CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the paper

English phonology is the sound system (phonology) of the English language, or

the study of that system. Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and
used in natural languages.Like many languages, English has wide variation in
pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the
regional dialects of English share a largely similar (though not identical) phonological
system.
Our phonological knowledge is not something we can necessarily access and talk
about in detail: we often have intuitions about language without knowing where they
come from, or exactly how to express them. But the knowledge is certainly there.
However, English speakers are not consciously aware of those rules, and are highly
unlikely to tell a linguist asking about those words that the absence of *fnil reflects the
unacceptability of word-initial consonant sequences, or clusters, with [fn-] in English:
the more likely answer is that snil ‘sounds all right’ (and if you’re lucky, your informant
will produce similar words like sniff or snip to back up her argument), but that *fnil ‘just
sounds wrong’. It is the job of the phonologist to express generalisations of this sort in
precise terms: after all, just because knowledge is not conscious, this does not mean
it is unreal, unimportant or not worth understanding.

Phonological rules are part of communication through language, whether spoken or

written, and knowing what they are and why they exist can help us better understand
our world. Understanding phonological rules is considered an important aspect in
teaching English or working with people who have speech problem.
Phonological rules are commonly used in generative phonology as a nation to
capture sound-related operations and computations the human brain perform when
producing or comprehending spoken language. They may use phonetic nation or
distintive feature or both.
 In order to understand the puepose of phonological rules, we need to understand
what a phoneme is. According to the traditional phonological theories a phoneme is
the minimal unit in the sounds system of a language. Phonological rules are the
rules wheter written or spoken that control how sounds change during vocal
communication.
When speakers blur distinctiveness in favor of articulatory ease, they are usually
making sounds more alike. So speaker choose to make the easiest sound, which
most resembles the next sound. That way, they only have to make one oral
constriction for to sounds. The sounds is assimilated in its place of articulation to the
following consonant. This is called assimilation. On the other hand making one
sound more like another is one way of pandering to the speaker.

1.2 Problem Identification

1. What is the definition of Phonology?

2. How to know plural form are pronounced?
3. What is definition of Phonological Rules ?
4. What are kinds of Phonological Rules ?

1.3 Limitation of problems

1. To know what is definition of Phonology.

2. To understand how to pronounce plural form.
3. To know what is definition of Phonological Rules.
4. To know kinds of phonological Rules.
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

2.1 Phonology
Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds
with reference to their distribution and patterning. Adjective: phonological. A linguist who
specializes in phonology is known as a phonologist. Etymologically, Phonology from the
Greek, means "sound, voice".
The aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are
organized in languages and to explain the variations that occur. We begin by analyzing
an individual language to determine which sound units are used and which patterns they
form--the language's sound system. We then compare the properties of different sound
systems, and work out hypotheses about the rules underlying the use of sounds in
particular groups of languages. Ultimately, phonologists want to make statements that
apply to all languages.
Where as phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds, phonology studies
the way in which a language's speakers systematically use a selection of these sounds
in order to express meaning. There is a further way of drawing the distinction. No two
speakers have anatomically identical vocal tracts, and thus no one produces sounds in
exactly the same way as anyone else. Yet when using our language we are able to
discount much of this variation, and focus on only those sounds, or properties of sound,
that are important for the communication of meaning. We think of our fellow speakers as
using the 'same' sounds, even though acoustically they are not. Phonology is the study
of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds.When we talk about the
'sound system' of English, we are referring to the number of phonemes which are used in
a language and to how they are organized.
Phonology is not only about phonemes and allophones. Phonology also concerns
itself with the principles governing the phoneme systems--that is, with what sounds
languages 'like' to have, which sets of sounds are most common (and why) and which
are rare (and also why). It turns out that there are prototype-based explanations for why
the phoneme system of the languages of the world have the sounds that they do, with
physiological/acoustic/perceptual explanations for the preference for some sounds over
others.
The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their
features, and rules which specify how sounds interact with each other.

Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects

such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.

2.2 The Pronounciation of Plurals

You know that almost all English nouns have both singular and plural forms : cat
(sg.) and cats (pl.); dog (sg.) and dogs (pl.); and so on. But have you ever paid close
attention to how plural forms are pronounced ?. Listen to native speaker of English
saying the plural forms of all the following nouns, and try to focus ob variation in the
pronunciation of the plural morpheme.
A B C D

