TOPIC 1

EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Investigate that when three non-parallel forces in the same plane are in
equilibrium, their line of action meets at a point. (LO4,LO5,LO3)
2. Investigate that the resultant of two forces can be found using the Parallelogram
of Forces. (LO3, LO4, L05)
3. Determine the resultant forces by using the Newton’s Law of Motion. (LO3, LO4,
L05)

CONTENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The parallelogram law gives the rule for vector addition of vectors A and B. The sum
A+B of the vectors is obtained by placing those head to tail and drawing the vector
from the free tail to the free head. The components form the sides of the parallelogram
and the resultant is the diagonal.

1.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

When two forces act on a body in different directions in one plane, they are equivalent
to single force (the resultant) acting somewhere in between them. An example of this
is when a sledge is pulled by two horizontal ropes spread at an angle; the sledge will
move in a direction between the ropes along the line of their resultant force. Until the
sledge moves, it will pull back against the ropes with a single horizontal force equal
and opposite to the resultant of the two ropes forces. It can be shown that when three
such forces are balanced (that is, in equilibrium), their lines of action all meet at a

1
point. Using this fact, the resultant of two forces in the same plane at an angle can be
found by graphical method called the Parallelogram of Forces. To maintain equilibrium
it is necessary and sufficient that the resultant force acting on a rigid body to be equal
to zero. In terms of Newton’s laws of motion, this is expressed mathematically as:

 F  0 ; Where,  F is the vector sum of all forces acting on the particle.

When the body is subjected to a system of forces which all lie in the x-y plane, the
forces can be resolved into their x and y components. Consequently, the conditions
for equilibrium in two dimensions can be written in scalar form as:

F X  0 and F y 0

  
Let’s say that there are three forces namely F1 , F2 and F3 acts on a body as shown

in Figure 1.1.

F2 F1
 2 1

F3

Figure 1.1 Free Body Diagram

  
For equilibrium, this equation must be equal to zero. Hence, F1  F2  F3  0 .

  
Therefore, F1  F2  F3 .

F x  0; F1sinθ1  F2 sinθ 2  0
The sum of forces of x components, F1 sinθ 2 …(1)
 
F2 sinθ1

The sum of forces of y components, F y  0; F1cosθ1  F2 cosθ 2  F3  0 …(2)

2
1.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 1.1 Parallelogram of Forces Equipment List

No. Apparatus Qty.
1 Diagram board with clips ( P 3 ) 1
2 Short Screws 2
3 Pulleys ( P12) 2
4 Knurled Nuts 4
5 Weight Hooks [0.1N] ( P10) 3
6 Set of Weights 0.05N, 0.1N, 0.5N, 1N, 2N 1
7 Ring with 3 cords attached 1
8 Protractor 1
9 Some sheets of plain paper

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

1. Prepare the mounting panel as shown in Figure 1.2.

2. Clip a sheet of paper to the diagram board.
3. Pass two of ring cords over the pulleys. Let the third cord hang directly
downwards.
4. Attach all cords by 0.1 N weight hooks.
5. Attach the weight of 2.4N to the weight hook W 3 and the weight of 1.9N to the
weight hook W 1 and W2. Write in the weight supported by each cord W1, W2
and W3 (including 0.1N which is the weight of each weight hook) as shown in
Figure 1.3.
6. Gently cause the system to bounce by jogging the CENTRE weight only and
letting it settle freely in its equilibrium position.
7. Mark the position of the three cords with pencil dots on the paper.
8. Remove the paper and join up the dots representing the three cords.
9. Measure the angle reading of  1 and  2 using protractor.
10. Repeat step 5 and 9 while you adjust the weights of W2 by 0.1N increments
until reached 2.5 N.

