A

MAJOR TRAINING REPORT

ON
“COMMUNICATION SYSTEM & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY”

(INDIAN RAILWAY)
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF BACHELOR’S DEGREE IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA

(UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OF MADHYA PRADESH)

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Sanjay Kumar Singh Mr.Yashwant Arse

0189EC093D03 (H.O.D .Department E.C.E.)

 (BHOPAL )

A
Major Training Report
On
“Communication System & Information Technology”

Submitted to:
RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALYA
BHOPAL
(UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OF MADHYA PRADESH)

In partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of

Bachelor of Engineering Degree in Electronics & Communication Engineering
(SESSION-2011-12)

Submitted By: Submitted To:

Sanjay kumar singh M.r. Yashwant Arse
(0189EC093D03) (H.O.D. Department of E.C.E.)
WEST CENTRAL RAILWAY

TRAINING CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Sanjay kumar singh, a 4th year student of Electronics
and Communication branch from Sri satya sai college of
e n g i n e e r i n g Bhopal had completed a summer/ vocational training on
“Communication system and Information Technology” from WCR during 25/06/2011 to
25/07/2011 in the following modules:-

 Solid state interlocking

 Optical Fiber Communication
 Microwave Communication

We wish her success for his future.

Date: 25/07/2011 Asst. Div. Signal & Telecom Engg.

(Telecom) Bhopal
 SRI SATYA SAI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(BHOPAL)

Electronics And Communication Engineering

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work presented in this Major training is outcome
of my own work, is bonfire, correct to the best of my knowledge and this
work has been carried out taking care of Engineering Ethics. The work
presented does not infringe any patented work and has not been submitted
to any University for the award of any degree or professional diploma.

Place: bhopal Sanjay kumar singh

Date: 0189EC093D03
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Acknowledgement

2. Abstract

3. Introduction

4. Module 1-Solid State Interlocking

o Introduction
o A Whistle-stop Tour of Railway Signaling
o Operation of Solid State Interlocking
o Overall System Architecture
o Generic SSI Software

5. Module 2-Optical Fiber Communication

o Introduction
o Optical Fiber Communication System
o Origin And Characteristics of Optical Fiber
o Operation of Optical Fiber
o A Fiber-Optic Relay System
o Application of Optical Fiber
o Advantages Of Optical Fiber
o Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

6. Module 3-Microwave Communication

o Introduction
o History of Telegraphic Signals
o Origin of Microwave Signals
o Microwave Communication Satellites
o Generation and Frequency Bands of Microwave Signals
o Microwave and Waveguides
o Uses of Microwave Signal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly or indirectly
contributed in the development of this work and who influenced my
thinking, behavior, and acts during the course of study.

I express my sincere gratitude to Dr, worthy Principal for providing us an

opportunity to undergo Industrial Training at West Central Railway.

I am thankful to Mr. Manish Choudhary, my Trainer for his support,

cooperation, and motivation provided during the training for constant
inspiration, presence and blessings.

I also extend my sincere appreciation to Mr. Yashwant Arse, (HOD - ECE)

who provided his valuable suggestions and precious time in accomplishing
our project report.

Lastly, I would like to thank the almighty and my parents for their moral
support and friends with whom I shared day-to-day experience and
received lots of suggestions that improved my quality of work.

Sanjay kumar singh

1
 ABSTRACT

This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from

theoretical computer science may be applied to yield significant insight into
the behavior of the d e v i c e s c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e
s e e k s t o p u t i n p l a c e , a n d t h a t t h i s i s immediately attainable with the present
state of the art. The focus for this detailed study i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e t y p e o f s o l i d
s t a t e s i g n a l i n g a n d v a r i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m s currently being
deployed throughout mainline railways. Safety and system reliability
concerns dominate in this domain. With such motivation, two issues are
tackled: the special problem of software quality assurance in these data-
driven control systems, and the broader problem of design dependability. In the
former case, the analysis is directed towards proving safety properties of the geographic
data which encode the control
logicf o r t h e r a i l w a y i n t e r l o c k i n g ; t h e l a t t e r e x a m i n e s t h e f i d e l i t y o f t h e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n protocols upon which the distributed control system depends.

2
 INTRODUCTION

Signaling is one of the most important aspects of Railway communication. In

the very early days of the railways there was no fixed signaling to inform the driver of
the state of t h e l i n e a h e a d . T r a i n s w e r e d r i v e n “ o n s i g h t ” .
B u t s e v e r a l u n p l e a s a n t i n c i d e n t s accentuated the need for an efficient
signaling system. Earliest system involved the Time Interval technique. Here time
intervals were imposed between trains mostly around 10 mins. But due to the
frequent breakdown of trains in those days this technique resulted in rear-end
collisions. This gave rise to the fixed signaling system wherein the track was
divided into fixed sections and each section was protected by a fixed
signaling. This system is still being continued although changes have been
brought about in the basic signaling methods. Earlier mechanical signals
were used but today block signaling is through electric instruments. In the mid
19th century mechanical interlocking was used. The purpose was to prevent
the route for a train from being set up and its protecting signal
cleared if there
wasa l r e a d y a n o t h e r c o n f l i c t i n g r o u t e s e t u p . T h e m o s t m o d e r n
d e v e l o p m e n t i n s i g n a l interlocking is SSI- a means of controlling the
safety requirements at junctions using electronic circuits which replaced the
relay systems supplied up to that time. In
IndianR a i l w a y s , f i r s t t r i a l i n s t a l l a t i o n o f S S I w a s p r o v i d e d a t S r i r a n g a
m s t a t i o n i n 1 9 8 7 . Nowadays Track Circuits are used wherein the current
flow in the track circuit will be interrupted by the presence of wheels and a
“stop” signal will be shown. A “proceed” signal will be displayed if the current
flows.

