SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.

2. MEASUREMENT
Measurement is a process, carried out by measurement instruments to determine the numeric value
of a physical quantity. It is a procedure in which unknown quantity is compared to known standard.
Measurement required controlling the machines and systems, so that they keep working within
required limits
MACHINE TOOLS
A machine tool is a power driven machine for making articles of a given shape, size and accuracy
by removing metal from work pieces in the form of chip.
Machine tools are factory equipment for producing machine, instrument and tool of all kinds.
Machine tool has to perform the following function:-
 To hold and support the job.
 To hold and support the cutting tool.
 To move the cutting tool, job / both of them of the desired direction.
 To regulate the cutting speed and provide the feeding movement to one of these.

Cutting speed – It is define as the speed at which the metal is removed by the tool from the workpiece. It is
usually expressed in meters in per minute.
Feed – It is defined as the distance which the tool travels for each revolution of the work. It is usually
expressed in millimeters per revolution.
Depth of cut – It is defined as the depth of penetration of the tool into the workpiece during machining.

LATHE MACHINE
Lathe is one of the most important machine tool in any workshop. Its main objective is to remove
material from outside by rotating the work against a cutting tool and gives required shape, size and
accuracy.
If the cutting tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece, cylindrical surface is produce,
while it move perpendicular to their axis, it produce a flat surface.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A LATHE
In a lathe, the work piece is held in a chuck or
between centres and rotated about its axis at a
uniform speed. The cutting tool held in the tool post
is fed into the workpiece for a desired depth and in
the desired direction. Since there exists in a relative
motion between the workpiece and the cutting tool,
and the desired shape in obtained.

PART OF A LATHE
The main parts of a lathe are:
1. Bed – The bed is the base or foundation of the
lathe. It is heavy, rigid casting made in one piece. It
holds and supports all the other parts of the lathe.
The top of the bed is planned to form guide ways
for carriage and tail stock.
2. Headstock – It is permanently fastened at the
left hand end of the bed. It serves to support the
spindle and driving arrangements. All lathes
receive their power through the head stock, which
may be equipped with a step-cone pulleys or a
gear head drive. The headstock made hollow, in
order to allow the long bar or work holding devices to pass through.
3. Tailstock – It is situated at the right end of the bed. It is used for supporting or when a long component is
to be held in a chuck. It is also used for holding and feeding the tools such as drills, reaming, taps etc.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

4. Carriage – The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. The carriage has the following five major
parts:
Saddle – It is a H-shaped casting fitted over the bed. It moves along the guide way.
Cross-slide – It is mounting on the saddle. It supports the compound rest.
Compound rest – It used during taper turning to set the tool for angular cuts.
Tool post – It is mounting above the compound rest. The tool is clamped on the tool post.
Apron – It is attached to the saddle and hangs in front of the bed. It has gears, levers and clutches for
moving the carriage with the lead screw for thread cutting.
5. Feed mechanism – It is employed for imparting various feeds (Longitudinal, cross and angular) to the
cutting tool. It consists of feed reverse lever, changing gears, feed gear box, lead screw, feed rod, apron
mechanism.

SPECIFICATION OF LATHE
 The height of the centers
measured over the lathe
bed.
 Swing or maximum
diameter that can be
rotated over the bed way.
 Maximum job length
 Bed length
 Diameter of hole through
lathe spindle

TYPES OF LATHE
The fundamental
principle of operation of all lathes is same and performs the same function, yet they are classified according
to the design, type of drive, arrangement of gear, and purpose. The following are important type of lathes.
1. Bench lathe – It is very small lathe and is mounted on a bench or cabinet. It is used for small and
precision (accuracy) work. All the type of operation can be performed on this lathe that can be done on an
ordinary speed.
2. Speed lathe – It is one of the simplest types of lathes. It consists of a bed, a head stock, a tail stock and
an adjustable slide for supporting the tool. In this lathe spindle can rotated at a very high speed. They have
no gear box, carriage and the lead screw. With the result, the tool is fed and actuated by hand. The speed
lathe is used mainly for wood working, centering, polishing etc.
3. Engine or Centre lathe – It is general purpose lathe and is widely used in workshops. It differs from the
speed lathe that it has additional mechanism for controlling the spindle speed and for supporting and
controlling the feed to the fixed cutting tool. The cutting tool may be fed both in cross and longitudinal
direction with the help of carriage.
Receiving power it again classified as belt driven lathe, motor driven lathe and geared head lathe.
4. Tool Room lathe – It is nothing but the same engine lathe but equipped with some extra attachment to
make it suitable for a relatively more accurate and precision type of work carried out in a tool room. It
carries a much wider range of speed and feed.
5. Capstan and Turret lathe – The capstan and turret lathes are the modification of engine lathes and is
particularly used for mass production of identical part in the minimum time. These lathes are semi-
automatic and are fitted with multi tool holding devices, called capstan and turret heads. For this machine
performing several different type of operation on a workpiece without resetting of work or tool.
6. Automatic lathes – For improving and maintaining the quality as well as quantity of production, they are
design that all the working and job handling movements of the complete manufacturing process for a job
are done automatically. These lathes are used for mass production of identical parts.
7. Special purpose lathes – Perform certain specified operation in more efficient and effective as compare
to the common lathe Special purpose lathe are used.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