3
 Figure 1.2 Parallelogram of Forces Apparatus Setup

2.0 N 2.0 N 2.3 N 2.0 N

2.5 N
2.5 N

Figure 1.3 Experiment Setup

4
1.5 ACTIVITIES

1.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

1.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Fill in the experimental result in the Table 1.2.
b. Fill in the Table 1.3 using calculation method. (Please refer Law of cosines to
get the angle)
W1 F1 sinθ 2
c. Plot the graph of  against for both experimental and calculated
W2 F2 sinθ1
results.
d. In each of your diagram, the lines representing the cord positions should be
meets at the centre of the ring. Along the upper cord lines, mark off lengths OA
and OB to represent the pull of weights W1 and W2 (Figure 3). Choose a
suitable scale for this, (e.g. 50mm per N). Through A draw a line AC parallel to
OB, and through B draw a line BC parallel to OA, to from the parallelogram
 
OACB. Draw in the diagonal OC. This is the resultant force, F of the vector F1

and F2 .
e. Measure the length and direction of OC.

1.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted.

1.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Shows your calculations.

1.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (15%)

a. Discuss the graphs obtained (5%).
b. Discuss the parallelogram diagrams obtained (5%).
c. Make a comparison between experimental and calculated result (5%).

5
1.5.6 QUESTIONS (10%)
a. Explain the parallelogram method to find the resultant of two parallel forces
(5%).
b. What are the alternative methods that can be used to analyze the addition of
two forces (5%).

1.5.7 CONCLUSIONS (15%)

a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements

1.5.8 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard

1.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Meriam, J.L. And Kraige, L.G., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 6th S.I.
Edition, John Wiley & Sons,Inc. Call number: TA350. M47 2007.
2. Hibbeler, R.C., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 12th Edition, Prentice-
Hall International. Call number:TA351. H52 2009.
3. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R. And Flori R.E., 2008. “Mechanics for Engineers –
Statics”, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill. Call number: TA350. B44 2008.

6
1.7 DATA SHEETS

Table 1.2 Experimental Results

Weight Angle Angle Ratio

No.
W3 W1 W2 sinθ 2 W1 F1
θ1 θ2 sinθ1 sinθ 2 
(N) (N) (N) sinθ1 W2 F2

2.0

2.1

2.2

1 2.5 2.0

2.3

2.4

2.5

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor.

7
 Table 1.3 Calculated Results

Weight Angle Angle Ratio

No.
W3 W1 W2 sinθ 2 W1 F1
θ1 θ2 sinθ1 sinθ 2 
(N) (N) (N) sinθ1 W2 F2

2.0

2.1

2.2

1 2.5 2.0

2.3

2.4

2.5

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor.

8
 TOPIC 2
POLYGON OF FORCES

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Investigate that when four and more forces are in equilibrium at a point, they
can be represented by a Polygon of Forces from which unknown forces can be
found.(LO3,LO4,LO5)

CONTENTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A set of forces whose resultant is zero can be depicted by drawing them end to end,
so that they form a closed polygon; this is called a Polygon of Forces. If the polygon
is not closed, there is a nonzero resultant force.

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

In the design of pin-jointed plane structures such as girders, bridges and roof trusses
(see Figure 2.1), it is necessary to find the forces acting in each member so that the
frame can be made strong enough to withstand the maximum loads exerted upon it.
The Polygon of Forces is frequently employed to find such forces and deals with each
joint in turn. This experiment could be regarded as one such joint on a structure, and
it will be shown that in a system containing four or more forces, two unknowns can be
found in magnitude or direction if the remaining information is known. The Polygon of
Forces is an extension of the Triangle of Forces, and whereas Tri means 3, Poly
means many.

9
 Figure 2.1 Roof Truss

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 2.1 Polygon of Forces Equipment List

No. Apparatus Qty.
1 Diagram Board & Clips (P21) 1
2 Short Screws(P2) 2
3 Pulleys (P12) 4
4 Knurled Nuts (P1) 6
5 Weight Hooks (P10) 5
6 Set of Weights (P7) 1
7 Ring with 5 cords attached (P17) 1
8 Some sheets of plain paper 1

2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

TEST A
1. Secure the mounting panel as shown in Figure 2.2.
2. Clip a sheet of paper to the board (P21) and assemble with cords and weight
hooks (P10) as shown.
3. Add weights to give total weights as shown in Figure 2.2. Write in the weight
supported by each cord. Note: Total weight includes weight hook of 0.1N.

