) .
x→c

DIFFERENTIABILITY: The function is continuous at x = c.

DIFFERENTIABILITY IMPLIES CONTINUITY,

BUT CONTINUITY DOES NOT IMPLY DIFFERENTIABILITY.

LIMITS: ZEROS IN NUMERATOR/DENOMINATOR OF A FRACTION

("c" is a constant.)

0
Zero (Root) =0
c
c
Vertical Asymptote = ± ∞(= D.N.E.)
0
0
Point of Exclusion (Removable Discontiuity) (= undefined)
0

1
 f (x + h ) − f (x) ' f (x ) − f (a)
DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION: f ' (x) = lim or f (a) = lim
h→ 0 h x→a x−a

DIFFERENTIATION RULES:
(Where "u" and "v" are differentiable functions of x, and "a" is a constant.)

d du d du dv
au = a • (u + v ) = +
dx dx dx dx dx
d n du d
u = n un−1 • a=0
dx dx dx

du dv
d dv du
(uv) = u • + v • d ⎛ u ⎞ v • dx − u • dx
dx dx dx =
dx ⎝ v ⎠ v2

dy dy du
CHAIN RULE: = •
dx du dx

d du d du
sin u = cos u cosu = − sinu
dx dx dx dx

d du d du
tan u = sec 2 u cotu = − csc2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
secu = secu tanu cscu = − cscu cotu
dx dx dx dx

d 1 du d u du d u du
ln u = e = eu a = a u ln a
dx u dx dx dx dx dx
du du
−
d d
sin −1 u = dx 2 cos−1 u = dx
dx 1− u dx 1− u 2

du du
−
d d
tan −1 u = dx 2 cot −1 u = dx2
dx 1+ u dx 1+ u
du du
−
d dx d dx
sec−1 u = csc−1 u =
dx u u2 − 1 dx u u2 − 1

2
RELATIVE EXTREMA:

Critical Value (x-coordinate of an Extreme)

a is a critical value of f(x) iff f(a) is in the domain and
i) f'(a)=0
ii) f'(a)=does not exist
or iii) a is an endpoint of the domain of f(x)

1st Derivative Test

f'(a) = 0 and sign pattern switches - to + ⇒⇒⇒ f(a) is a relative minimum .

f'(a) = 0 and sign pattern switches + to - ⇒⇒⇒ f(a) is a relative maximum.
f'(a) = 0 and sign pattern does not switch ⇒⇒⇒ f(a) is not an extreme.

2nd Derivative Test

f'(a) = 0 and f ''(a) > 0 ⇒⇒⇒ f has a relative minimum at x = a.

f'(a) = 0 and f ''(a) < 0 ⇒⇒⇒ f has a relative maximum at x = a.

Conclusion Chart

Signf(x) f'(x) f''(x)

+ Curve above x-axis Increasing Concave Up

0 x-intercept (zero) Critical value POI

- Curve below x-axis Decreasing Concave Down

Concave Up Concave Down

Increasing

3
Decreasing

4
VELOCITY: ACCELERATION:

dv dv ds dv
a= = • =v•
ds dt ds dt ds
V= 2
dt d s
a= 2
dt
i) If v > 0 and a > 0, the speed is increasing.
ii) If v > 0 and a < 0, the speed is decreasing.
iii) If v < 0 and a > 0, the speed is decreasing. ( Note: speed = v(t ) )
iv) If v < 0 and a < 0, the speed is increasing.

DISTANCE: If v = f (t ) , the distance traveled by a body between t = a and t = b is given by

b
∫ a
f (t ) dt
(Be careful. Does the object change directions between a and b?)

EQUATION OF A TANGENT LINE:

y − y1 = f ' (x1 ) • (x − x1 )

EQUATION OF A NORMAL LINE:

⎡ 1 ⎤
y − y1 = ⎢ − • (x − x1 )
⎣ f ' (x1 ) ⎥⎦

TANGENTS (function must exist at xi )

Vertical tangents: f ' (xi ) does not exist
Horizontal tangents: f ' (xi ) = 0

LINEAR APPROXIMATION The linear approximation to f (x ) near x = xo is given by

y = y o + f ' (xo )⋅ (x − xo ) for x sufficiently close to xo .