cab cap bus child

cad cat bush ox

bag back buzz mouse

love cuff garage criterion

lathe faith match sheep

cam badge

can

bang

call

bar

spa

boy

some of the variation in the pronunciation of the plural morpheme is easy to hear,
and is reflected in how the plural forms are spelled. The nouns is coloumns A,B,and C --
- and the vast majority of English nouns--- form their written plurals by adding “s” or “es.”
But the plurals of the words in column D are not formed in the usual way. The plural of
child is not childs; the plural of mouse is mice ([majs]); the plural of criterion is criteria
([khrajtiriǝ]); and the plural of sheep is identical to the singular form [šip]. Largely,
learners of English must simply memorize these and other irregular plural form on a
word-by-word basis, because there is no way to predict what shape they will take.
 Looking now at the nouns in column A trough C, however, we observe a more
interesting phonological pattern—not all of which is apparent from English orthography.
If you listen closely, you should hear the following variation in the pronunciation of the
English plural Morpheme. The plurals of all the nouns in column A are formed by adding
the voiced alveolar fricative [z] to the end of the singular form. The plurals of the nouns
in column B are formed by adding by voiceless alveolar fricative [s] to the end of the
singular form. And the plurals in column C are created by adding schwa [ǝ] followed by
[z]. we thus have our first example of morpheme with different pronunciations; the
regular plural morpheme can be pronounced as [z],[s], or [ǝz].

How do we know how to pronounce this plural morpheme? The spelling is

misleading, yet if you know English, you pronounce it as we indicated without a thought.
When faced with this type of question, it is useful to make a chart that records the
phonological contexts in which each variant of the morpheme is known to occur. The
more technical term for the variants is allomorphs, and phonological contexts are often
referred to as environments. Writing the words from the four columns in phonetic
transcription, we have our first chart for the plural morpheme.

Allomorph Environment

[z] After [khæb],[khæd],[bæg],[lᴧv], [leð],[kh‫ۊ‬ǣm],

[khæ]’,[bæη],[khɔl],[bar],[spa],[bcj]

[s] After [khæp],[khæt],[bæk],[khᴧf],[feθ]

[ǝz] After [bᴧs],[buš],[bᴧz],[gǝraž],[mæč],[bæǰ]

Our goal now is to simplify the chart so that the pattern behind the distribution of
the allomorphs is revealed. We are searching for one or more properties of the
environments that are responsible for selecting, or conditioning, the allomorphs. For
example, we want to know what properties of [khæb] determine that the plural
morpheme will take the form [z] rather than [s] or [ǝz].

To guide our search, we look for minimal pairs in our list of words. A minimal pair
is two words with different meanings that are identical except for one sound segment
that occurs in the string. For example, cab [khæb] and cad [khæd] are a minimal pair that
differ only in their final segments. Other minimal pairs in our data include cap/cab,
bag/back, and bag/badge.

Minimal pairs whose members take different allomorphs are particularly useful for
our search. For example, consider cab [khæb] and cap [khæp], which take the
allomorphs [z] and [s] to form the plural. If we assume that exactly one segment of the
singular form conditions the choice of the plural allomorph, then this pair shows that the
conditioning segment must be the final one--- because that is the only segment in which
[khæb] and [khæp] differ. The minimal pair bag [bæg] and badge [bæǰ] similary point to
the final segment as the conditioning factor. These two words are identical except for
their final segments, which provide the conditions for different plural allomorphs ([z] and
[ǝz], respectively).

We now see that English regular plural allomorphy (i.e., distribution of

allomorphs) is conditioned by the final segment of the singular form--- the segment that
immediately precedes the plural morpheme. This fact allows us to simplify our chart by
removing all information about the environments except the final segment. (We treat
diphthongs such as [ɔj] as single segments.)

Having isolated the segments that condition the regular plural allomorphy, we
now want to understand why each particular segment conditions the allomorph that it
does. For example, is there a reason that [b] conditions the voiced allomorph [z]
whereas [p] conditions the voiceless allomorph [s] ? We answer questions of this type
by inspecting the phonetic properties of the conditioning segments. If we can find
properties shared by all segments that condition a particular allomorph, then we will be
able to simplify the chart further by replacing the list of segments with those properties.

It turns out that the conditioning of the English regular plural allomorphs relies on
just two phonetic properties of the preceding segment. All of the segments that
condition the [s] allomorph are voiceless sounds that are not sibilants. And all of the
segments that condition the [ǝz] are sibilants. These observations allow us to simplify
the chart as follows.

Allomorph Environment

[z] After voiced nonsibilant segments

[s] After voiceless nonsibilant segments

[ǝz] After sibilant segments

This chart is an impressive achievement. We have taken what at first looked like
a random list of words paired with allomorphs and extracted a simple generalization, or
pattern, from it. The alternant selected to form the regular plural of a given noun is
determined by the last segment of the singular form of the noun, and in particular by two
phonetic properties of that segment : whether or not the segment is voiced, and whether
or not the segment is a sibilant. From the perspective of language acquisition, children
acquiring English do not have to memorize the individual sound that condition a
particular allomorph have certain properties in common.