LATHE OPERATION
Facing – Facing is an operation of machining the end of a workpiece to produce a flat surface with the axis.
The operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
Plain turning – It is an operation of removing excess material from the surface of the cylindrical
workpiece. In this operation, the work is held either in the chuck or between centre and the longitudinal
feed is given to the tool either by hand or tool.
Step Turning – It is an operation of producing various step of different diameter in the workpiece.it is
carried out in the similar as plain operation.
Taper turning – A taper may be define as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a work measure
along its length.
Taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical
workpiece.
Drilling – It is an operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a workpiece by the rotating cutting edge of a
cutter as the drill. For this operation, the work is held in a suitable device, and the drill is held in the sleeve
of the tail stock. The drill is fed by rotating the hand-wheel of the tailstock.
Reaming – It is an operation of finishing the previously drilled hole. In this operation, as reamer is held in
the tail stock and fed into the hole in the similar way as for drilling.
Boring – It is an operation of enlarging of a hole already made in a workpiece. In this operation, a boring
tool mounted on a rigid bar is held in the tool post.
Grooving or Under Cutting – It is an operation of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very
narrow surface.
Threading – It is an operation of cutting helical grooves on the external cylindrical surface of the
workpiece. In this operation, the work is held in a chuck the threading tool is fed longitudinally to the
revolving work. The longitudinally feed is equal to the pitch to the thread to be cut.
Knurling – it is an operation of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of a workpiece. The
purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a workpiece to prevent it from slipping
when operation by hand.
Forming – it is an operation of turning a convex, concave or any irregular shape.

MILLING MACHINE
Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by feeding the workpiece
against a rotating cutter containing a number of cutting edges.
The work is supported by various methods on the work table, and may be fed to the cutter,
longitudinally, transversely or vertically.
WORKING PRINCIPLE IN MILLING
The working principle, employed in the metal removing operation on a milling machine, is that the
work is rigidly clamped on the table of the machine, and revolving multi teeth cutter mounted on a spindle
or an arbor. The cutter revolves at a high speed and the work fed slowly past the cutter. The work can be fed
in a vertical, longitudinal or cross direction. As the work advances, the cutter-teeth remove the metal from
the work surface to produce the desired shape.
SPECIFICATION OF MILLING MACHINE
 Width and length of the table.
 Maximum distance the knee can travel.
 Maximum longitudinal movement and cross feed
of the table.
 Number of spindle speed.
 Power of the main drive motor.
MAIN PART OF A MILLING MACHINE
1. BASE – it is heavy casting on which column and
other parts are mounted.
2. COLUMN – There are guide ways on the front face of the column, on which the knee slides. It houses
power transmission units such as gears, belt drives and pulleys to give rotary motion to the arbor.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

3. KNEE – It support the saddle, table, workpiece and

other clamping devices. It moves on guide ways of the
column.
4. SADDLE – It is mounted on the knee and can be
moved by a hand wheel.
5. TABLE – It is mounted on the saddle. It moves
perpendicular to the direction of the saddle movement.
6. ARBOR – Its one end attached to the column and
other end is supported by an over arm. It holds and
drives different type of milling cutter.
7. SPINDLE – It has provision to add or remove milling
cutter onto the arbor.
MILLING OPERATION
Plain or slab milling – Plain milling is used to machine
flat surface. Here plain milling cutter is used, which is
held in the arbor and rotated. The table is moved
upward to give the required depth of cut.
Face Milling – This milling process is used for
machining a flat surface which is at right angles to the axis of the rotating cutter.
Angular milling – In angular milling, an angular milling cutter is used.
Straddle milling – It is an operation in which a pair of side milling cutters is used for machining two
parallel vertical surface of a workpiece.
Gang milling – Combination of more than two cutters, mounted on a common arbor, for milling is known
as Gang milling.
Form milling – This milling process is used for machining those surfaces which are of irregular shapes.
End milling – It is an operation of producing narrow slots, grooves and keyways using end mill cutter.
Saw milling – It is an operation of producing narrow grooves and slots on the workpiece.