10
4. The fifth cord (required only in Test B) can be allowed to hang freely and will
not affect Test A results.
5. Gently cause the system to ‘bounce’ by jogging the free cord and let the four
cords and the weights settle freely in its equilibrium position.
6. THEN MARK THE POSITION OF THE FOUR CORDS with pencil dots on the
paper.
7. Remove the paper and join up the dots representing the cords.

Figure 2.2 Experiment Apparatus Setup

11
TEST B
1. Keeping the weight hooks and the weights as in Test A, attach a weight hook
to the fifth cord and let it hang directly from the ring with a total weight of 1.1N
(i.e. including hook).
2. Once again, ‘bounce’ the system of jogging the centre weight only, and allow
the ring, the five cords and weights to settle in its new equilibrium position, and
THEN MARK THE POSITIONS OF THE FIVE CORDS with pencil dots on the
paper.
3. Remove the paper and join up the dots on the paper.

2.5 ACTIVITIES

2.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic

2.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

TEST A
a. On your diagram sheet for Test A, mark the spaces between the cord lines with
the letters A, B, C and D to give the Space Diagram (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3 Space and force diagram

b. Draw a Force Diagram by first drawing scale lengths ‘ab’ and ‘bc’ to represent
the forces W1 and W2 (Figure 2.3). Then through ‘c’ and ‘a’, draw lines parallel
to the directions of W3 and W4 (based only on direction angles of W3 and W4)

12
 to meet at‘d’ covering the whole circuit. The figure ‘abcd’ is the force diagram,
or Polygon of Forces, for the four forces W1, W2, W3 and W4.
c. MEASURE THE LENGTHS ‘cd’ and ‘da’. There should be equivalent to the
corresponding forces W3 and W4.

TEST B
a. Draw the space diagram A, B, C, D, E to show the space positions of the five
forces, W1, W2, W3, W4 and W5 (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 Test 2 Space Diagram

b. Draw a separate force diagram starting with scale lengths ab, bc and cd to
represent the forces W1, W2 and W3. Complete the diagram by drawing lines
parallel to the directions of W4 and W5 (based only on coordinate direction
angles of W4 and W5), to give the point e. The figure 'abcde' is the force
diagram, or Polygon of Forces, for the five weights W1, W2, W3, W4 and W5.
c. Measure lengths of ‘de’ and ‘ea’ and should be equivalent to the forces W4 and
W5.

2.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted

2.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Shows your calculations

13
2.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (20%)
a. Interpret the lengths of ‘cd’, ‘da’, ‘de’ and ‘ea’ in term of magnitude of the force
vector (in N). Give your comment regarding the result. (5%)
b. From your results, discuss the method of using the Polygon of Forces for four
or more forces in equilibrium at a point, say how many unknown forces can be
found. Keep the following points in mind:(15%)
i. What must be known about ALL the forces before the Space Diagram be
drawn?
ii. How many of the force lines were NOT marked off in Force Diagram?
iii. What do you notice about the arrows showing the direction of the forces
in the Force Diagram?
iv. Can we find the direction of forces by this method if all other data given?

2.5.6 QUESTIONS (5%)

a. What are the differences between the Triangles of Forces and Polygon of
Forces? (5%)

2.5.7 CONCLUSIONS (15%)

a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements.

2.5.8 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard

2.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Meriam, J.L. And Kraige, L.G., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 6th S.I.
Edition, John Wiley & Sons,Inc. Call number: TA350. M47 2007.
2. Hibbeler, R.C., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 12th Edition, Prentice-
Hall International. Call number:TA351. H52 2009.
3. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R. And Flori R.E., 2008. “Mechanics for Engineers –
Statics”, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill. Call number: TA350. B44 2008.