A more concise way of stating the same information that appears in the chart is
in terms of phonological rules, which are similar to rules of syntax and morphology.
These are not rulers that someone teaches you in school or that you must obey
because someone insists on it. They are rules that you know unconsciously and that
express phonological patterns such as the one shown in the chart.
 To write the rules that are relevant for this example, we assumed that the regular,
productive plural morpheme has the phonological form /z/, with the meaning “plural.”
The slashes around this segment indicate that this is the basic form of the morpheme---
the form in which the morpheme is pronounced if no phonological rules apply to it.
Given this basic form,the variation in pronunciation of the regular plural morpheme
follows two rules :

1. Insert a [ǝ] before the plural morpheme when a regular noun ends in a sibilant
---/s,z.š,ž,č,ĵ/---giving [ǝz].
2. Change the plural morpheme to voiceless [s] when a voiceless sound
precedes it.

Later in this chapter we will introduce an even more concise way of stating
phonological rules,but these two rules are perfectly explicit and sufficient for our
discussion at this point.

These two plural-formation rules will derive the phonetic forms of plurals for all
regular nouns. Since the basic form of the plural is /z/, if neither (1) nor (2) applies,then
the plural morpheme will be realized as [z]; no segments will be added and no features
will be changed. The following chart is an abbreviated scheme showing how the plurals
of bus,butt,and bug are formed. At the top are the basic forms. The two rules apply or
not as appropriate as one moves downward. At the bottom are the phonetic
realizations---the way the words are pronounced.
 bus + pl. butt + pl. bug + pl.

Basic

representation /bᴧs + z/ /bᴧt + z/ /bᴧg + z/

aplly rule (1) ǝ NA* NA

aplly rule (2) NA s NA

phonetic

representation [bᴧsǝz] [bᴧts] [bᴧgz]

*NA means “not applicable.”

As we have formulated these rules, (1) must apply before (2). If we applied the
rules in reverse order,we would derive an incorrect phonetic form for the plural of bus,
as diagram similar to the previous one illustrates :
 Basic representation /bᴧs + z/

Apply rule (2) s

Aplly rule (1) ǝ

Phonetic representation *[bᴧsǝs]

The rules that determine the phonetic form of the plural morpheme and other
morphemes of the language are morphophonemic rules. Their application concerns the
phonology of specific morphemes. Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the
plural morpheme specifically,not to all morphemes in English. If you find this new term a
bit daunting,you’re not alone,as the cartoon below shows.

2.3 Phonological rules

A phonological is a formal way of expressing a systematic phonological or

morphological process or diachronic sound change in language. Phonological rules are
commonly use in generative phonology as a notation to capture sounf-related
operations and computations the human brain performs when producing or
comprehending spoken language. Phonological rules describe how phonomes are
realized as their allophones in a given environment. Environment in phonology typically
refers to neighboring phonemes. They may use phonetic notation or distinctive features
or both. John Golden Smith (1995) defines phonological rules as mapping between two
different levels of sounds represantation in this case, the abstract or underlying level
and the surface level.

2.4 Kinds of Phonological rules

Kinds of phonological rules. Different language have different rules, however there
are some typical kinds of rules tha are very common:
1. Assimilation
Phonological process in which a sound changes to resemble a nerby
sound and can occur both forward and backward. Hyman (1952) states that
assimilation refers to all adaptive modifications of a segment in chain of
segments by a neighboring segment.1[2] According to Driven (2004), assimilation
is a process whereby one sound causes an adjacent sound to be “more similar”
to itsef. This the kind of the rule taht occurs in the English plural described above-
the sound becomes voived or voiceless depending on weather or not the
preceding consonant is voiced.2[3]
Concerning types of assimilation, Hyman suggest that scholars classify
assimilation diffrently and he present the following figure for this classification.
Assimilation patterns manifest three sub-types:
 1) Phonetic, free variation or contextual assimilation. The change
effects a certain segment by selecting a certain variant of that segment.
For example, /m/ in triumph and nymph is rendered [ɱ]
(labiodental nasal) instead of bilabial [m].
Similarly, infant /n/ is often rendered as [ɱ].
Also, /I/ is devoiced after /f/ and /k/ in flight and clean and lips are rounded
in the articulation of /p/, /k/, and /I/ in pool, cool, loom, respectively due to the
occurance of rounded vowel /u:/ immediately after these consonant segments.
2) Phonemic assimilation is often referred to as “ neutralisation” or
“syncretism”. This is more systematized, i.e., not subject to free variation. It also
result in the neutralization of two phonomes.
For example: /n/ and /ƞ/ are neutralized in think /Ɵiƞk/, /v/ and /f/ in have
to/haft tu/, /z/ and /s/ in newspaper / ‘nju:speipǝ/, and so on.
3) Morphological or morphophonemic assimilation is one which effects
a whole morpheme. It usually decides the morphome variant (allomorph)
according to morphophonemic rule.