3
 MODULE 1

SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

4
 INTRODUCTION

Solid State Interlocking is a datadriven signal control system

d e s i g n e d f o r u s e throughout the British railway system. SSI is a rep
lacement for electromechanical interlocking
which are based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been
designed with a view to modularity, improved flexibility in serving
t h e n e e d s o f a diversity of rail traffic, and greater economy. The hugely complex
relay circuitry found in many modern signaling installations is expensive to
install, difficult to modify, and requires extensive housing---but the same
functionality can be achieved with a relatively small number of interconnected solid
state elements as long as they are individually sufficiently reliable. SSI has
been designed to be compatible with current signaling practice and principles of
interlocking design, and to maintain the operator's perception of the behavior and
appearance of the control system.

5
 A WHISTLE-STOP TOUR OF RAiILWAY
SIGNALING

Railway signaling engineers face a difficult distributed control problem. Train drivers can
know little of the overall topology of the network through which they pass, or
of the whereabouts of other trains in the network and their requirements.
Safety is therefore invested in the control system, or
interlocking , a n d d r i v e r s a r e r e q u i r e d o n l y t o o b e y signals and speed limits.
The task of the train dispatcher (signalman, or signal operator) is t o a d j u s t t h e
setting of switches and signals to permit or inhibit traffic flow, but
t h e interlocking has to be designed to protect the operator from inadvertently sending
trains along conflicting routes.

6
The network can be operated with more security and efficiency if the
operators have a broad overview of the railway and the distribution of trains.
Since the introduction of mechanical interlocking in the late 1800's, and as the
technology has gradually improved, the tendency has therefore been for control
to become progressively centralized with fewer signal control canters individually
responsible for larger portions of the network. In the last decade
Solid State Interlocking has introduced computer controlled signaling, but the task of
designing a safe interlocking remains essentially unchanged.

At the signal control centre a control panel displays the current distribution of
trains in the network, the current status of {signals}, and sometimes that of point
switches (points)and other signaling equipment. The railway layout is depicted
schematically on the panel.

7
 OPERATION OF SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

There are seven (three aspect) main signals shown here, and three sets of
points. It is British Rail's practice to associate
routes only with main signals. The operator can Selecta route by pressing the button at
the entrance signal (say,S7 ), then pressing the button at the exit signal---the
consecutive main signal, being the entrance signal for the next route(S5). This
sequence of events is interpreted as a panel route request , and is forwarded to the
controlling computer for evaluation. Other panel requests arise from
the points keys which are used to manually call (and hold) the points to the
specified position or from button pull events (to cancel a route by pulling the
entrance signal button).

Figure: Signals (Si) on the control panel appear on the left to the direction of travel,
each signal has a lamp indicator, and each main signal has a button. Switches (points,
I) show the normal
Position, and there is usually a points key on the panel so one can throw the points
`manually'. Lamps illuminate those track sections (Ti) over which routes are
locked (white), and those in which there are trains (red).
8
When the controlling computer receives a panel route request it evaluates the
availabilityc o n d i t i o n s s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e r o u t e . T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r
e g i v e n i n a d a t a b a s e b y Geographic
Which the control program evaluates in its on-going dialogue with the network. If the
availability conditions are met the system responds by highlighting the track
sections along the selected route on the display (otherwise the request is
simply discarded). At this point the route is said to be
locked : no conflicting route should be locked concurrently, and a property of the
interlocking we should certainly verify is that no conflicting route can be locked
concurrently.
O n c e a r o u t e i s l o c k e d t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y set the
route. Firstly, this involves calling the points along the route into correct
alignment. Secondly, the route must be proved
t h i s i n c l u d e s c h e c k i n g t h a t p o i n t s a r e c o r r e c t l y a l i g n e d , t h a t t h e filame
nts in the signal lamps are drawing current, and that signals controlling conflicting routes
are on (i.e., red). Finally, the entrance signal can be switched off when the route is clear
of other traffic--- a driver approaching the signal will see it change from red to some
less restrictive aspect (green, yellow, etc.), and an indicator on the control
panel will be illuminated to notify the operators.

The operation of Solid State Interlocking is organized around the concept of

a polling cycle. During this period the controlling computer will exchange
messages with each piece of signaling equipment to which it is attached. An outgoing
command telegram will drive the track-side equipment to the desired state, and
an incoming data telegram will report the current state of the device.
Signaling equipment is interfaced with the SSI communications system
through track-side functional modules. A p o i n t s m o d u l e w i l l report whether
the switch is detected normal or
Detected reverse depending on which, if either, of the electrical contacts in the
switch is closed. A signal module will report the status of the lamp proving
circuit in the signal: if no current is flowing through the lamp filaments the lamp proving
input in the data telegram will warn the signal operators about the faulty signal.