14
2.7 DATA SHEETS

Table 2.2 Results

The lengths of

‘cd’ ‘da’ ‘de’ ‘ea’

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

15
 TOPIC 3
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Investigate that the totals of distributed load may be considered as equivalent
concentrated load acting on the beam at the centre of gravity. (LO3, LO4, LO5)
2. The reactions at the supports, due to loading a simply supported beam, may be
calculated by applying the Principle of Moments no matter what supports are
positioned along the beam. (LO3, LO4, LO5)

CONTENTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Beams are structural members which offer resistance to bending due to applied loads.
Most beams are long prismatic bars, and the loads are usually applied normal to the
axes of the bars. Beams are undoubtedly the most important of all structural members,
so it is important to understand the basic theory underlying their design. There are two
types of beam which is beam has more one supports than needed to provide
equilibrium is statically indeterminate and other one is beam supports reactions can
calculated by the methods of static alone are called statically determinate. To
determine the support reactions for a beam, the load deformation properties in addition
to the equations of static equilibrium should be considered. This experiment will show
that by applying Principle of Moment, the reactions of the beam at each support can
be calculated.

16
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

A beam is a horizontal member of a structure which rests on supports (often walls or

columns) and spans an open space. If a beam rests on two supports without any ‘fixing
down’ devices, it is said to be SIMPLY SUPPORTED. If load is placed on the beam
and covers a very short length of the beam, it is called a POINT or CONCENTRATED
load, but if the load is spread over an appreciable length of the beam it is called a
DISTRIBUTED load. If the supports are placed each end of a beam and the beam is
symmetrically loaded, the weight carried at each support (called the REACTIONS)
must be half the total weight on the beam, as this experiment will show.

Beams which are not symmetrically loaded must still carry the total load at the
supports, but the proportion of the total weight carried by each support will depend on
the weight of each individual load and the position which is occupies along the beam.

A beam may also be subjected to a moment load, M. Imagine that the beam from the
left support and right support has a symmetrical load, so the beam supports load is:

1
 Total of Distributed Loading
2

It can be illustrated as below:

Figure 3.1 Distributed Load

17
3.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 3.1 Beam Reactions Equipment List

No. Apparatus Label Qty.
1 Beam assembly EX8 1
2 Spring P20 1
3 Nuts 3
4 Adjustable hooks P6 3
5 Lightweight hook 0.1N P11 4
6 Spring balances 10N P8 2
7 Load Set 2N, 5N P7 5
8 Weight hooks 20g P10 3
9 Distributed load EX8A 2

3.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

1. Secure the mounting panel in the vertical position as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Equipment Setup

18
2. Mount two adjustable hooks (P6) above the beam and secure through hole (K4)
and (K14) with nuts (P1).
3. Place the other adjustable hook (P6) through hole (I9) with nut (P1).
4. Hang the spring (P20) on the centre hook (P6) and connect it to the upper hole
on the beam.
5. Adjust the centre hook until the hole in the centre of the beam lines up with hole
(C9)
6. Attach the spring balance to the upper holes at each end of the beam with their
scales at the ends furthest from the beam and hang over the remaining two
adjustable hooks.
7. Adjust the balance support hooks so that the large hole in the centre of the
beam coincides with hole (C9) and the beam is horizontal.
8. Set the balance scales to zero.
9. Measure and record the weight of concentrated load EX8A by using digital
scales. Change the unit from grams to Newton.
10. Set up the beam and load for Test 1 as shown in Figure 3.3.
11. Place the load 5N to 0.1N weight hook as shown in Figure 3.3 for Test 1.
12. When the loads have been correctly positioned as shown in the diagrams, pull
upward the hooks that support each spring balance (not the centre hook) until
the beam is supported by the two spring balances and ‘floats’ in a horizontal
position with the centre hole in line with C9.
13. Records the reactions shown on each balances Ra and Rb in Table 3.3
14. Repeat steps 10-11 for Tests 2-8 (refer Figure 3.3).
15. Note: After each load is applied in the tests described above the hooks
supporting the spring balances must be moved so that the beam returns to its
original position, i.e. centre in line with hole (C9) and horizontal. The weight of
beam will then be supported by the centre spring and the reactions on the spring
balances will be due only to the load.

