Buffers

Buffers are used throughout Theory of Constraints. They often result as part of the EXPLOIT
and SUBORDINATE steps of the five focusing steps. Buffers are placed before the governing
constraint, thus ensuring that the constraint is never starved. Buffers are also placed behind the
constraint to prevent downstream failure to block the constraint's output. Buffers used in this way
protect the constraint from variations in the rest of the system and should allow for normal
variation of processing time and the occasional upset (Murphy) before and behind the constraint.

Buffers can be a bank of physical objects before a work center, waiting to be processed by that
work center. Buffers ultimately buy you time, as in the time before work reaches the constraint
and are often verbalized as time buffers. There should always be enough (but not excessive)
work in the time queue before the constraint and adequate offloading space behind the constraint.

Buffers are not the small queue of work that sits before every work center in a Kanban system
although it is similar if you regard the assembly line as the governing constraint. A prerequisite
in Theory of Constraints is that with one constraint in the system, all other parts of the system
must have sufficient capacity to keep up with the work at the constraint and to catch up if time
was lost. In a balanced line, as espoused by Kanban, when one work center goes down for a
period longer than the buffer allows, then the entire system must wait until that work center is
restored. In a TOC system, the only situation where work is in danger, is if the constraint is
unable to process (either due to malfunction, sickness or a "hole" in the buffer - if something
goes wrong that the time buffer can not protect).

Buffer management therefore represents a crucial attribute of the Theory of Constraints. There
are many ways to do it, but the most often used is a visual system of designating the buffer in
three colours: Green (OK), Yellow (Caution) and Red (Action required). Creating this kind of
visibility enables the system as a whole to align and thus subordinate to the need of the constraint
in a holistic manner. This can also be done daily in a central operations room that is accessible to
everybody.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Constraints#Buffers

- A buffer is a data area shared by hardware devices or program processes that operate at
different speeds or with different sets of priorities. The buffer allows each device or process to
operate without being held up by the other. In order for a buffer to be effective, the size of the
buffer and the algorithms for moving data into and out of the buffer need to be considered by the
buffer designer. Like a cache, a buffer is a "midpoint holding place" but exists not so much to
accelerate the speed of an activity as to support the coordination of separate activities.

This term is used both in programming and in hardware. In programming, buffering sometimes
implies the need to screen data from its final intended place so that it can be edited or otherwise
processed before being moved to a regular file or database.

http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid183_gci211713,00.html
Buffer Theory
Most biological systems will function only within a quite narrow range of conditions, and their
activity can vary widely within that range. The acidity, or free proton concentration, of the
environment is an important parameter. To prevent the proton concentration of a solution from
changing, compounds can be added to a solution that "buffer" or minimize such changes. A
compound will act as a proton concentration buffer if it limits changes in proton concentration by
binding protons when the proton concentration of the solution increases and releasing bound
protons when the proton concentration decreases (Eqn 1).

  BufferH+<=> H+ +
Buffer                                    Â
                       (Eqn 1)

 Unfortunately, any one compound will be effective as a buffer only for a limited range of
proton concentrations, and so the first step in preparing a buffer is deciding which buffer to
use. Since a buffer is most effective when about half is in the acid form (Buffer H+) and
half in the base form (Buffer), i.e., when half of its proton binding sites are filled, a buffer should
be chosen that will be about half filled at the proton concentration desired.

The affinity of a compounds for protons is often expressed as its acid dissociation constant (Ka),
defined in Eqn 2. This is convenient because, as can be seen from Eqn 2, the value of the acid
dissociation constant is equivalent to the proton concentration of a solution at which the
compound will have half of its proton binding sites filled, i.e. [Buffer] = [BufferH+].

ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ
                             (Eqn 2)

If the proton concentration and the acid dissociation constant are both expressed as their negative
log, Eqn 2 becomes;

        (Eqn 3)

 and if, for reasons largely historical, the negative log operator is called "p", the expression
becomes;

ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ
           (Eqn 4)
The ratio of [Buffer] /[BufferH +] can be obtained by rearranging Eqn 4 and inserting the
values for the pH and pKa;

ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ
                 (Eqn 5)

Further rearranging of Eqn 5 gives Eqn 6;

ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ
 (Eqn 6)

After choosing a buffer, the next step is to decide its concentration. The buffer concentration
must be sufficient to maintain the pH within acceptable limits with the changes in proton
concentration expected to occur. For biological systems, this generally means that the total
buffer concentration ([Buffer]total) is within a range from 1 mM to 200 mM. Knowing that the
total buffer concentration is equal to the sum of the concentrations of its forms;

ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ
(Eqn 7)

by substituting for the [Buffer] term in Eqn 7 with its equivalent from Eqn 6, we see;

ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ
(Eqn 8)

 and by rearranging,

                                 (Eqn 9)

 So for any pH we choose, by finding a buffer whose pKa is within around one pH unit of that
pH, and choosing [Buffer]total , we can use Eqns 7 and 9 to solve for the concentrations of
[Buffer] and [BufferH+] at that pH. More importantly, we can prepare a solution with
that pH by adding the right amounts of the acid (BufferH+ ) and base (Buffer) forms of the
buffer to give the concentrations of [Buffer] and [BufferH+] we calculated.