Other than conveying status information about points and signals, track -side
functional modules report the current positions of trains. These are inferred from track
circuit inputs to the modules. Track circuits are identified with track sections
which are electrically insulated from one another. If the low voltage applied
across the rails can be detected, this indicates there is no train in the
section; a train entering the section will short the circuit causing the voltage
to drop and the track section will be recorded as occupied at the control
centre. Track circuits are simple, fail -safe devices, and one of the primaries.
9
Safety features of the railway.
All actions performed by Solid State Interlocking---
w h e t h e r i n r e s p o n s e t o p e r i o d i c inputs from the track-side equipment, a
periodic panel requests, or in preparing out going command telegrams---are governed
by rules given in the Geographic Data that configure each Interlocking differently

OVERALL SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

SSI is a multicomputer system with two panel proc essors, a diagnostic
processor,
andt h r e e c e n t r a l i n t e r l o c k i n g p r o c e s s o r s w h i c h o p e r a t e i n r e p a
i r a b l e t r i p l e m o d u l a r redundancy. Higher-order control devices such as
route planning and automatic route setting computers are not part of SSI, but they
can be interfaced with the system.

The central interlocking processors

are responsible for executing all signaling commands and producing correct system
outputs, and operate in TMR to ensure high availability and single fault tolerance in the
presence of occasional hardware faults. These are the safety critical elements of SSI. A
TMR system has been implemented for hardware reliability:

each subsystem is identical, and runs identical software. All outputs are
voted upon, redundantly in each interlocking processor, and the system is designed so
that a module will be disconnected in the event of a majority vote against it ---
SSI will continue to operate as long as the outputs of the remaining modules are in
agreement. A replacement module is updated by the two functioning modules
before being allowed online. (In the sequel we usually refer to the central
interlocking processors collectively as the SSI , or
the Interlocking .)
10
The panel processors a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t a s k s w h i c h a r e n o t s a f e t y
c r i t i c a l s u c h a s interfacing with the signal control panel, the display, and other
systems such as automatic route setting computers. These processors are run in
duplex `hot standby' for reasons of availability. The diagnostic processor is
accessible from a maintenance terminal (the technician's console) through
which the system's performance and fault status can be monitored, and
whereby temporary restrictions on the Inter licking’s behavior can be
introduced. In the latter case this is a provision for temporarily barring
routes, locking points, or imposing other restrictions that are not directly under the
control of the signal operators (for example, at times when there is a need for track
maintenance).

A central feature of SSI is that the controlling computer is directly connected

to track s i d e e q u i p m e n t b y m e a n s o f a d u p l e x d a t a h i g h w a y
carrying discrete signaling information. Track-side functional modules (TFMs)
interface with signals and points to provide power switching under microprocessor
control. Here, duplication of the hardware has been designed to ensure safe response
to failures, but not fault masking: the TFM will s e t i t s o u t p u t s t o t h e m o s t
r e s t r i c t i v e s t a t e ( e . g . , s i g n a l s a t r e d ) w h e n e v e r a f a u l t i s detected or
the duplicated control paths are found to diverge. One point’s module may be
connected to two to four point switches, and can report up to four track circuit inputs. A
signal module is usually connected to one signal and several nearby track circuits, but is
flexible enough for any other desired function.

11
. Figure: Schematic overview of the main features of SSI

The operation of Solid State Interlocking is organized around the concept of

a major cycle. D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h e c e n t r a l i n t e r l o c k i n g w i l l a d d r e s s
e a c h o f t h e t r a c k - s i d e functional modules, and expect a reply from each in
turn. A maximum of 63 TFMs can b e c o n n e c t e d t o o n e S S I , a n d t h e
m a j o r c y c l e i s c o n s e q u e n t l y d i v i d e d i n t o 6 4 minor cycles . In the zeros
cycle data are exchanged with the diagnostic processor. In each minor cycle
the central

12
 Interlocking will decode one incoming message
( o r data telegram) f r o m t h e d a t a highway, and process one outgoi
command telegram.

The cable conveying messages to and from the central interlocking is a screened
twisted pair carrying relatively high signal levels. Cribbers discusses in detail
the performance requirements for this vital component of the syste m: the
minimum refresh rate for theT F M s , t h e n e c e s s i t y o f r e a l -
t i m e e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o d i n g o f t r a n s m i t t e d d a t a , t h e geographic
extent of the interlocking area and the need for an acceptable range without
the need for repeaters (circa 15 km), are all factors that contribute to the
design. A data rate of 20k bits per second has been adopted, and a cyclic polling
strategy implemented tonsure early detection of communications breakdown at
either end of the link. The data path is duplicated and TFMs and central interlocking
are designed to tolerate single fault son the line---detected through missed or corrupted
messages. In each addressing cycle
25 b i t s o f m e s s a g e d a t a a r e p a d d e d w i t h f i v e p a r i t y b i t s t o f o r
m a truncated (31,26).
Hamming code which is transmitted in Manchester encoded biphasic form.
TFMs are configured to reply immediately upon receipt of a message from the central
interlocking. Cribbers argues convincingly that the SSI transmission system is
highly secure.