19
3.5 ACTIVITIES

3.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic

3.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

a. Record experimental result in Table 3.3.
b. Calculate the forces at support Ra and Rb theoretically for each test. [Show
calculation method]
c. Calculate the total forces (Ra + Rb) for both experimental and
theoretically.[Show calculation method]

3.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make an observations of the experiment that you have conducted

3.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Shows your calculations

3.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (15%)

a. Discuss the value of Ra, Rb and (Ra + Rb) obtained. (5%)
b. Compare experimental and theoretical value. If not same, why? (5%)
c. Explain about the steps to analyze a beam. What factors that effected the
reaction of a beam? (5%)

3.5.6 QUESTIONS (10%)

a. If the weight of the beam was an important factor to be considered, how would
you include it in a calculation? (5%)
b. What type of load would be carried by the beam supporting the roof if a heavy
snow fall lay on a flat roof? (5%)

20
3.5.7 CONCLUSION (15%)
a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements

3.5.8 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard

3.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Meriam, J.L. And Kraige, L.G., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 6th S.I.
Edition, John Wiley & Sons,Inc. Call number: TA350. M47 2007.
2. Hibbeler, R.C., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 12th Edition, Prentice-
Hall International. Call number:TA351. H52 2009.
3. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R. And Flori R.E., 2008. “Mechanics for Engineers –
Statics”, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill. Call number: TA350. B44 2008

21
3.7 DATA SHEETS

Table 3.2 Results

Calculated value Comparison

Experimental value
(theory)
Test
Ra Rb Ra + Rb Ra Rb Ra + Rb Same /
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) Not same

Test 1

Test 2

Test 3

Test 4

Test 5

Test 6

Test 7

Test 8

Weight of EX8A : ______________ N

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

22
3.8 APPENDICES

A: TESTING FIGURES
All dimensions are in millimetres (mm) and all weights are in Newton (N).

Figure 3.3 Test Setup

23
B: KEY TO SYMBOLS

Table 3.2 Key of symbol for test setup

24
 TOPIC 4
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Investigate the principle of moments for parallel and non-parallel forces. (LO3,
LO4, LO5)

CONTENTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The principle of moments is frequently used in engineering and building work where
forces have to be balanced to prevent any turning movement. It can be applied both
to parallel forces and to oblique forces. If a body has several forces applied to it which
have turning effects in opposite directions, the body will not turn if the total turning
moment in each direction are equal. This is called Principle of moments.

4.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

A concept often used in mechanics is the principle of moments, which is sometimes

referred to as a Varignon’s theorem since it was originally developed by the French
mathematician Varignon. The moment of a force indicates the tendency of a body to
turn about an axis passing through a specific point, which defined as:

M = F x d (in Nm) ……………………… (1)

Which, F is the action of force;

d, is the perpendicular distance between F and centre of moment.
(Figures 4.1a and 4.1b)

25
When forces produce a turning effect, this turning effect can be measured by the
product (W x A) where (W) is the force and (A) is the perpendicular distance between
the pivot and the line of the force (see Figure 4.1). The product of (W x A) is called
turning moment of the force.

Figure 4.1 Turning moment

The principle of moments states that the moment of a force about a point is equal to
the sum of the moments of the forces components about the point. For a body in
equilibrium or not rotate:

The Moment Clockwise = The Moments Anti-Clockwise (refer to Figure 4.1c).

So,
F1d1 - F2A = 0

F1 A
= ……………………….. (2)
F2 d1

26
4.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 4.1 Principles of Moments Equipment List

No. Apparatus Qty.
1 Panel board 1
2 Pivot bar and stop ( EX5) 2
3 Pulleys ( P12) 4
4 Nuts 6
5 Screw 5
6 Weight hook ( P10) 1
7 Cord approx (40cm long) 1
8 Set of weights 1