SHAPER MACHINE
The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool used for producing flat
surface with the help of single point cutting tool reciprocating over the stationary
workpiece.
Working Principle of A Shaper Machine
The job is rigidly fixed on the machine table. The single point cutting tool held
properly in the tool post is mounted on a reciprocating ram. The reciprocating motion
(to and fro) of the ram is obtained by a quick return motion mechanism. As the ram
reciprocates, the tool cuts the material during its forward stroke. During return, there is
no cutting action and this stroke is called the idle stroke. The forward and return
strokes constitute one operating cycle of the shaper.

MAIN PART OF SHAPER MACHINE

1. Base – It is heavy cast iron body which act as a support for all the other parts of the
machine which are mounted over it.
2. Column – It is a box type cast iron body, mounted on the base and act as a housing
for the operating mechanism of the machine. It also act as a support for other parts of
the machine such as cross rail, ram etc.
3. Cross-rail – It is attached to the front vertical portion of the column. It is used for the following two
purposes.
a) It help in elevating the table over the column in the upward direction, and
b) The table can be moved in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the ram over the cross-rail.
4. Table – It is used for holding the work piece. It can be adjusted horizontally and vertically with the help
of spindle.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

5. Ram – It is reciprocating member which reciprocates on the guideways provided above the column. It
carries a tool-slide on its head and a mechanism for adjusting the stock length.
6. Tool-Head – It is attached to the front portion of the ram. It is used to hold the tool rigidly. It also
provided the vertical and angular movements to the tool for cutting.
7. Vice – It is job holding device and is mounted on the table.

SPECIFICATION OF A SHAPER
 Maximum length of stroke in
millimeters.
 Size of the table.
 Maximum vertical and horizontal travel
of the table.
 Power of the drive motor
 Type of mechanism.
Shaper Operations
Various operations which can be performed on a
shaper are:-
 Horizontal shaping (facing top job
surface).
 Vertical shaping (facing side),
 Shaping of grooves, slots, steps and keyways,
 Angular shaping.
 Cutting of splines and gear teeth,
 Irregular cutting.

DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in the work-piece by using a rotating cutter
called DRILL. The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine.
The drill are fixed in rotating spindle and can be feed toward the workpiece which may be fixed to
the table .The drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which the drill is held in tailstock and
the work is held by the chuck.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DRILLING MACHINE
A metal cutting operation that produced cylindrical hole with an end cutting tool is called as
Drilling. The end cutting tool used for drilling hole in the workpiece is called as twist drill. In order to cut
off chips two motions are given.
Linear motion – The motion is called as feed and it control
the thickness of the chip. The feed generally measured in
mm/rev.
Rotary motion – The motion is called as main motion or
cutting motion. It is generally measured in m/min.
SPECIFICATION OF A DRILLING MACHINE
 Size of the drilling machine table.
 Largest bit the machine can hold.
 Maximum size of the hole that can be drilled.
 Maximum size of the workpiece that can be held.
 Power of motor, spindle speed or feed.

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE

1. Portable drilling machine – It is very small, compact,
and self contained unit carrying a small electric motor
inside it. It drill in such components that cannot be transport to the shop.

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

2. Sensitive / bench drilling machine – This type of drill m/c is used for very light work. It is used to drill
hole from 1.5 mm to 15 mm diameter.
3. Radial drilling machine – It is used when a drill operation is to be perform on heavy workpiece. Also
used where the workpiece cannot be adjusted to locate the point of drilling.
4. Upright drilling machine - It is mount on the floor and is used to drill hole upto 25 mm. It is used for
heavier work and consist wider range of spindle speed and back gearing arrangement.
5. Gang drilling machine –It is used where a series of operation have to be perform. For this spindle are
arranged in row. This machine is very useful when the nature of work is such that a number of operation
like drilling, reaming, tapping etc., are performed in succession on it.
6. Multi spindle drilling machine – These machine are mostly used in production work and are so
designed that several hole of different sizes can be drilled simultaneously. For this increased rate of
production with sufficient accuracy.

OPERATIONS
Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are:-
DRILLING – It is an operation of producing a circular hole in a workpiece.
Boring – It is an operation of enlarging a hole that can be already been drilled.
Reaming – It is an operation of slightly enlarging a machined hole to proper size with smooth finish.
Tapping – It is an operation of producing internal threads in a hole by means of a tool called tap.
Counter boring – It is an operation of enlarging the mouth of a drilled hole to set bolt head.
Counter sinking – It is an operation for making conical seat for a flat head screw.

MEASURING TOOL
A measuring tool or instrument is any device that may be used to obtain a dimensional or angular
measurement.
E.g. Vernier Calipers, Micrometers, Slip Gauge, Dial Gauges etc.
On a steel rule, an millimeter is usually used for measuring the dimension, thus the maximum
accuracy of a steel rule is 0.5mm. For more accurate measurement various instruments like vernier calipers
and micro meter are used.
VARNIER CALIPERS
It is a linear measuring instrument and it is used to measure the dimension to second place of
decimal. Vernier instrument use an additional scale, called the vernier scale, which can slide along the fixed
main scale.

