BOTANY LECTURE REVIEWER o Cutin is the highly polymerized fatty

acids in leaves
A. CELLS
o For Fungal cell wall the chemical
 Basic structural and functional unit
component is called Chitin
 Physiological processes are encountered and
 Parts of the Cell Wall
manifested at cellular level
o Primary Wall
 Two types of Cells:
 Non-living inert secretion that
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell protects the young plant
No nucleus & organelles Have nucleus &  Thin
organelles o Secondary Wall
Bacteria & archaea Plant, fungi, animals  Thicker than primary wall
Smaller Larger  Impregnated with lignin
Contains only a single DNA is found tightly o Middle Lamella
loop of stable bound & organized  Attaches the wall to the
chromosomal DNA chromosome
adjacent cell
Metabolic processes Mitochondria &
o Plasmodesmata
occur across the cell chloroplast performs
 Interconnects plant cells
metabolic processes
o Prokaryote  A narrow channel that passes
 Cell without nucleus and through the cell walls of
membrane bounded organelles adjacent plant cells that allows
 Archaea and Bacteria communication between them
 Contains single circular  Cell Membrane
chromosomes o Regulates the passage of molecules in
 Chromosomes are condensed and out
via supercoiling  Phospholipid Bilayer
 Reproduction through binary
fission
o Eukaryote
 Have nucleus and membrane
bounded organelles
 Larger in size
 DNA is organized
 Fungi, Animals, and Plants
 Capable of sexual reproduction
o Part of the cell membrane that freely
 Multiple linear chromosomes
allows water to move across it
 Chromosomes are condensed
o Hydrophobic interior and Hydrophilic
via histones
exterior
 Cell Wall
o Endocytosis – invagination of the cell
o Distinguishing feature of plant cells
membrane
from animal cells
o Exocytosis – fusion of vesicle with cell
o Protects the cellular contents
membrane, releasing of vesicle
o Composed of chemical component
contents
called Cellulose
o Intrinsic Proteins – immersed in the
o Other substances such as Lignin, which
bilayer
adds rigidity, and waxes such as
o Extrinsic Proteins – proteins that are
Suberin and Cutin that prevents water
outside of the bilayer
loss
 Plants Cell Parts
 Nucleus – area where genetic material is
organized and expressed
 Nuclear pore – passageway for molecules into
and out of the nucleus
 Nuclear envelope – double membrane that
encloses the nucleus
 Nucleolus – site for ribosome assembly
 Chromatin – complex of protein & DNA
 Ribosomes – site of polypeptide synthesis
 Smooth ER – site of detoxification and lipid
synthesis
 Rough ER – site of protein synthesis, sorting
and secretion  Cell Cycle Stages
 Plasma membrane – envelope that controls  Interphase
movement of substances into and out of the o GAP 1
cell; site of cell signaling  All metabolic processes
 Cell wall – structure that provides cell support  Cells grow
 Peroxisome – site where hydrogen peroxide  Synthesis of the nucleotides
and other harmful molecules are broken down (building blocks of DNA)
 Golgi apparatus – site of modification, sorting  Synthesis of proteins
and secretion of lipids and proteins
(Histones)
 Cytoskeleton – protein filaments provide
o S Phase
shape and aid in the movement
 Chromosome is duplicated
 Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis
 Attachment of 2 sister
 Mitochondrion – site of ATP synthesis
 Cytosol – site of many metabolic pathways chromatids joined by a DNA
 Central Vacuole – site that provides storage sequence known as
and regulation of cell volume centromere
 Sugar of DNA: Deoxyribose
 Endoreduplication – repeated
 Cell Division cycles of DNA duplication
 Mitosis  Gene Amplification – few
o Somatic or body cells genes are repeatedly
o Produces 2 identical daughter cells replicated
o 2N = 2N o GAP 2
o The number of chromosomes remains  Synthesis of enzymes
the same all throughout the stages of  Synthesis of alpha and beta
mitosis tubulin
 Importance of Mitosis:  Last phase before the cell
o Reproduction in some organisms undergo mitosis
o Repairing of damaged cells/tissues o GAP 0
o Replacing of dead cells/tissues  Cells are matured and will not
o Allows an organism to grow further divide
 Meiosis  Temporary resting period
o Reproductive cells
o Produces 4 daughter cells that are
different from each other
