Elyrose Brianne T.

Galang

STEM 12 – A

Eggshell Powder, Mussel Shell Powder and Coconut Husk Ash as Alternative Concrete Cement

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents a review of related literature. Different literature related to the study

were read and analyzed in order to gain a deeper view of the topic under study.

Eggshell

According to Axe (2018), eggshell have three distinct layers. The first layer is the hard,

chalky substance composed almost entirely of calcium carbonate crystals. These crystals form the

curvature that gives the eggshell its shape. Although the eggshell is hard, it is actually a semi-

permeable membrane, allowing air and moisture to past through the almost 17,000 tiny pores

which cover its surface. The shell also has a very fine, outermost coating called the bloom or

cuticle. The bloom serves as a screen, preventing dust and bacteria from passing through the pores

and damaging the rest of the egg.

Furthermore, the other two layers of the eggshell are called the inner and outer membranes.

These smooth, transparent membranes are composed of proteins and are both flexible and strong.

Working together, the inner and outer membranes defend the egg yolk against bacterial invasion.

One of the proteins that make up these layers is keratin, the same protein found in rhinoceros horn

and human hair.

Moreover, Abdulrahman et. al (2014) suggested that the recycling of chicken eggshells is

a way of improving the ecosphere; it reduces the need of management of waste and the eggshells
can serve as useful raw materials for nanomaterials. It represents almost 11% of the egg total

weight. Calcium carbonate (calcite) is the main component in eggshells and is the major inorganic

substance found in an egg and it makes up about 94% of chemical composition of eggshell. This

makes it an essential material for hydroxyapatite production. Others are organic matter which

makes up 4%, magnesium carbonate (1%), and calcium phosphate (1%) as well as insoluble

proteins. The calcite is the most stable form of calcium carbonate; it forms elongated structures

called columns, palisades, or crystallite. Calcification of eggshell is regarded as one of the most

rapid known processes of biomineralization and the bulk of mineral found within the eggshell is

calcite with a needle like hydroxyapatite in small amounts found in the inner cuticle.

Mussel Shell

According to Brite (2017), mussels are a shellfish, commonly found in seafood dishes and

distinctive for their oblong shape. Mussels can be found in lakes, ponds, rivers and streams around

the world. Mussel shells are almost always wedge shaped or asymmetrical. The shells are usually

much longer than wide. These wide shells come in two halves that close and inside contain the

mussel meat. These two halves are hinged to open and close and stay connected in the center with

a hinge. The two sides are called “valves” and are closed by a ligament. The shells are dark colored,

usually blue or brown on the outside. Inside, a mussel show is lighter colored, silver. The shells

often have a pearl glow on the inside. Shells protect mussels from predators and support the soft

tissue found inside.

In addition, mussels are either male or female. Fertilization occurs outside of the mussel.

Larvae then float around from three weeks to six months before settling and becoming a young

mussel. Mussels are found in temperate zones, and less commonly in tropical locations. Some
species live in salt water while others thrive in freshwater. Mussels are found in locations

throughout the world except for polar zones, but need a constant supply of clean water.

Coconut Husk

According to Zafar (2019), coconut husk and shells are an attractive biomass fuel and are

also a good source of charcoal. The major advantage of using coconut biomass as a fuel is that

coconut is a permanent crop and available round the year so there is constant whole year supply.

Activated carbon manufactured from coconut shell is considered extremely effective for the

removal of impurities in wastewater treatment processes.

Moreover, Zafar (2019) discussed that coconut husk has high amount of lignin and

cellulose, and that is why it has a high calorific value of 18.62MJ/kg. The chemical composition

of coconut husks consists of cellulose, lignin, pyroligneous acid, gas, charcoal, tar, tannin, and

potassium. The predominant use of coconut husks is in direct combustion in order to make

charcoal, otherwise husks are simply thrown away. Coconut husk can be transformed into a value-

added fuel source which can replace wood and other traditional fuel sources. In terms of

availability and costs of coconut husk, they have good potential for use in power plants.

Cement

According to Portland Cement Association (2018), cement is manufactured through a

closely controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and other ingredients.

Common materials used to manufacture cement include limestone, shells, and chalk or marl

combined with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore. These ingredients,

when heated at high temperatures form a rock-like substance that is ground into the fine powder

that we commonly think of as cement.

 On the contrary, Rissman (2018) discussed that cement is one of the world’s most-used

building materials, with production reaching 4.3 billion tons/year in 2014 and growing 5 percent

to 6 percent annually. Today, it is responsible for 5.6 percent of global carbon dioxide (CO2)

emissions and a major contributor to climate change — if the cement industry were a country, it

would be the world’s third-largest emitter. To stay below 2 degrees Celsius of global warming,

cement’s carbon intensity must be reduced to near-zero as soon as technically feasible.