EULER'S METHOD ("Numerical Solutions to a Differential Equation")

Iterative use of the Linear Approximation with a given step value.

y1 = y 0 + f ' (xo )⋅ (x1 − x o )

y 2 = y1 + f ' (x1 )⋅ (x 2 − x1 )
y 3 = y2 + f ' (x 2 )⋅ (x3 − x 2 )
etc.
5
6
INVERSES: To find the inverse of y = f(x), solve for x in terms of y, then interchange x and y.

f [ f −1 (x )] = x and f −1 [ f (x )] = x

1 dx 1
(f )' (d ) =
−1

f ' (c)
or
dy
= dy
dx

MEAN-VALUE THEOREM (SPECIAL CASE -- ROLLE'S THEOREM): If the function f(x) is

continuous at each point on the closed interval a < x < b and has a derivative at each point on the open
interval a < x < b, then there is at least one number c, a < c < b, such that

f(b) − f(a)
f ' (c) =
b−a

y'=0

a c b
a c b
ROLLE'S THEOREM
MEAN VALUE THEOREM
⎛⎜ f(b) − f(a) ⎞⎟
"Where average velocity meets instantaneous velocity (f ' (c))."
⎝ b − a ⎠

ABSOLUTE-VALUE THEOREM:

⎧ x, if x ≥ 0
f (x) = x = ⎨
⎩− x, if x < 0

GREATEST-INTEGER THEOREM:

g(x) = [x] is the greatest integer not greater than x.

e.g. g(5.2) = 5, g(-1.5) = -2, g(1) = 1

DIRECT VARIATION: y = kx (" y " is directly proportional to " x ")

7
 k
INVERSE VARIATION: y= or xy = k (" y " is inversely proportional to " x ")
x

REFLECTIONS:

The graph of y = − f (x ) is the reflection of y = f (x ) in the x-axis;

2 2
eg. y = x ; y = −x

whereas the graph of y = f (−x ) is the reflection of the graph of y = f (x ) in the y-axis.
eg. y = x ; y = −x

ODD/EVEN FUNCTIONS:
EVEN: f (− x ) = f (x )
ODD: f (− x ) = − f (x )
e. g. Even function:y = x2 or y = cosx
3
Odd function: y = x or y = sin x

SYMMETRY:
w.r.t. x-axis .... equivalent equations when y replaced by -y
w.r.t. y-axis .... equivalent equations when x replaced by -x
w.r.t. origin .... equivalent equations when x replaced by -x
and y replaced by -y

RELATIONSHIPS between the graphs of and the graphs of y = f (x ) and the graphs of
y = kf (x ), y = f (kx), y − k = f (x − h), y = f (x ), and y = f ( x ).

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS:

y = loga x iff a y = x
y = ln x iff e y = x

⎧ln(ab) = lna + lnb a b

⎪ ⎛ a ⎞ ln1 = 0 x a ⋅ x b = x a +b x b
= xa
⎪ ln⎝ b ⎠ = lna − lnb lne = 1 xa
PROPERTIES: ⎨ = x a −b xo = 1
r x
lne = x xb
⎪ lna = r • lna a b 1
⎪ loga x = ln x e ln x = x (x ) = x ab x− a =
xa
⎩ lna
x dt
NATURAL LOGARITHM: ln x = ∫ 1
t
8
9
EQUATIONS FOR EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY: Equations of the form y ' = ky are
solved as.

A = Ao e kt or A = Ao e rt

LAWS OF LOGISTIC GROWTH : Equations of the form y ' = ky(A − y).