4.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

1. Set up the panel board as shown in Figure 4.2. Ensure pivot bar is in balance
and attached pulley using bolt and nut.

Figure 4.2 Experiment Setup

27
2. Hang weight hooks from the end holes of the bar entering the hook from the
back of the bar (refer Figure 4.3a). The weight of hooks each weight 0.1N.
3. Add a 1.9N load to each hook to make the total of 2N.
4. Record the value of F1 and F2. Then measure and record the distance d1 and
d2.
5. Move the right hand weight hook to a hole nearer the pivot bar (Refer Figure
4.3b) and load it with just sufficient weighs to balance the bar in the level
position.
6. Record the weight value F2 and the distance d2
7. Then, hang right hand weight hook (without weight) through pulley (refer Figure
4.3c).
8. Load the weight hook to balance the bar.
9. Record the weight value F2 and the perpendicular distance d2.
10. Set up the panel as shown in Figure 4.3d, repeat the procedure from 7 to 9 with
the cord passing over the left hand pulley and attach to the lowest hole of the
centre arm of the bar.
11. Fill in the Table 4.2.

Figure 4.3a Test 1

28
Figure 4.3b Test 2

Figure 4.3c Test3

Figure 4.3d Test4

29
4.5 ACTIVITIES

4.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic

4.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

F1 A
a. Plot a graph for vs
F2 d1

b. Calculate the Moment for Left Pivot Bar and Right Pivot Bar.
c. Calculate the ratio of forces and distance.

3.8.1 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted

3.8.2 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Shows your calculations

4.5.3 DISCUSSIONS (15%)

a. Discuss the graph obtained. (5%)
b. Discuss your opinion about the summation of moment from your experiment
results. (5%)
c. If the moment is nonzero, what are the factors may influence the experiment.
(5%)

4.5.4 QUESTIONS (10%)

a. What is the principle of moment and how moments achieved? (5%)
b. What does the principles of Moment state about the turning moments of
forces acting on a body?(5%)

4.5.5 CONCLUSIONS (15%)

a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements

30
4.5.6 REFERENCES (5%)
a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard

4.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Meriam, J.L. And Kraige, L.G., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 6th S.I.
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Call number: TA350. M47 2007.
2. Hibbeler, RC., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 12th Edition, Prentice-
Hall International. Call number: TA351. H52 2009.
3. Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R. And Flori R.E., 2008. “Mechanics for Engineers –
Statics”, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill. Call number: TA350. B44 2008

31
4.7 DATA SHEETS

Table 4.2 Results

Moment Left Pivot Bar Right Pivot Bar Total Ratio

Test

F1 d1 M1 F2 A M2 M1 - M2 F1 A
(N) (m) (Nm) (N) (m) (Nm) (Nm) F2 d1

Figure
2.0
4.3a

Figure
2.0
4.3b

Figure
2.0
4.3c

Figure
2.0
4.3d

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

32
 TOPIC 5
FRICTION ON THE INCLINED PLANE

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Determine the coefficient of friction. (LO3, LO4, LO5)
2. Investigate the friction on the inclined plane. (LO3, LO4, LO5)
3. Investigate that a force (applied parallel to the plane) required to slide a block
up the plane, is equal to W ( sin    cos ), where  is an angle of inclination
of plane. (LO3, LO4, LO5)

CONTENTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Friction can be defined as a force of resistance acting on a body that prevents or

retards slipping of the body relative to a second body or surface with which it is in
contact. This force always act tangent to the surface at points of contact with other
bodies. This friction force is opposite to the existing motion of the body relative to these
points.

5.2 EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

When a block is placed on an incline, the tendency is for the block to slide down the
plane. If the angle of inclination is small the block is prevented from slipping by the
friction between the surfaces. As the angle is increased, the force exerted down the
plane due to the weight of the block also increases, but the force pressing the surfaces

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together will decrease. At the angle of friction, the force acting down the plane just to
overcome the friction and sliding takes place. This could be described as in Figure 5.1.

The sum of forces (parallel to the inclined plane), F  0

Thus, P  S  F (1)
S  Wsinθ
Where, R  Wcosθ
F  μR  μWcosθ
 P  Wsinθ  μWcosθ (2)

P : the force that required to overcome the friction to pull a block up the plane
S : the force acting down the plane due to the weight.
R : the force pressing down the surfaces together causing friction.
F : the friction force

The coefficient of friction, μ :

P  0;S  F  μR
From Equation (1): If
 Wsinθ  μWcosθ

sinθ
μ  tanθ …(3)
cosθ

Where,  : is the angle of inclination of plane and  is the coefficient of friction.