13
 GENERIC SSI SOFTWARE
SSI has been designed to be data-driven with a generic program operating
on rules held in a `geographic' database. These data configure each SSI
installation differently, and define the specific interlocking functions
(although the more primitive functions are directly supported by the
software). The relationship between generic program and th e data is one in
which the former acts as an interpreter for the latter---for this reason we
usually refer to the generic software as the
control interpreter i n t h e s e q u e l . T h e Motorola 6800 microprocessors used in
SSI have a 16-bit address space: 60---80k byte sare EPROM which hold the generic
program (about 20k bytes), and the Geographic Data;2k bytes are RAM, and the rest is
used for input and output devices. The modest RAM is used, mainly, to hold
the system's record of the state of the railway---generally referred to as the image of the
railway, or the internal state in the sequel.
All SSI software is organized on a cyclic basis with the major cycle determining the rate
at which track-side equipment receive fresh commands, and the rate at which
the image of the railway is updated. During one minor cycle the generic
program: performs allr e d u n d a n c y m a n a g e m e n t , s e l f -
t e s t a n d e r r o r r e c o v e r y p r o c e d u r e s ; u p d a t e s s y s t e m (software) timers
and exchanges data with external devices such as panel processors;
decodes one incoming data telegram and processes an associated block of
Geographic Data; and processes the data associated with one outgoing command
telegram. The latter phase is the most computational intensive part of the
standard minor cycle because it is through these data that the Interlocking
calculates the correct signal aspects.
The SSI minor cycle has a minimum duration of 9.5 ms, and a minimum major cycle
time of 608 ms. However, SSI can operate reliably with a major cycle of up to 1,000 ms,
with an individual minor cycle extensible to 30 ms. This flexibility is needed
for handling panel requests. If the required minor cycle processes mentioned above
can be completed in under the minimum minor cycle time, the control
interpreter will process one of any pending.

14
panel requests (which are stored in a ring buffer). The data
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a n e l request must not require more than a further 20
ms of processing time---the data are structured such that accurate timing
predictions can be made at compile time. If the minor c y c l e i s t o o l o n g t h e t r a c k -
s i d e f u n c t i o n a l m o d u l e s w i l l i n t e r p r e t t h e g a p s b e t w e e n messages as
data link faults, and will drive the equipment to the safe state in error.

The initialization software compares the internal state of each of the three
interlocking processors to determine the required start up procedure. When
power is first applied a

`mode 1' startup

is necessary: this sets the internal state to a (designated) saf
e configuration, forces all output telegrams to drive the track -side equipment
to the safe state and disables processing of panel requests; after a suitable delay so
that TFM input scan bring the internal state up to date, the Interlocking can be enabled
under super visionfrom the technician's console. After a short power failure
much of the contents of RAM will have been preserved and a `mode 2' or
`mode 3' start up is appropriate. A `mode 2'start up resets the internal state
to the safe configuration but preserves any restrictions t h a t h a d b e e n
applied through the technician's co nsole---the system is disabled for
a period long enough for all trains to come to a halt, and
a l l o w e d t o r e s t a r t n o r m a l operation automatically. A `mode 3' start up
involves a similar reset but the status of routes is also preserved, and the system
restarts immediately

15
 MODULE 2
OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

16
 INTRODUCTION

The demand for high-capacity long

haul telecommunication systems isi n c r e a s i n g a
t a s t e a d y r a t e , a n d i s e x p e c t e d t o a c c e l e r a
t e i n t h e n e x t decade. At the same time, communication
n e t w o r k s w h i c h c o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s a n d serve large areas with a large
information capacity are also in increasing demand. To satisfy
the requirements on long distances, the communication channel must have
a very low loss. On the other hand, a large information capacity can only be
achieved with aide system bandwidth which can support a high data bit rate
(> Gb it/s) [3]. Reducing t h e l o s s w h i l s t i n c r e a s i n g t h e b a n d w i d t h o f t h e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s i s t h e r e f o r e ssential for future telecommunications
systems.

Of the many different communication channel available optical fiber proved to the
most p r o m i s i n g d u e t o i t s l o w a t t e n u a t i o n , l o w l o s s e s a n d v a r i o u s
o t h e r a d v a n t a g e s o v e r twisted cables and other means of transmission.

17
Communication between stations and signalmen is done through telephone.
In some places, IR still uses twisted pair cables and elderly Stronger exchanges. This
is currently being upgraded to optical fiber and microwave communications.
The main impetus for this change came from the Department of
Telecommunications, who no longer had the expertise to maintain a large
network of heritage technology. Drivers and guards were equipped with VHF
radio systems in 1999 to communicate with each other and with station
masters

18
 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
A thin glass strand designed for light transmission. A single hair-thin fiber is capable
of transmitting trillions of bits per second. In addition to their huge transmission capacity,
optical fibers offer many advantages over electricity and copper wire. Light pulses are
not affected by random radiation in the environment, and their error rate is
significantly lower. Fibers allow longer distances to be spanned before the signal has
to be regenerated by expensive "repeaters." Fibers are more secure, because taps in
the line can be detected, and lastly, fiber installation is streamlined due to their
dramatically lower weight and smaller size compared to copper cables.

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Optical fiber v/s copper cablesT h e o p t i c a l f i b e r a c t s a s a l o w l o s s , w i d e

bandwidth transmission channel. A light source is required to emit
light signal which are modulated by the signal data. To enhance the
performance of the system, a spectrally.