A
y=
1 + Be−kt

⎛⎜ A ⎞⎟
NB. A=the Maximum Capacity and the POI x, is the moment of maximum growth.
⎝ 2 ⎠

SLOPE FIELDS

Tips associating the slope field to a particular Differential Equation:

dy
1) Horizantal Dashes → =0
dx

dy
2) Dashes \ →
dx
<0

dy
3) Dashes / →
dx
>0

dy
4) All Dashes in any column // to each other → has no y
dx
dy
5) All Dashes in any row // to each other → has no x
dx

10
INTEGRATION FORMULAS:

∫ f (x) dx = F(x) + C, where F ' (x) = f (x)

d x

∫ f (t) dt = f (x) [First Fundamental Theorem]

dx a

d u
Remember the Chain Rule!!!:
dx ∫ a
f (t) dt = f (u) ⋅ Du

∫ a
f (x) dx = F(b) − F(a), where F ' (x) = f (x) [Second Fundamental Theorem]

n u n+1 du
∫ u du = n +1
+ C, n ≠ −1 ∫ u
= ln u + C

u u u au
∫ e du = e + C ∫ a du = + C, (a > 0, a ≠ 1)
ln a

∫ sin u du = − cos u + C ∫ cosu du = sinu + C

2 2
∫ sec u du = tan u + C ∫ csc u du = − cotu + C

∫ sec u • tan u du = secu + C ∫ csc u • cot u du = − cscu + C

∫ secu du = ln sec u + tan u + C

2 1 1 2 1 1
∫ sin u du = 2 u − 4 sin 2u + C ∫ cos u du = 2 u + 4 sin 2u + C
du ⎛ u du 1 ⎛ u
∫ 22
= sin −1 ⎝ ⎞⎠ + C ∫a 2 2 = • tan −1 ⎝ ⎞⎠ + C
a −u a +u a a

Integration by Parts: ∫ u dv = uv −∫ v du

11
Integral Boundary Rules
a
∫ f (x ) dx = 0
a
b a

∫ f (x ) dx = − ∫ b f (x ) dx
a

b c c
∫ f (x ) dx + ∫ f (x ) dx = ∫ f (x ) dx
a b a
b b
If f (x ) ≤ g(x ) on [a,b], then ∫ a f (x ) dx ≤ ∫ a g(x ) dx
AVERAGE (MEAN) VALUE: If the function y = f ( x ) is continuous on the interval a < x < b, then the
average or mean value of y with respect to x over the interval [a,b] is
1 b
(yav )x = ∫ f (x) dx
b− a a

12
AREA APPROXIMATIONS

RIEMANN SUMS
n
A = lim
n → +∞
∑ f (c ) Δx
i
i=1
b
A = ∫ a f (x ) dx

Left-Hand Rectangles Midpoint Rectangles Right-Hand Rectangles

TRAPEZOIDAL RULE:
b b−a
∫ a
f (x) dx ≈
2n
[f (x 0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 )+....+ 2 f (xn −1 ) + f (xn )]

AREA FORMULAS

b d
Function: A = ∫ a [ f (x) − g(x)] dx or A = ∫ c [ f (y) − g(y)] dy

1 β 2
Polar: A= ∫
2 α
[r (θ)] dθ

Parametric: Eliminate the parameter:

i) isolate the parameter in one equation, and
ii) substitute into the other equation
and then use the Function formula

13
VOLUME
SOLIDS WITH KNOWN CROSS SECTIONS (SLICING)

b d
V = ∫ a A (x )dx or V = ∫ c A(y )dy

CIRCULAR DISK METHOD (rectangles perpendicular and attached)

b 2 d 2
V = π ∫ a [R(x) ] dx or V = π ∫ c [R(y)] dy

CIRCULAR RING/WASHER METHOD (rectangles perpendicular and not attached)

b d
{ 2
V = π ∫ a [R(x)] − [r(x)] dx or
2
} { 2
V = π ∫ c [R(y)] − [r(y)] dy
2
}
CYLINDRICAL SHELL METHOD (rectangles parallel)

b d
V = 2π ∫ r( x) • h( x) dx or V = 2π ∫ r( y) • h( y) dy
a c

where r(x) or r(y) is the distance from the curve to the axis around which it is rotating