S
θ
F R
θ W
θ

Figure 5.1 Friction on the inclined plane diagram

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5.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENTS

Table 5.1 Friction on Inclined Plane Equipment list

No. Apparatus Qty.
1 Plane Assembly 1
2 Friction Block with Cord 1
3 Knurled Nuts 2
4 Plumb Bob & Line 1
5 Weight Hook 1
6 Set of Weight 1
7 10N Spring Balance 1
8 Set of Trigonometrically Table

Figure 5.2 Experiment Setup

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 Figure 5.3 Friction on the inclined plane diagram

5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

TEST 1 (Find the coefficient of friction)

1. Secure the mounting panel as shown in Figure 5.2. Hang the plumb line over
the protractor centre screw. Weigh the block for three (3) times and record its
average weight.
2. Use metal surface of the block placed in contact with the wooden surface of the
plane.
3. Place the block at the right hand end of the plane and tilt the plane until the
block slides down the plane with uniform speed.
4. Give the block a starting push to overcome static friction.
5. When the correct angle has been obtained, measure the angle at the protractor
recorded against the plumb line.
6. Record this angle which is the Angle of Friction (  ) for steel against wood.

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TEST 2
1. Do not alter the angle of plane which is now at angle of friction,  as shown in
Figure 5.3.
2. Place the block at the left hand end of the plane and place the cord over the
pulley.
3. Attach the weight hook to the end of the cord and apply weights until the block
slides up the plane with slow uniform speed.
4. Once again, give the block a light starting push to overcome static friction.
5. Record this weight (including the weight hook of 0.1N).

TEST 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
1. Repeat as for Test 2 for angles of 0°, 10°, 20°, 30° and 45°.

5.5 ACTIVITIES

5.5.1 ADDITIONAL THEORY (10%)

a. Please describe additional theory according to this topic.

5.5.2 RESULTS (15%)

1. Complete the Table 5.2.
2. Calculate the Coefficient of Friction by using equation (3) for Test 1
3. In the case of angle of plane’s inclination,  equal to 0 , calculate the value of
the coefficient of the friction,  and the weight of block, W.
4. Calculate the value of P for each angle including (P) at the angle of Friction ( 
).

5.5.3 OBSERVATIONS (20%)

a. Please make observations of the experiment that you have conducted

5.5.4 CALCULATIONS (10%)

a. Shows your calculations.

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5.5.5 DISCUSSIONS (15%)
a. Discuss the values of ‘P’ obtained by experiment and calculation. Compare
those values with the force (S) acting down the plane. (5%)
b. Suggest some reasons why there are differences occur between the values of
‘P’ by experiment and ‘P’ by calculation. (5%)
c. State the differences between friction on the horizontal plane and friction on the
inclined plane. (5%)

5.5.6 QUESTIONS (10%)

a. What is the connection between the Angle of Friction and the Coefficient of
Friction? (5%)
b. Explain two (2) engineering applications showing the significance of the friction
on the inclined plane. (5%)

5.5.7 CONCLUSION(15%)
a. Deduce conclusions from the experiment. Please comment on your
experimental work in terms of achievement, problems faced throughout the
experiment and suggest recommendation for improvements.

5.5.8 REFERENCES (5%)

a. Please list down your references according to APA citation standard.

5.6 SUGGESTED REFERENCES

1. Meriam, J.L. And Kraige, L.G., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 6th S.I.
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Call number: TA350. M47 2007.
2. Hibbeler, RC., 2007, “Engineering Mechanics: Statics”, 12th Edition, Prentice-
Hall International. Call number: TA351. H52 2009.

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5.7 DATA SHEETS

TABLE 5.2 Data Results.

The applied force Comparison

The angle of
Test
inclination of
No.
plane,  ‘P’ by ‘P’ by
% of difference
Experiment Calculation

Test 2  = _____°

Test 3 0°

Test 4 20°

Test 5 30°

Test 6 40°

Test 7 45°

* Data sheet must approved by the instructor

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