o N + N = 2N or 2N = N + N
 Early Prophase
o Centrosomes move toward the
opposite poles of the cell
o Mitotic spindle fibers start to form
o Chromosomes start to condense
 Late Prophase or Prometaphase
o Nuclear membrane breaks down
o Some of the spindle microtubules
attach to the sister chromatids
o Microtubules pull the sister chromatids
into the center
 Metaphase
oChromosomes align at the equator or
center
 Anaphase
o Splitting of sister chromatids towards
opposite poles
o Shortening of the kinetochore
microtubules
o Elongation of polar spindle fibers
o Initiated by the APC or Anaphase
promoting complex
 Telophase
o Stage of nuclear reconstitution
o Chromosomes reach respective poles
o Reorganization of nucleus and other
organelles
o Nuclear membrane begins to reform
o Disassembling of mitotic spindles
o Dispersion of chromosomes to
chromatin threads
o Cytokinesis – division of cytoplasm
o Formation of cleavage furrow in
animals
o Formation of cell plate in plants
 Plant Tissues
 Plant Body
o Primary Plant Body
 Derived from the shoot and
apical meristem
 Composed of primary tissues
o Secondary Plant Body
 Derived from the vascular
cambium and cork cambium
 Composed of secondary tissues
 Tissue
o Group of cells that perform a specific
function
o Based on Composition:
 Simple – composed of single
type of cell
 Complex – composed of two or
more
o Based on Stage of Development:
 Meristematic – cells of the
tissues are actively dividing
 Permanent – cells have
stopped dividing
 Overview of Primary Meristems  Collenchyma (Simple Ground)

 Epidermis o Elongated cells with uneven thickened

non-lignified primary wall
o Adapted for support
 Sclerenchyma

o Outermost surface of stem, leaf or root

o Function as a protection
o Regulate exchange of materials
o Contains Cutin o Rigid, thick lignified secondary wall
o Contains guard cells o Not living upon maturity
 Epidermal Hairs (Simple Dermal) o Functions as a support and for
o Root hairs strengthening the non-extending parts
o Trichomes of the plant
 Protection from insects  Types:
 Aids in nutrient uptake  Sclereids
 Spread of seeds o roundish,
 Cork or Phellem (Simple Dermal) o forms hard
o Outer covering of woody stems and layer and
roots o retains a living
o Impregnated with suberin and lignin protoplasm
o Originated from Cork cambium  Fibers –
 Parenchyma (Simple Ground) o elongated cells
occurring in
strands or
bundles
o associated
with vascular
tissues
 Differentiation of Plant Tissues
o Thin-walled primary wall
o Alive
o Storage
o Types:
 Aerenchyma
 For gas exchange
 Chlorenchyma
 Photosynthesis
 The Vascular Tissue System i. There must be a primary root
 Types of Complex Tissues: ii. Dicot and Gymnosperms
o Xylem (Woody)
 Water conduction iii. Anchorage
 Thick lignified wall iv. Secondary Growth
 Dead at maturity b. Fibrous Root
o Conducting Cells of Xylem:
 Tracheids
 Long tapered cells
 Dead at maturity
 Secondary wall has pits
 Vessel Elements
 Dead at maturity
 Cell walls form hollow
tubes
 Wider, shorter and less
i. This type of root forms when
tapered
the radicle dies after formation
 With perforation plate
ii. Monocot (grass)
o Phloem – food conductor
iii. Absorption
 Food conductor
c. Adventitious
 Thin walled primary wall
o Conducting Cells of Phloem:
 Sieve Tubes
 Alive and active
 Has sieve plates
 No nucleus
 Companion Cells
 Nucleated
 Supply proteins to the
sieve tubes
B. Root System i. Arising from different parts
a. Anchorage ii. Does not arise from pre-
b. Absorption existing roots
c. Production of hormones iii. Additional anchorage and
C. 3 Kinds of Root System absorption
a. Tap Root iv. Roots arising from the main
trunk are called Brace roots
v. Roots arising from the lateral
trunk are called Prop roots
D. Specialized Roots
a. Aerial Roots – for water retention;
orchids
b. Chlorophyllous roots – photosynthesis
c. Contractile roots – movement; onions
and garlic
d. Parasitic – absorption
 e. Buttresses – expanded roots for great
support
f. Pneumatophores – breathing roots;
Mangrove
g. Enlarged fleshy taproot – carrots, ube
h. Root nodules – nitrogen fixation
i. Mycorrhizae – association between
soil fungus and roots
E. L- Section of Root Tip
1. Root Cap
a. protects the root apical meristem
b. Mucigel acts as a lubricant for the