VOLUME REFERENCE:

y
y=6
r(y)=6-y
x=-6
(x,y) x=7
r(x)=x+6 r(x)=7-x

x
r(y)=y+4

y=-4

14
ARC LENGTH:

b 2
⌠ ⎛ dy⎞
Function: L = ⎮ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ dx
⌡a ⎝ dx⎠

β 2
⌠ 2 ⎛ dr ⎞
Polar: L = ⎮ r + ⎜ ⎟ dθ
⌡α ⎝ dθ ⎠

b
⌠ ⎛ dx⎞ 2 ⎛ dy ⎞ 2
Parametric: L = ⎮ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ dt
⌡a ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠

PARAMETRIC, POLAR AND VECTOR FORMS

dy dy'
dy d 2y
Parametric: = dxdt (a function in t ) and 2 = dx
dt
dx dt dx dt
dx
Vertical Tangent: =0
dt

dy
Horizontal Tangent: =0
dt

Area: Eliminate the parameter and use the Function formula

b
⌠ ⎛ dx⎞ 2 ⎛ dy⎞ 2
Arc length: L = ⎮ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ dt
⌡a ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠

1 β 2
Polar: Area: A= ∫
2 α
[r (θ)] dθ

β 2
⌠ ⎛ dr ⎞
Arc Length: L = ⎮ r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ dθ
⌡α ⎝ dθ ⎠

Parametric Polar: x(θ ) = r ⋅ cos θ and y(θ) = r ⋅sin θ

Vector: Velocity v = x' (t ) i + y' (t ) j

2 2
Speed= v = [x' (t)] + [y' (t )]

15
HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES (Maximum Capacity) and LIMITS AT INFINITY

Lim f (x) or Lim f (x)

x→ ∞ x→ −∞


 =


 (
−
)

⎡ f (x) ⎤ 0 ∞
L'Hôpital's Rule: If lim ⎢ is indeterminate of the form or , and if
x →x 0 ⎣ g(x) ⎦⎥ 0 ∞
⎡ f ' (x) ⎤ ⎡ f (x) ⎤ ⎡ f ' (x) ⎤
lim ⎢ exists, then lim = lim .
x →x 0 ⎣ g ' (x) ⎥
⎦ x →x 0 ⎢
⎣ g(x) ⎥⎦ x→ x 0 ⎢⎣ g ' (x) ⎥⎦

IMPROPER INTEGRALS

∞
1. Boundary at infinity: ∫ f (x )dx = lim [F(b ) − F(a )]
a b→∞

b c

∫ f (x )dx = lim− ∫ f (x)dx

a c→ b a
2. Boundary is a Veritical Asymptote: b
or = lim+ ∫ f (x)dx
c→ a c

b c b
3. Region includes a Vertical Asymptote at x=c: ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ a f(x)dx + ∫ c f (x)dx
a

16
TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS

f' ' (a )(x − a )2 f'' ' (a )(x − a )3 f n (a )(x − a )n

f (x ) = f (a ) + f' (a )(x − a ) + + + ⋅⋅ ⋅+ + R  (x )


2! 3! n!

f n+1(c )(x − c )n+1

where R  (x ) = for some c ∈ (x, a )


(n + 1)!

McLauren series=Taylor Series where a=0

SERIES OF KNOWN FUNCTIONS

y = sin x =

x2 x4 x6 (−1)n x 2n ∞
(−1)n x2n
** y = cos x = 1 − + − + ⋅ ⋅⋅ + + ⋅⋅⋅ = ∑
2! 4! 6! (2n ) ! 0 (2n) !

y = ex =
∞
1 2 3 n n
y= = 1 + x + x + x + ⋅⋅⋅ + x + ⋅⋅⋅ = ∑ x on − 1 < x < 1
1−x 0
∞
1 2 3 n n n
** y = = 1 − x + x − x + ⋅⋅⋅ + (−x ) + ⋅⋅⋅ = ∑ ( −1) x on − 1 < x < 1
1+x 0