Furthermore, carbon emissions contribute to climate change, which can have serious

consequences for humans and their environment. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency, carbon emissions, in the form of carbon dioxide, make up more than 80 percent of the

greenhouse gases emitted in the United States. The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide

and other greenhouse gases. These carbon emissions raise global temperatures by trapping solar

energy in the atmosphere. This alters water supplies and weather patterns, changes the growing

season for food crops and threatens coastal communities with increasing sea levels (Cairoli, 2019).

Eggshell Powder as Alternative Concrete Cement

According to Yong, Chin and Ing (2017), various waste materials are being studied and

utilized as raw materials in concrete production. Recycled materials have been added to concrete

to reduce the amount of post-consumer waste and industrial byproducts entering landfills. Eggshell

is a solid waste generated from chick hatch-eries, bakeries and fast-food restaurants. In Malaysia,

it is reported that approximately 36·5 million eggs are produced daily, and this figure is expected

to increase by 3–5% in 2018. In fact, for every billion eggs produced, 6600 t of high-grade lime

powder could be produced. As an alternative, eggshell could be used as a partial or total substitute

for natural mined limestone. Moreover, the main component of eggshell is calcium carbonate,
which is very similar to cement. Thus, in our ever-increasing efforts to convert waste into wealth,

the efficacy of putting eggshells to beneficial use becomes an idea worth embracing.

In addition, few attempts have been made in the past by researchers to utilize eggshell

powder. The common salt in eggshell has been used to stabilize lateritic soil in the subgrade during

roadworks (Amu and Salami, 2010). It was additionally found that, while eggshell powder

possesses low binding properties, it significantly improved the strength of the subgrade soil

(Olarewajuet al., 2011). Furthermore, eggshell may be a good accelerator because it provides

additional calcium oxide, which is responsible for expediting both the initial and final setting of

concrete (Mtallib and Rabiu, 2009). During prolonged periods of heavy rain, construction works

may frequently be interrupted and itis thus desirable to minimize the length of the setting time of

the stabilized matrix as much as possible.

Mussel Shell Powder as Alternative Concrete Cement

Ramirez et. al (2017) discussed that seashells are currently taking up a large volume in

landfills. Using the shells in concrete provides a cheaper alternative to increase the strength of

concrete by providing a substance for the cement paste to bond to and provide an environmentally

sustainable method to dispose of the shell waste.

Moreover, Mohammad et. al (2017) stated that the sea shells are high potential materials

to become partial cement replacement and filler in concrete. The calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in

the sea shells is more than 90% and is similar to the contain of calcium carbonate in the limestone

dust that been used in the Portland cement production. Impressively, the crystal structures of

seashells are largely composed of calcite and aragonite, which have higher strengths and density
than limestone powder. Moreover, the particle size of seashells is between 36μm to 75μm and are

similar to the particle size of Portland cement.

Coconut Husk Powder as Alternative Concrete Cement

According to Utsev and Taku (2012), disposal of agricultural waste materials such as

coconut husk have constituted an environmental challenge, hence the need to convert them into

useful materials to minimize their negative effect on the environment. Research indicates that most

materials that are rich in amorphous silica can be used in partial replacement of cement. It has also

been established that amorphous silica found in some pozzolanic materials reacts with lime more

readily than those of crystalline form. Use of such pozzolanas can lead to increased compressive

and flexural strengths.

Moreover, the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) defines Pozzolans as

siliceous or aluminous materials which possess little or no cementitious properties but will, in the

presence of moisture, react with lime [Ca(OH)2] at ordinary temperature to form a compound with

pozzolanic properties. Examples of pozzolans include class C fly ash, which contain more than

10% CaO, blast furnace slag and silica fumes. ASTM C 618 – 78 specifies that any pozzolana that

will be used as a cement binder in concrete requires a minimum of 70 % silica, alumina and ferric

oxides. BS 3892: 1965 parts 1 and 2 specify a maximum loss on ignition of 12%, maximum MgO

content of 4% and SO3 of 2.5% respectively.

All the studies mentioned above were deemed relevant to the present study as these gave

background knowledge and information on the different kinds of waste materials as a component

of alternative concrete cement.

 This study was parallel to the previous study conducted by Axe (2018), Abdulrahman et.

al (2014), Brite (2017), Zafar (2019), Portland Cement Association (2018), Rissman (2018),

Cairoli (2019), Yong, Chin and Ing (2017), Ramirez et. al (2017), Mohammad et. al (2017), Utsev

and Taku (2012) which studied the component of waste materials that can be used as an alternative

materials to produce cement. All these studies found out that eggshell, mussel shell and coconut

husk ash is effective in the production of concrete cement. However, unlike the mentioned

researches, this study will combine the waste materials such as eggshell powder, mussel shell

powder and coconut husk ash to produce an alternative concrete cement. Moreover, this study aims

to lessen the waste from the usually consumed products of people like eggs, mussels and coconuts.

Likewise, this study hoped to unlock new ideas on the utilization of waste materials in production

of concrete cement.