roots to easily penetrate the soil
c. Geotropism is the response of the root
cap to the earths gravitational pull
d. Root Cap is also responsible in the
direction of the growth of the root
e. If the Root Cap is absent or damaged,
the growth of the roots has no definite
direction
f. Quiescent Center is mitotically inactive
region of the root apical meristem, acts
as a reserve for new mitotic cells
2. Zone of Cell Division
a. Apical Meristem
b. Mitotically active cell (delicate)
c. A portion of the Zone is inactive
 Three Zones of Root Apical Meristem
o Protoderm – epidermis
o Ground Meristem – ground tissues
o Procambium – Vascular tissues
 Stele consists of:
o Pericycle – outermost layer
o Primary Xylem – central large cells
o Primary Phloem – narrow cells
o Vascular Cambium – in between Xylem
and Phloem
o The stele of a Dicot is called Protostele
o The stele of a monocot is called
Siphonostele
 Number of Xylem Poles:
o Triarch
o Tetrarch
o Pentarch
 Zone of Elongation
o region where cells expands greatly;
cells can be seen
o cells begin to differentiate to visible
pattern
o no cell maturation
o Protoderm differentiates into
epidermis
o Ground meristem differentiates into
root complex
o Procambium differentiates into
primary xylem and phloem
 Zone of Maturation
o root hair starts to grow
o responsible for the transfer of
minerals from epidermis to vascular
tissues
o no distinct boundary exists between
elongation and maturation
 Endodermis  Leaf Scar – mark left after a leaf falls off the
o Controls the passage of minerals across twig
the vascular tissues  Vascular bundle scar – circular barred regions
o Consist of thick-walled cells encrusted within the leaf scar where the stem and leaf
with suberin and lignin broke off
o Diffusion is inhibited  Internodes – space in between nodes
o Only apoplastic transport  Nodes – develop leaves and flowers
 Casparian Strip
o Are bands of lignin and suberin on the
radial walls causing the cell walls to be
waterproof
o Controls the type of minerals that
enter xylem
 Diffusion Paths in Roots
o Apoplastic
 Water and mineral pass
through in between cells
o Symplastic
 Passes through the cells
 Note: The vascular bundles for monocot are
 Lateral Roots
scattered
o Initiated by cell division in the pericycle
o Root hair zone – where new lateral
roots emerges
3. Zone of Cell Division
a. Apical Meristem
b. Mitotically active cell (delicate)
c. A portion of the Zone is inactive
 STEMS
o Provides framework for leaves, flowers
and seeds
o Carry water and minerals from the soil
o Horticulture – practice of garden
cultivation  Note: The vascular bundles for dicot are in a
circular arrangement
 Stem growth and Differentiation
o Shoot apical meristem is responsible
for the growth of stems and
production of new cells
o Subapical meristem: has protoderm,
ground meristem, vascular tissues
o Cells  1st Tracheids or vessel
elements (protoxylem)  metaxylem
o Cells  1st Phloem (protophloem) 
metaphloem
o Phloem cells continue to divide to they
remain small
 o Xylem cell stops dividing, cells become
large as tissue expands
o Herb: cells between metaxylem and
metaphloem of a vascular bundle stoos
dividing and differentiate into
conducting tissues
o Woody: continue to divide and
constitute the fascicular cambium
o Inferfacsicular and fascular cambium
become the vascular cambium after 2-
3 years
 Presence of Secondary Growth
o Modern Ferns: Absent in all species
o Gymnosperms: Present in all species
o Dicots: Present in many species
o Monocots: Ordinary type is absent in
many species, some have secondary
grow
 Vascular Cambium
o Produce short cells
 Storage parenchyma
 Albuminous cells
o Produce elongated cells
 Tracheids, vessel elements and
fibers
 Sieve cells, companion cells
and fibers
 Fusiform Initials
o Long tapered cells
o Cells divide periclinal (parallel to
surface of the meristem) or anticlinal
(parallel to cambial surface)
o Transverse division and production of
ray initials
o Produces 2 elongate cells:
 1st continue to be Fusiform
cells
 Either secondary phloem or
xylem
 Wood (interior) Bark (exterior)
 Ray Initials
o Short cuboidal
o Periclinal cell division
 1st daughter cell – ray initial
 Other – xylem parenchyma;
phloem
 Secondary Xylem
o Cork and Cork Cambium
o Type of wood cells derived from