Another way in which assimilation process can be seen is in terms of

whether a vowel or consonant acquires vowel or consonant features of a
neighboring segment

2. Dissimilation
When a sound changes one of its features to become less similar to an
adjacent sound, usually to make the two sounds more distinguishable. This type
of rule is often seen among people speaking a language that is not their native
language where the sound contrasts may be difficult so the rule is applied for
ease of production and perception.3[4] In other words, a phonological process
that changes feature values of segments to make them less similar. Example:
manner dissimilation where stop becomes a fricative when followed by another
stop. The word sixth is pronounced sikst.

Annual annular
Sexual secular
Cultural cellular(cell)
Penal perpendicular4[5]

3. Deletion
Deletion is the omission of one or more sounds such as a vowel, a
consonant, or a whole syllabel in a word or phrase. Finally, there are types of
pronounciation process where sounds are left off.
Example: English is a fast/common speech language, so vowels can be
delated to make the word one syllable, and easier to pronounce in a fast manner.
Police become plice, and friendship is said as frienship. When a sound, such as
a stressless syllable or a week consonant, is not pronounced, for example most
America English speakers do not pronounciation the [d] in “handbag”. When we
can predict the environment in which phonomes or allophonemes will occur, we
can write a rule that represents their distribution.
The general from a phonological rule is : AB/C _D. “ A becomes B
following C and preceding D”
Example consider the following words:
Rope – robe
Lock – log
Cute – cued
Pick – pig
Tap- tab

4. Metathesis
Metathesis is one of the changes that takes place in the pronounciation of
words is the linguistic phenomenon and the transposition of sounds or letters in word
or (occasionally) of whole words or syllabels; the result of such a transposition. Two
historical example include Old English becoming Contemporary English.
Phonological process that changes the order of phonomes
Old Englis vs. Contemporary English
Asterix(ks) asterisk
Comfterble comfortable
Integral integral
Reletor realtor
Relevant relevant5[6]

5. Co-articulation
 Co-articulation is the way the brain organizes sequences of vowels and
consonants, interweaving the individual movements necessary forv each into one
smooth whole. In its general sense refers to a situation in which a conceptually
isolated speech sound. There are two types of articulation: anticipatory co-
articulation, where a feature or characteristic of a speech sound is anticepted
(assumed) during the production of a preceding speech sound, and carryover or
perseverative co-articulation, when the effects of a sound are seen during the
production of sound (s) that follow.
Many model have been developed to account for co-articulation. They include
the look-ahead, articulatory syllable, time-looked, window, coproduction, and
articulatory.
Co-articulation in phonetics refers two different phenomena:
a. The assimilation of the place of articulation of one speech sound to that
of an adjacent speech sound. For example, while the sound /n/ of English normally
has an alveolar place or articulation, in the word tenth is pronounced with a dental
place of articulation because the following sound /Ɵ/ . is dental.
b. The production of a co-articulated consonant that is, a consonant with
two simultaneouns plaves of articulation. An example o such a sound is the
voiceless labial-velar plosive /kp/ found in many West in African languages. 6[7]

6. The Function of Phonological Rule

The function of phonological rules in a grammar is to provid the phonetic
information necessary for the pronounciation of utterance. The application of
rules in this way is called derivation. We have given a number of examples of
derivation, which show how phonemically oral vowels become nasalized, how
phonemically unaspirated voiceless stops become aspirated, how contrastive
Phonological rules have a number of functions, among them are the following:
a. Change features values
b. Add new features (distinctive/non distinctive): aspiration in English.
c. Delete segments: contraction rules in English.
d. Add segments (schwa insertion in plural and past tense)
e. Recorder segments (metathesis: sk to[ks]).
f. Phonological rules often refer to entire classes of sounds rather than to the
individual sounds.
g. Phonological rules are generated to account for what occurs in a language,
they are not originally used to describe children’s and disorted speech howefer,
they have been applied to describe children’s and disordered speech.
 CHAPTER III

3.1 Conclusion
A phonological rule is a way of expressing a systematics phonological or morphological
process or diachronic sound change in language. Some kind of phonological rule are
assimilation, dissimilation, deletion, metathesis, co-articulation.
The functin of phonological rule are :
a. Change features values
b. Add new features (distinctive/non distinctive): aspiration in English.
c. Delete segments: contraction rules in English.
d. Add segments (schwa insertion in plural and past tense)
e. Recorder segments (metathesis: sk to[ks]).
f. Phonological rules often refer to entire classes of sounds rather than to the individual sounds.
g. Phonological rules are generated to account for what occurs in a language, they are not
originally used to describe children’s and disorted speech howefer, they have been applied to
describe children’s and disordered speech.
A phonological rule is a formal way of expressing a systematic phonological or
morphophonological process or diachronic sound change in language.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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