The principle of vernier is that when two scales or division slightly different in size are used, the
difference between them can be utilized to use to accuracy of measurement.
A moveable (vernier) scale equally divided into 50 parts but its length is only 49mm; therefore one division
of this scale (vernier) is equivalent to 0.98mm. This means the difference between one graduation on the
main scale and one graduation on the vernier scale is 1.0 – 0.98 = 0.02mm.
To obtain the reading, the number of division of the main scale is first read off. The vernier scale is
examined to determine which of its division coincide with a division on the main scale. This number is
multiply with least count and added to the main scale reading to give the main scale reading.
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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

Total reading = Reading on main scale against zero mark on vernier scale + Least count × mark number on
vernier scale which coincides with a mark on main scale.
Smallest division on main scale
Least count / accuracy 
Total number of devision on vernier scale

MICROMERER
MICROMETER is the length measuring
instrument which can measure dimensions
upto an accuracy of 0.01mm.
Micrometer is designed on the principle of
‘Screw and Nut’.
Micrometer consists of following part:-
Frame – The frame may be ‘U’ in shape.
Anvil – It is fixed on the left end of the
frame.
Spindle – On the right side end of the
frame, there is a screw having threads of
0.5mm pitch.
Sleeve – It has a reference line and main scale on it.
Thimble – It moves with the spindle on main scale. It has 50 equal divisions on its edge, each having a
value of 0.01mm.
Ratchet - The ratchet on the end of thimble is used to apply the pressure on the spindle.

WORKING PRINCIPLE - The working of micrometer depends upon the principle that the distance
moved by the nut (thimble) along the screw (sleeve) is proportional to the number of revolution made by
the nut. The distance moved by the nut along the screw can be accurately predicted.
The screw has pitch of 0.5mm and the thimble has 50 equal divisions. Since one revolution of thimble
equal to 0.5mm, therefore a movement of one thimble division equals,
0.5 / 50 =0.01mm This is least count of micrometer.

SURFACE PLATE
A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for inspection,
marking out (layout), and tooling setup.
The surface plate is often used as the baseline for all measurements to the workpiece, therefore one
primary surface is finished extremely flat with accuracy 0.00025 mm.
Surface plate also used as reference surface for mounting various measuring tool such as sine bar,
slip gauge, vernier height and so on. It is generally square and rectangle in shape.

SLIP GAUGE
Slip gauge or Gauge block are rectangular blocks made of alloy steel having a cross-section of about
30mm × 10mm. They are hardened and finished to a high degree of accuracy.
Gauge block provide dimensional standards of length.
The gauging surface are carefully manufacturing so that they are flat, parallel to each other. Because of high
manufacturing accuracy, the nominal dimension marked on the block is accepted as a true length.
GAUGE BLOCK M-112

Size (mm) Increment (mm) Number of piece

1.001 - 1.009 0.001 9

1.01 - 1.49 0.01 49

0.5 - 24.5 0.5 49

25.0 - 100 25 4

1.0005 1.0005 1

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 SHRI RAM ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Mechanical Engineering Deptt.)

The slip gauges provide means for building any length standard by wringing two or more block together.
Wringing process is accomplished by pressing the faces and then imparting a small twisting moment
while maintain the contact pressure. The alignment of the ultra-smooth surfaces in this manner
permits molecular attraction to occur between the blocks, and forms a very strong bond between the blocks.
Slip gauge are used for checking the accuracy of measuring instruments like micrometers, vernier
caliper, dial gauge etc. It is used as reference standards

DIAL GAUGE
A Dial gauge (Indicator) is a very versatile
and sensitive instrument. It is used for checking
roundness, parallelism, squareness etc.
It also used for comparing two height, and taking
accurate measurement of deformation.

The dial indicator has two pointer arms (main

and small) which are working by rack and pinion
arrangement. (linear motion by rack converted into
rotary motion by pinion). The rack is cut in a spindle
(plunger). Plunger transmits any upward movement to
the pinion or gear train. The gear train transmit this
upward movement to rotary motion to the pointer
(main arm), and also amplify the input single so that a
large displacement occur at a pointer.
The main dial is divided into 100 equal divisions;
each division represent a spindle movement of
0.01mm. Obviously than the pointer will turn one
complete revolution for 1mm movement of plunger.
The smaller arm records the number of full turns made by the main dial.

SINE BAR
It is most accurate instrument for measuring
angles. It consists of a rectangular bar. Sine bars are
made from high carbon, high chromium, corrosion
resistant steel, hardened. A roller of same diameter is
fitted into the steps of the roller.
Sine bar is specified by the distance between
the centre of two rollers i.e. 100mm, 200mm.
Sine bar is used for measuring known angles,
checking of unknown angle, checking unknown angle
of heavy components.

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