fusiform initials and ray initials
o Fusiform – Axial System
o Ray – Radial System
o Common wood type:
 Hardwood – from dicot
 Softwood – from
gymnosperms
 Arrangement of Secondary Xylem
o Axial System
 Has tracheids and vessels
 Conduction of water; xylem
parenchyma – storage of water
 In dicots has fibers – strength
 
o Radial System
 Secondary Xylem
 Simpler, parenchyma is
o Heartwood
arranged as uni/bi/multiseriate
 Dead
of rays
 Formation of tylosis
 Gymnosperms - uniseriate
o Sapwood
 Types of Ray Parenchyma:
 Living parenchyma
 Upright Cells
 Full of xylem sap
o Adjacent to
 Constant thickness
axial
 Reaction Wood
parenchyma
o Tension Wood
o Adjacent to
 Dicots
axial tracheid
 Upper side of branch
 Procumbent Cells
 Has gelatinous fibers, rich in
o With starch
cellulose
 Regions of Wood
 No lignin
o Early Wood or Spring Wood – with
 Growth rings are eccentric
large vessels and few fibers
o Compression Wood
 First wood formed for
 Conifers
gymnosperms
 Lower side
 For maximum conduction
 Rich in lignin
 wood formed early in the
 Growth rings are wider on
growing season
lower side
o Late Wood or Summer Wood
o Produced in response to lateral stress
 Region of abundant fibers and
like gravity
few narrow vessel
o specialized wood produced by leaning
 For strength
branches or trunks
 part of the wood in the growth
 Outer Bark (Periderm)
ring of a tree that is produced
o Cork Cambium – cuboidal cells derived
late during the growing period
from:
 Annual Rings
 Epidermal Cells – outer bark
o Vascular Cambium become active after
has periderm, cuticle, smooth
winter
 Cortex – other bark has
o 1st year’s growth – late + early wood
periderm, cortex, epidermis,
o Types:
smooth with cortical cells
 Diffuse Porous – annual rings
 20 Phloem – outer bark has
with vessels throughout it
cork and phloem
 Ring Porous – vessels are in
 After division:
early wood, conspicuous rings
 Cork Parenchyma
(Phelloderm)
 Cork Cell (Phellem)
o encrusted with
Suberin
o Dead
 Anomalous Forms of Growth
o Secondary growth in Potato
 Formation of cambia around
vessels
o Included Phloem
 Type of secondary phloem
located between two bands of
xylem
o Secondary growth in Monocots
 Outermost cells of secondary
vascular bundles develop into
fibers with thick secondary
walls
 Modified Stems
o Bulb
 short vertical stems covered
with fleshy blades
 Storage and production
 Onion and garlic
o Cladodes
 Green stem
 Photosynthesis
 Reproduction and storage
o Rhizomes
 Fleshy and scaly underground
stem
 Reproduction and storage
 Ginger and Bamboo
o Tubers
 Swollen outgrowths of stolon
 Storage and reproduction
o Hooks
 Protection
o Stolons
 Horizontal stems with
adventitious buds
 Reproduction
o Corm
 Vertical, thick and short
underground stem with thin
paper leaves
 Reproduction and storage
 Gabi or Taro
o Twiner
 Climbing or twirling
 Stem support
 IMPORTANT NOTES
o Bacteria and Fungi have no chloroplast
o Osmosis is a passive transport,
movement of water across a semi-
permeable membrane and follows a
concentration gradient.
o Ribosomes bind mRNA and tRNA to
synthesize polypeptides and proteins
o Microtubules is formed by alpha and
beta tubulin, responsible for
movement of organelles and formation
of spindle fibers
o Active transport is the one responsible
for transport of ions and amino acids
across their concentration gradient
o Alpha and Beta tubulins are main
components of Cilia and Flagella
o Diffusion is the transport of molecules
across a semi-permeable membrane
from high to low concentration
o Stroma is the fluid part of the
chloroplast where sugar production
takes place
o Aerobic respiration is carried out
inside the mitochondrion
o Anthocyanin is a water-soluble
pigment stored inside the vacuole
o Mitochondrion possesses a circular
DNA
o Mitochondrion arises from
heterotrophic aerobic prokaryote
o Mitochondrion cannot be seen under
the microscope
o Vacuoles have no chlorophyll pigments
o Micrometer is the unit of
measurement used to express the size
of plant cells
o Telomere is a protein that caps the end
of a chromosome
o Granum stack of green flattened
vesicles inside the chloroplast
o Fluid mosaic describers the structure
of plasma membrane having
phospholipid, proteins, cholesterol and
carbohydrates
o Thylakoid elaborate membrane with
bountiful chlorophyll pigments