19
The optical fiber acts as a low loss, wide bandwidth
transmission channel. A light source is required to emit light signals,
which are modulated by the signal data. To enhance the
performance of the system, a spectrally
pure light source is required. Advances in semiconductor laser
technology, especially after the invention of
doubleh e t e r o s t r u c t u r e s ( D H ) , r e s u l t e d i n s t a b l e , e f f i c i e n t ,
s m a l l - s i z e d a n d c o m p a c t semiconductor laser diodes (SLDs).
U s i n g s u c h c o h e r e n t l i g h t s o u r c e s i n c r e a s e s t h e bandwidth of the
signal which can be transmitted in a simple intensity modulated (IM)
system [13]. Other modulation methods, such as phase shift k
e y i n g ( P S K ) a n d frequency-shift keying (FSK), can also be used. These can be
achieved either by directly modulating the injection current to the SLD or by
using an external electro or acousto -optic modulator

ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL

FIBER
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, telephone companies began to use fibers extensively
to rebuild their communications infrastructure. According to KMI Corporation, specialists
in fiber optic market research, by the end of 1990 there were approximately eight million
miles of fiber laid in the U.S. (this is miles of fiber, not miles of cable which can contain
many fibers). By the end of 2000, there were 80 million miles in the U.S. and 225 million
worldwide. Copper cable is increasingly being replaced with fibers for
LAN back bones as well, and this usage is expected to increase substantially.

Pure Glass
An optical fiber is constructed of a transparent core made of nearly pure silicon dioxide
(SiO2), through which the light travels. The core is surrounded by a cladding layer that
reflects light, guiding the light along the core. A plastic coating covers the cladding
to protect the glass surface. Cables also include fibers of Kevlar and/or steel wires
for strength and an outer sheath of plastic or Teflon for protection.

20
Enormous Bandwidth

For glass fibers, there are two "optical windows" where the fiber is most transparent
ande f f i c i e n t . T h e c e n t e r s o f t h e s e w i n d o w s a r e 1 3 0 0 n m a
n d 1 5 5 0 n m , p r o v i d i n g approximately 18,000GHz and 12,000GHz
respectively, for a total of 30,000GHz. This enormous bandwidth is
potentially usable in one fiber. Plastic is also used for short -distance fiber
runs, and their transparent windows are typically 650 nm and in the 750 -900
nm range.

Singlemode and Multimode

There are two primary types of fiber. For intercity cabling and highest speed, single
mode fiber with a core diameter of less than 10 microns is used. Multimode fiber is very
common for short distances and has a core diameter from 50 to 100 microns. See laser,
WDM, fiber optics glossary and cable categories.

21
 OPERATION OF OPTICAL FIBER
In an optical fiber, a refracted ray is one that is refracted from the core into the cladding.
Specifically a ray having direction such that where r is the radial distance from the
fiber axis, φ(r ) is the azimuthally angle of projection of the ray at r on the transverse
plane, θ(r )is the angle the ray makes with the fiber axis,
n(r ) is the refractive index at r ,n(a) is the refractive index at the core radius, a.
Refracted rays correspond to radiation modes in the terminology of mode descriptors.
For the fiber to guide the optical signal, the refractive index of the core must be slightly
higher than that of the cladding. In different types of fibers, the core and
core-cladding boundary function slightly differently in guiding the signal.
Especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound
mode travels in the cladding.

22
The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly bouncing
from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal reflection. Because
the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave
c a n t r a v e l g r e a t distances. However, some of the light signal degrade
s
within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the glass. The extent that the
signal degrades depends on the purity of the g l a s s a n d t h e w a v e l e n g t h o f
t h e t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t ( f o r e x a m p l e , 8 5 0 n m = 6 0 t o 7 5 percent/km;
1,300 nm = 50 to 60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is greater than 50
percent/km).S o m e p r e m i u m o p t i c a l f i b e r s s h o w m u c h l e s s s i g n a l
d e g r a d a t i o n - - l e s s t h a n 1 0 percent/km at 1,550 nm

A FIBER-OPTICRELAY SYSTEM

To understand how optical fibers are used in communications systems, let's look at an
example from a World War II movie or documentary where two naval ships in a fleet
need to communicate with each other while maintaining radio silence or on stormy seas.
One ship pulls up alongside the other. The captain of one ship sends a message to a
sailor on deck. The sailor translates the message into Morse code (dots and
dashes) and uses a signal light (floodlight with a Venetian blind type shutter on it) to
send the message to the other ship. A sailor on the deck of the other ship sees the
Morse code message, decodes it into English and sends the message up to the
captain. Now, imagine doing this when the ships are on either side of the ocean
separated by thousands of miles and you have a fiber-optic communication system in
place between the two ships. Fiber-optic relay systems consist of the following:

23
Transmitter- Produces and encodes the light signals
Optical fiber- Conducts the light signals over a distance
Optical regenerator- May be necessary to boost the light signal (for long distances)
Optical receiver- Receives and decodes the light signals

Transmitter
The transmitter is like the sailor on the deck of the sending ship. It receives and directs
the optical device to turn the light "on" and "off" in the correct sequence, there by
generating a light signal. The transmitter is physically close to the optical fiber and may
even have a lens to focus the light into the fiber. Lasers have more power than LEDs,
but vary more with changes in temperature and are more expensive. The most common
wavelengths of light signals are 850 nm, 1,300 nm, and 1,550 nm (infrared, non-visible
portions of the spectrum).