∞
1 2n
** y = 2 = 1 − x 2
+ x 4
− x 6
+ ⋅ ⋅⋅ + ( −x) + ⋅ ⋅⋅ = ∑ (−1)n x 2n on − 1 < x < 1
1+x 0

x 3 x5 x 7 (−1)n x 2n+1 ∞
(−1)n x2n +1
−1
** y = tan x = x − + − + ⋅⋅⋅ + + ⋅⋅⋅ = ∑ on − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
3 5 7 2n + 1 0 2n + 1

x 2 x 3 x4 (−1)n xn ∞
(−1)n x n
** y = ln(1+ x) = x − + − + ⋅⋅ ⋅+ + ⋅ ⋅⋅ = ∑ on − 1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4 n 1 n
**These can be derived from the unmarked series.

17
CONVERGENCE/DIVERGENCE

TESTS: Divergence Test (nth term test): If Lim a n ≠ 0 → it diverges.

n→ ∞

If Lim a n = 0 → no conclusion
n→ ∞

a n +1
Cauchy Ratio Test: If Lim < 1 → it converges absolutely
n→ ∞ an
a n +1
If Lim > 1 → it diverges
n→ ∞ an
a n +1
If Lim = 1→ no conclusion
n→ ∞ an
∞
If ∑a n is NOT an Alternating Series:
1
∞
∞
Integral Test: If f(x) is a decreasing function, then ∑a n and ∫ 1
x n dx
1
either both converge or both diverge.
∞ ∞
Comparison Test: If ∑b n converges and a n ≤ bn , then ∑ a n converges.
1 1
∞ ∞
If ∑b n diverges and a n ≥ bn , then ∑ a n diverges.
1 1
Limit Comparison Test
an
1. If Lim > 0 → then both converge or both diverge.
n→ ∞ bn

an
2. If Lim
n→ ∞ bn
= 0 and ∑b n converges → then ∑ a n converges .

an
3. If Lim
n→ ∞ bn
= ∞ and ∑b n diverges → then ∑ a n diverges .

The nth Root Test: Suppose Lim n a n = p . Then,

n→ ∞

1. if p<1, ∑a n converges

2. if p>1, ∑a n diverges

3. if p=1, no conclusion

18
 ∞
If ∑a n IS an Alternating Series:
1
∞ ∞
n+1
Alternating Series Definition: ∑ (−1) a n or ∑ a n cos πn
1 0

∞
n+1
Liebnitz Alternating Series Test: ∑ (−1) a n converges if
1
1. all a n are positive,

2. a n ≥ a n +1 ,

and 3. Lim a n = 0
n→ ∞

Absolute Convergence vs Conditional Convergence (only applies to Alternating Series)

∑a n is absolutely convergent if ∑ a n converges.

∑a n is conditionally convergent if ∑a n converges but ∑ a n diverges.

RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE

a n +1 (x − a)n+1
R is the radius of convergence when Lim < 1 leads to x − a < R
n→ ∞ a n (x − a)n

INTERVAL OF CONVERGENCE

Solve x − a < R (from the Radius of Convergence) and test convergence at the endpoints

SPECIAL LIMITS (for comparison)

sin x 1− cos x ex − 1
lim =1 lim =0 lim =1
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x

ln n 1
lim =0 lim n n = 1 lim x n = 1
n →∞ n n →∞ n →∞

x ⎞ n xn
lim xn = 0, if x <1 ⎛
lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = ex lim =0
n →∞ n →∞ ⎝ n ⎠ n →∞ n!