How to prepare a buffer

A compound can buffer the pH of a solution only when its concentration is sufficient and
when the pH of the solution is close (within about one pH unit) to its pKa. To make a buffer you
must first pick a compound whose pKa is close to the pH you want for the solution, and then
decide what the buffer concentration should be. Typically, buffer concentrations are between 1
mM and 200 mM, depending on the desired ionic strength and the buffering capacity required. If
the pH is expected to decrease during the experiment, choose a buffer with a pKa slightly below
the working pH. Conversely, if the pH is expected to increase during the experiment, select a
buffer with a pKa slightly above the working pH. Having decided on the total buffer
concentration, you must adjust the ratio of the protonated and unprotonated forms of the buffer in
your solution so as to give the desired pH. Typically, buffers are composed of weak acids and
their salts, or weak bases and their salts. If the protonated form is uncharged, it is an acid (like
acetic acid), and its unprotonated form is a salt (e.g., sodium acetate). Conversely, if the
unprotonated form is uncharged it is a base (like Tris base), and its protonated form is a salt (e.g.,
TrisHCl).

Four practical ways to make a buffer are described below:

(1) The Slow and Stupid Method - To avoid adding extra salt to a solution, prepare a buffer
composed of an acid and its salt by dissolving the acid form of the buffer in about ~60% of the
water required for the final solution volume. Adjust the pH using a strong base, such as NaOH.
When preparing a buffer composed of a base and its salt, start with the base form and adjust the
pH with strong acid, such as HCl. After the pH is correct, dilute to just under the final solution
volume. Check the pH and correct if necessary, then add water to the final volume.
Advantages: Easy to understand.
Disadvantages: Slow. May require lots of base (or acid). If the base (or acid) is
concentrated, it is easy to overshoot the pH. If the base (or acid) is dilute, it is easy to overshoot
the volume. Ionic strength will be unknown. Adding a strong acid or base can result in
temperature changes, which will make pH readings inaccurate (due to its dependence to
temperature) unless the solution is brought back to its initial temperature.

(2) The Mentally Taxing Method - Using the buffer pKa , calculate the amounts (in moles) of
acid/salt or base/salt present in the buffer at the desired pH. If both forms (i.e., the acid and the
salt) are available, convert the amount required from moles to grams, using the molecular weight
of that component, and the weigh out the correct amounts of both forms. If only one form is
available, you can prepare the buffer by adding all of the buffer as one form, and then adding
acid or base to convert some of the added buffer to the other form. Decide what the total
concentration of buffer will be in the solution, and convert the concentration to amount (in
moles) using the volume of solution, and then to grams, using the molecular weight of the buffer
form available. Then calculate the amounts (in moles) of each form that will be present in the
final solution, using the buffer pKa and the desired pH. Then calculate how much strong acid or
base must be added to convert enough of the buffer form added to the other form, to give the
correct amounts of each form at the pH of the final solution. Dissolve the buffer and strong acid
or base in slightly less water than is required for the final solution volume. Check the pH and
correct if necessary. Add water to the final volume.
Advantages: Fast. Easy to prepare. Additional pH adjustment is rarely necessary, and when
necessary, the adjustment is small. Ionic strength easily calculated.
Disadvantages: Requires the buffer pKa and solving two equations (see Theory ).
(3) The Two Solution Method - Make separate solutions of the acid form and base form of the
buffer, both solutions having the same buffer concentration (and ionic strength, if required) as
the concentration of total buffer in the final solution. To obtain the desired pH, add one solution
to the other while monitoring the pH with a pH meter.
Advantages: Easy to do.
Disadvantages: Requires both forms of buffer. The required solution volumes are
proportional to the ratio of buffer components in the final solution at the desired final pH, so
making equal amounts of each form may waste a lot of one solution.

(4) The Completely Mindless Method - Find a table of the correct amounts of acid/salt or
base/salt required for different pH's, and dissolve the components in slightly less water than is
required for the final solution volume. Check that the pH and correct if necessary. Add water to
the final volume.
Advantages: Easy to do (with appropriate table). Convenient for frequently prepared buffers.
Disadvantages: May be impossible to find table. Table may be incorrect. Requires both
forms of buffer. Component amounts from table will need to be adjusted to give the buffer
concentration and volume in your solution. Ionic strength is unknown.

http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biochem/Biochem_353/Common_Buffers.html