Optical Regenerator
As mentioned above, some signal loss occurs when the light is transmitted through the
fiber, especially over long distances (more than a half mile, or about 1 km) such as with
undersea cables. Therefore, one or more optical regenerators is spliced along the cable
to boost the degraded light signals

An optical regenerator consists of optical fibers with a special coating (doping). The
doped portion is "pumped" with a laser. When the degraded signal comes into the
doped coating, the energy from the laser allows the doped molecules to become lasers
themselves. The doped molecules then emit a new, stronger light signal with the same
characteristics as the incoming weak light signal. Basically, the regenerator is a
laser amplifier for the incoming signal. See Photonics.com: Fiber Amplifiers for more
details.

Optical Receiver
The optical receiver is like the sailor on the deck of the receiving ship. It takes the
incoming digital light signals, decodes them and sends the electrical signal to the
other user's computer, TV or telephone (receiving ship's captain). The receiver uses a
photo cellor photodiode to detect the light

24
 USES OF OPTICAL FIBER
The optical fiber can be used as a medium for
t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d n e t w o r k i n g because it is flexible and can be
bundled as cables. Although fibers can be made out of either transparent
plastic or glass, the fibers used in long -distance
telecommunicationsa p p l i c a t i o n s a r e a l w a y s g l a s s , b e c a u s e o f t h e
l o w e r o p t i c a l a b s o r p t i o n . T h e l i g h t transmitted through
t h e f i b e r i s c o n f i n e d d u e t o t o t a l i n t e r n a l r e f l e c t i o n w i t h i n t h e material.
This is an important property that eliminates signal crosstalk between
fibersw i t h i n t h e c a b l e a n d a l l o w s t h e r o u t i n g o f t h e c a b l e
w i t h t w i s t s a n d t u r n s . I n telecommunications applications, the light used is
typically infrared light, at wavelengths near to the minimum absorption wavelength of
the fiber in use.

Core -Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels

25
Cladding-Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the
core

Buffer coating -Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture
Fibers are generally used in pairs, with one fiber of the pair carrying a signal
in each direction, however bidirectional communications is possible over one strand by
using twodifferent wavelengths (colors) and appropriate coupling/splitting devices.
Fibers, like waveguides, can have various transmission modes. The fibers used for
long-distance communication are known as single mode fibers, as they have
only one strong propagation mode. This results in superior
performance compared to other, multi-modefibers, where light transmitted in the
different modes arrives at different times, resulting in dispersion of the transmitted
signal. Typical single mode fiber optic cables can sustain transmission distances of 80
to 140 km between regenerations of the signal, whereas most multi-mode fiber has a
maximum transmission distance of 300 to 500 meters. Note that
single mode equipment is generally more expensive than multi-mode equipment. Fibers
used in telecommunications typically have a diameter of 125 µm. The transmission core
of single-mode fibers most commonly has a diameter of 9 µm, while multi -
mode cores are available with 50 µm or 62.5 µm diameters.
Because of the remarkably low loss and excellent linearity and dispersion
behavior of single-mode optical fiber, data rates of up to 40 gigabits per second are
possible in real-world use on a single wavelength. Wavelength division multiplexing can
then be used to allow many wavelengths to be used at once on a single fiber,
allowing a single fiber to bear an aggregate bandwidth measured in terabits per
second.

Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand

fibers in a single cable, so the performance of optical network
s e a s i l y a c c o m m o d a t e e v e n t o d a y ' s d e m a n d s f o r bandwidth on a
point-to-point basis. However, unused point-to-point potential band width does not
translate to operating profits, and it is estimated that no more than 1% of the
optical fiber buried in recent years is actually 'lit'.
Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for
applications such as direct burial in trenches, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial
telephone poles, submarine installation, or insertion in paved streets. In recent
years the cost of small f i b e r - c o u n t p o l e m o u n t e d c a b l e s h a s g r e a t l y
d e c r e a s e d d u e t o t h e h i g h J a p a n e s e a n d South Korean demand for Fiber
to the Home (FTTH) installations.
Recent advances in fiber technology have reduced losses so far that no amplification
of the optical signal is needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has
greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where
the cost reliability of amplifiers is one of the key factors determining the performance
of the whole cable system. In the past few years several manufacturers of submarine
cable line terminal equipment have introduced upgrades that promise to quadruple the
capacity of older submarine systems installed in the early to mid 1990s
26
 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER

•Fibers can be used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light
needs to be brought to bear on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.

•Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and
other parameters.

•Bundles of fibers are used along with lenses for long, thin imaging devices called
endoscopes, which are used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes
are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures(endoscopy).
Industrial endoscopes (see fiberscope or bore scope) are used for inspecting anything
hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors.

•In some high-tech buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to
other parts of the building.

•Optical fibers have many decorative applications, including signs and art, artificial
Christmas trees, and lighting

27
 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER
•Low loss, so repeater-less transmission over long distances is possible

•Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, reaching speeds of up

to3TB/s)

•Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses (but

can be damaged by alpha and beta radiation)

•No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop

•High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between

areas with different earth potentials

•Low weigh Signals contain very little power

28
 DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER

•Higher cost

•Need for more expensive optical transmitters and receivers

•More difficult and expensive to splice than wires

•At higher optical powers, is susceptible to "fiber fuse" wherein a bit too much light
meeting with an imperfection can destroy several meters per second . A" Fiber fuse"
protection device at the transmitter can break the circuit to prevent damage, if the
extreme conditions for this are deemed possible.