19
KNOWN SERIES (for comparison)

∞
n a
Geometric Series: ∑ ar --converges to
1−r
for r<1
1
--diverges for r≥1

∞
1
p-series: ∑n p --converges for p>1
1
--diverges for p≤1

∞
1 1 1 1
Harmonic Series: ∑ n = 1+ 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋅ ⋅⋅ Diverges
1

∞
(−1)n+1 1 1 1
Alternating Harmonic Series: ∑ n
= 1− + − + ⋅ ⋅⋅
2 3 4
Converges conditionally
1

Telescoping Series: Any series that can be simplified by Partial Fractions such that consecutive
⎛ ∞
1 ⎞
terms add to 0, leaving only the first and last terms ⎜ e.g.,
⎝
∑ n(n + 1)⎟⎠
1

It will generally converge, by the integral Test and partial fractions.

20
absolute convergence convergent sequence
absolute minimum convergent series
absolute maximum coordinate axes
acceleration cosecant function
acceleration vector cosine function
algebraic function cotangent function
alternating series critical point
amplitude critical value
antiderivative cross-sectional area
antidifferentiation decay model
arc length decreasing function
arccosine decreasing on an interval
arcsine definite integral
arctangent degree
asymptote delta notation
average rate of change derivative
axis of rotation difference quotient
axis of symmetry differentiability
base (exponential and log) differential
bounded above differential equation
bounded below differentiation
bounded discontinuity
cartioid disk method
Cartesian Coordinate System distance (from velocity)
Chain Rule distance formula
circle divergent improper integral
circular functions divergent sequence
closed interval [a,b] divergent series
coefficient domain
Comparison Test dummy variable of integration
complex number dy/dx (leitniz notation)
components of a vector e
composition f ° g ellipse
concave down end behavior
concave up endpoint extrema
conditional convergence essential discontinuity
conic section Euler's Method
constant function even function
constant of integration exponential function
continuity at a point exponential growth and decay
continuity on an interval exponential laws
continuous function extremum
convergent improper integral factorial

21
First Derivative Test L'Hopital's Rule
Frequency of a periodic function limit
function limt at infinity
Fundemental Theorem of Calculus limit of integration
geometric sequence linear approximation
geometric series linear function
graph local extrema
growth models local linearity
growth rate local linearization
half-life logarithmic function
harmonic series logarithmic laws
hyperbola logistic equation
imaginary number logistic growth
implicit differentiation lower bound
improper integral Maclaurin series
increasing function maximum
increasing on an interval mean value
increment Mean Value Theorem
indefinite integral midpopint formula
indterminate form minimum
infinite limit monotonic
inflection point motion
initial condition natural log
initial value problem Newton, Isaac
inscribed rectangle non-removable discontinuity
instantaneous rate of change normal line
instantaneous velocity numerical derivative
integer numerical integration
integrable function odd function
integrand one-to-one function
integration by partial fractions open interval (a,b)
integration by parts optimization
integration by substitution order of a derivative
Intermediate Value Theorem origin
interval parabola
interval of convergence parallel curves
inverse function parameter
irrational number parametric curve
Lagrange Error Bound partial fractions
Law of Cosines partial sum of a series
Law of Sines partition of an interval
left-hand limit percentage error
left-hand sum period
Leibniz, Gottfried periodic function

22
perpendicular curves sine function
piece-wise defined functions slope
polar coordinates slope field
polynomial solid (in 3-space)
position function solid of revolution
position vector speed
power series sphere
prime notation f'(x) subset
Product Rule symmetry
proportionality tangent function
p-series tangent line
quadrant tangent vector
quadratic formula Taylor polynomial
Quotient Rule Taylor series
radian term of a sequence or series
radius of a circle transcendental function
radius of convergence Trapezoidal Rule
range truncation error for power series
rate of change trigonometric functions
rational function unit circle
Ratio Test unit vector
real number upper bound
rectangular coordinates u-substitution
region (in a plane) vector
related rates vertex
relative error viewing window
relative maximum volume by slicing
relative minimum x-axis
removable discontinuity x-intercept
Rhiemann sum y-axis
right-hand limit y-intercept
right-hand sum zero of a function
root of an equation
roundoff error
scalar
secant function
secant line
second derivative
Second Derivative Test
separable differential equation
sequence
series
set
sigma notation

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