•Cannot carry electrical power to operate terminal devices. However, current

telecommunication trends greatly reduce this concern: availability of cell phones and
wireless PDAs; the routine inclusion of back-up batteries in communication devices;
lack of real interest in hybrid metal-fiber cables; and increased use of fiber-based
intermediate systems).
29
 MODULE 3
MICROWAVECOMMUNICATION

30
 INTRODUCTION
The international telecommunications system relies on microwave and satellite links
for long-distance international calls. Cable links are increasingly made of optical fibers.
Thec a p a c i t y o f t h e s e l i n k s i s e n o r m o u s . T h e T D R S -
C ( t r a c k i n g a n d d a t a - r e l a y s a t e l l i t e communications) satellite, the world’s
largest and most complex satellite can transmit ina single second the contents of a
20-volume encyclopedia, with each volume containing1,200 pages of 2,000
words. A bundle of optical fibers, no thicker than a finger, can carry10,000 phone calls –
more than a copper wire as thick as an arm.

Microwave image of 3C353 galaxy at 8.4 GHz (36 mm). The overall linear size of the
radio structure is120 kpc.

31
 HISTORY OF TELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS

Telegraph operators in a ‘cable room’ during the late 1950s or early 1960s. At this time,
telegrams were encoded as perforations on tape. The tape was fed into a
machine that read the perforations and sent them as signals down a land line. A
receiver at the far
endr e p r o c e s s e d t h e m e s s a g e b a c k o n t o t a p e . A t e l e p h o n e o p e r a t o r w
o u l d t h e n r i n g t h e intended recipient and read out the message.

A telegraph receiver invented by the British physicist Charles Wheatstone in about

1840.In addition to the telegraph, Wheatstone also invented the rheostat
(variable electrical resistor), and carried out experiments in underwater
telegraphy. He also invented the concertina and the symphonies, a chromatic
mouth organ.

Communications over a distance, generally by electronic means. Long -

distance voice communication was pioneered in 1876 by Scottish scientist Alexander
Graham Bell when h e i n v e n t e d t h e t e l e p h o n e . T h e t e l e g r a p h , r a d i o , a n d
t e l e v i s i o n f o l l o w e d . T o d a y i t i s possible to communicate internationally by
telephone cable or by satellite or microwave link, with over 100,000 simultaneous
conversations and several television channels being carried by the latest satellites.

32
 ORIGIN OF MICROWAVE SIGNALS

The first mechanical telecommunications systems were semaphore and the

heliograph(using flashes of sunlight), invented in the mid -19th century, but
the forerunner of
the p r e s e n t t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a g e w a s t h e e l e c t r i c t e l e g r a p h . T h e
e a r l i e s t p r a c t i c a b l e telegraph instrument was invented by William Cooke and
Charles Wheatstone in Britain in 1837 and used by railway companies. In the USA,
Samuel Morse invented a signaling code, Morse code, which is still used, and a
recording telegraph, first used commercially between England and France in 1851.
Following German physicist Heinrich Hertz’s discovery of electromagnetic waves, Italian
inventor Guglielmo Marconi pioneered a ‘wireless’ telegraph, ancestor of the
radio. He established wireless communication between England and France in 1899
and across the Atlantic in 1901.

The modern telegraph uses teleprinters to send

c o d e d m e s s a g e s a l o n g telecommunications lines. Telegraphs are
keyboard-operated machines that transmit af ive -
unit Baudot code (see baud). The receiving teleprinter automatically
p r i n t s t h e received message. The modern version of the telegraph is e-mail in which
text messages are sent electronically from computer to c omputer via network
connections such as the Internet.

33
 MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION SATTELITES
The chief method of relaying long-
d i s t a n c e c a l l s o n l a n d i s m i c r o w a v e r a d i o transmission. The
drawback to long-distance voice communication via microwave radio transmission is
that the transmissions follow a straight line from tower to tower, so that over the sea
the system becomes impracticable. A solution was put forward in 1945
byt h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w r i t e r A r t h u r C C l a r k e , w h e n h
e p r o p o s e d a s y s t e m o f communications satellites in an orbit
35,900 km/22,300 mi above the Equator, where they would circle the Earth in
exactly 24 hours, and thus appear fixed in the sky. Such
as y s t e m i s n o w i n o p e r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , b y I n t e l s a t . T h e s
a t e l l i t e s a r e c a l l e d geostationary satellites (sitcoms). The first to be
successfully launched, by Delta rocket from Cape Canaveral, was Sitcoms

2 in July 1963. Many such satellites are now in use, concentrated over heavy traffic
areas such as the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. Telegraphy, telephony,
and television transmissions are carried simultaneously by high-frequency radio
waves. They are beamed to the satellites from large dish ant ennae or Earth
stations, which connect with international networks

34
 GENERATION AND FREQUENCY BANDS
OFMICROWAVE SIGNALS

Microwaves can be generated by a variety of means, generally

d i v i d e d i n t o t w o categories: solid state devices and vacuum-tube based
devices. Solid state microwave devices are based on semiconductors such
as silicon or gallium arsenide, and includefield -
effect transistors (FET's), bipolar junction transistors (BJT's), Gunn diodes, a
ndIMPATT diodes. Specialized versions of standard transistors have been
developed for higher speeds which are commonly used in microwave applications.
Microwave variants of BJT's include the hetero junction bipolar transistor (HBT), and
microwave variants of FET's include the MESFET, the HEMT (also known as HFET),
and LDMOS transistor. V a c u u m t u b e b a s e d d e v i c e s o p e r a t e o n t h e
b a l l i s t i c m o t i o n o f e l e c t r o n s i n a v a c u u m under the influence of controlling
electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron, klystron, traveling wave tube
(TWT), and gyration.

35
The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy
ranging
froma p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 G H z t o 1 0 0 0 G H z i n f r e q u e n c y , b u t o l d e r
u s a g e i n c l u d e s l o w e r frequencies. Most common applications are within
the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave Frequency Bands are defined in the table below:

Microwave frequency bands

Designation Frequency range

L Band 1 to 2 GHZ

S Band 2 to 4 GHZ

C Band 4 to 8 GHZ

X Band 8 to 12 GHZ

K Band 12 to 18 GHZ

K Band 18 to 26 GHZ

K Band 26 to 40 GHZ

Q Band 30 to 50 GHZ

U Band 40 to 60 GHZ

V Band 50 to 75 GHZ

E Band 60 to 90 GHZ

W Band 75 to 110 GHZ

F Band 90 to 140 GHZ

D Band 110 to 170 GHZ

36
 MICROWAVE AND WAVEGUIDES

Waveguide, device that controls the propagation of an electromagnetic wave so that

thew a v e i s f o r c e d t o f o l l o w a p a t h d e f i n e d b y t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u
c t u r e o f t h e g u i d e . Waveguides, which are useful chiefly at microwave
frequencies in such applications as connecting the output amplifier of a radar
set to its antenna, typically take the form
of r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w m e t a l t u b e s b u t h a v e a l s o b e e n b u i l t i n t o i n t e g r
a t e d c i r c u i t s . A waveguide of a given dimension will not propagate
electromagnetic waves lower than a certain frequency (the cutoff frequency).
Generally speaking, the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic
wave have a number of possible arrangements when the wave is traveling
through a waveguide. Each of these arrangements is known as a mode of
propagation. Waveguides also have some use at optical frequencies.

In physics, optics, and telecommunication, a waveguide is an inhomogeneous

(structured)material medium that confines and guides a propagating electromagnetic
wave.
In the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, a waveguide normally
consists of a hollow metallic conductor, usually rectangular, elliptical, or circular in cross
section. This type of waveguide may, under certain conditions, contain a solid or
gaseous dielectric material.

In the optical region, a waveguide used as a long transmission line consists of a solid
electric filament (optical fiber), usually circular in cross section. In integrated optical
circuits an optical waveguide may consist of a thin dielectric film.

In the radio frequency region, ionized layers of the stratosphere and refractive surfaces
of the troposphere may also act as an atmospheric waveguide.

In digital computing, the term waveguide can also be used for data buffers used as
delay lines that simulate physical waveguide behavior, such as in digital waveguide
synthesis.

propagation in rectangular and circular waveguide.

37
Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating wavelength and polarization
and the shape and size of the guide. In hollow metallic waveguides, the
fundamental modes are the transverse electric TE1,0 mode for rectangular
and TE 1,1 for circular waveguides, seen here in cross-section:
37
A dielectric waveguide is a waveguide that consists of a dielectric material surrounded
by another dielectric material, such as air, glass, or plastic, with a lower refractive index.
An example of dielectric waveguide is an optical fiber. Paradoxically, a metallic
waveguide filled with a dielectric material is
not a dielectric waveguide.

A closed waveguide is an electromagnetic waveguide (a) that is tubular,

usually with a circular or rectangular cross section, (b) that has electrically
conducting walls, (c) that may be hollow or filled with a dielectric material, (d) that
can support a large number of d i s c r e t e p r o p a g a t i n g m o d e s , t h o u g h o n l y a
f e w m a y b e p r a c t i c a l , ( e ) i n w h i c h e a c h discrete mode defines the
propagation constant for that mode, (f) in which the field at any point is describable
in terms of the supported modes, (g) in which there is no radiation field, and
(h) in which discontinuities and bends cause mode conversion but not radiation.

A slotted waveguide is generally used for radar and other similar applications

38
 USES OF MICROWAVE SIGNALS
•A microwave oven uses a magnetron microwave generator to produce microwaves at a
frequency of approximately 2.45 GHz for the purpose of cooking food. Microwaves cook
food by causing molecules of water and other compounds to vibrate. The vibration
creates heat which warms the food. Since organic matter is made up primarily of water,
food is easily cooked by this method.

•Microwaves are used in communication satellite transmissions because microwaves

pass easily through the earth's atmosphere with less interference than longer
wavelengths. There is also much more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in
the rest of the radio spectrum.

•Radar also uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and
other characteristics of remote objects.

•Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11g and be
specifications, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11auses an
ISM band in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless
Internet Access services can be found in many countries (but not the USA) in the 3.5–
4.0 GHz range.

39
Plot of the zenith atmospheric transmission on the summit of Mauna Kea throughout the
entire Giga hertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum at a perceptible water vapor
level of 0.001 mm. (simulated)

•Cable TV and Internet access on coax cable as well as broadcast television use some
of the lower microwave frequencies. Some cell phone networks also use the lower
microwave frequencies.
•Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II
research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970sand early 1980s
to research the possibilities of using Solar Power Satellite (SPS) systems with large
solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.

•A maser is a device similar to a laser, except that it works at microwave frequencies

40