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A Design of an Optimal Battery Pulse Charge System by Frequency-Varied

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Article  in  IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics · March 2007

DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2006.888796 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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398
A Design of an Optimal Battery Pulse Charge System
by Frequency-Varied Technique
Liang-Rui Chen, Member, IEEE
Abstract—In this paper, a variable frequency pulse charge
system (VFPCS), that can detect and dynamically track the op-
timal charge frequency, is proposed to improve the battery-charge
response. To assess the system performance, a prototype of
the VFPCS for 600-mAh lithium-ion battery is designed and
implemented. Compared with the standard constant-current
and constant-voltage charge system, the charge speed of the
proposed VFPCS is improved above 24%, while the proposed
VFPCS is improved above 10% compared with the conventional
fixed-frequency pulse charge system. The results indicate that
the VFPCS can actually provide pulse with optimal frequency to
charge the battery and the charge response is improved.
Index Terms—Optimal charge frequency, pulse charge, variable
frequency pulse charge system (VFPCS).
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE development of mobile communication device and
portable apparatus has rapidly proliferated in recent years.
A secondary battery becomes the significant and necessary
power source for these devices and consequently a battery
charger with high quality and intelligence is desired [1]. Due
to their bulky size and the lack of high energy capacity, widely
used secondary batteries from industry, such as NiCd, NiMH,
and Lead-Acid battery, cannot satisfy the requirements of
mobile and portable devices. The lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery
has become the most potential secondary battery for it exhibits
many advantages in battery systems, such as high energy den-
sity, no memory effect, and high operation voltage, etc.[2], [3].
The recent trend shows that the Li-ion batteries are not only
widely used in portable apparatus, but can also be employed in
aerospace, aircraft, and military applications [4]–[6].
To produce better performance in battery-charge systems,
many battery-charge strategies have been proposed, such as
the constant trickle current (CTC) charge strategy, the constant
current (CC) charge strategy, and the constant-current and
constant-voltage (CC-CV) charge strategy [1]. Among the
strategies mentioned above, the CTC charge strategy has very
low cost and a simple circuit structure without power compo-
nents. However, the CTC charge strategy has large charging
Manuscript received October 13, 2004; revised November 21, 2004. Abstract
published on the Internet November 30, 2006. This work was supported by Na-
tional Science Council, Taiwan, R.O.C., under NSC 94-2213-E-150-032.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, National
Changhua University of Education, Changhua City 500, Taiwan, R.O.C.
(e-mail: lrchen@cc.ncue.edu.tw).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2006.888796
0278-0046/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2007
time disadvantage, which is longer than ten hours such that
it is called the “overnight charger” [1]. In order to reduce the
charging time, a much bigger current than the trickle current is
usually used in the charge system, called CC charge strategy.
However, another disadvantage of this CC charge system is
that a 100% precise fully charged detector is required, which
is not easy to implement. Thus, situations of undercharge and
overcharge are likely to happen in the CC charge strategy.
To overcome this problem, the CC-CV charge strategy was
proposed and is widely used these days [1]. Under the CC-CV
strategy, a CC is first applied until the battery voltage rises to a
preset voltage (i.e., battery final voltage). The constant voltage
is held after reaching the preset voltage and the charging
current will reduce automatically and the battery is 100% fully
charged when the charge current reduces to zero. This charge
strategy can effectively increase the battery-charge speed, avoid
overcharge, and achieve an almost 100% full battery charge.
However, the charge speed of the CC-CV charge strategy is
still too slow to satisfy most portable and mobile device users’
requirements. Consequently, an advanced control technique
like fuzzy control is applied in the battery-charge system to
obtain a more suitable charge current to increase battery-charge
speed [7]. The fuzzy-controlled battery-charge system infers
a proper charging current to improve charging performance,
and neural network and genetic algorithm were later used
to fine-tune and optimize variables in the fuzzy-controlled
battery-charge system such that a suitable charging current is
obtained to increase charge speed [8], [9]. Recently, safe-charge
area and safe-operating area were also presented to insure this
kind of fast battery-charge system working in safe conditions
[10], [11]. It seems that the fuzzy-controlled charge system can
reach the ultimate charge speed. But, the battery-charge speed
can still be increased through considering the electrochemical
characteristics. The pulse charge strategy is presented to diffuse
and distribute electrolyte’s ions more evenly to retardation of
the polarization to increase charge speed and life cycles [1],
[12]. The pulse charge strategy is to provide the battery a pulsed
current–voltage, instead of invariant constant current–voltage,
to provide a rest period for the ions to diffuse and neutralize.
This kind of pulse charge strategy can really increase the
battery life cycle and reduce the battery-charge time, and
thus, can be widely used in advanced battery-charge systems
[12]–[14]. However, there is no such method to determine
the optimal pulse charge frequency today. In fact, the pulse
charge frequency in commercial battery pulse charge systems is
always determined by a trial-and-error method or empiricism.
In order to overcome the above-mentioned problem, the vari-
able frequency pulse charge system (VFPCS) is proposed in
CHEN: DESIGN OF AN OPTIMAL BATTERY PULSE CHARGE SYSTEM BY FREQUENCY-VARIED TECHNIQUE 399

Fig. 1. (a) AC impedance model and (b) the battery model with ac impedance.

this paper. The proposed VFPCS can detect the optimal pulse
charge frequency and supply the optimal charge pulse to the
battery to increase charge speed. Experiment shows that the
charge speed of the proposed VFPCS is improved about 21%
compared with the standard CC-CV charge system.
This paper is organized into five sections as follows. The prin-
ciple of VFPCS is first presented in Section II. Then the system
description of VFPCS is described in Section III. Next, imple-
mentation of VFPCS is described in Section IV. Experimental
results are then described in Section V. Finally, Section VI is Fig. 2. Block diagrams of (a) VFPCS and (b) OFDC.
the conclusion.

II. PRINCIPLE OF VFPCS transfer resistance means a better electrochemical reaction

had been shown [16], [17]. And the fact that a better charge
The impedance techniques have been wildly used in the last strategy can result in a smaller ohmic resistance has also
decades for exploring electrochemical systems. Fig. 1(a) shows been shown [12].
the ac impedance model for a battery that consists of an anode In order to easily find the optimal pulse frequency ,
inductance , a cathode inductance , an anode capacitance different frequency pulses with thesame amplitude are sequen-
, a cathode capacitance , two Warburg impedances tially applied to the battery, and the average currents are mea-
and , an anode-electrolyte reaction resistance , sured at the same time. Then, the optimal frequency
a cathode-electrolyte reaction resistance , and an ohmic with the maximum average charging current can be found. In the
resistance [15]. The ohmic resistance is attributed to the proposed VFPCS, the frequency of the charge pulse is varied to
electrode geometry, the electrolyte resistance, the separator, and keep the battery impedance at a minimum (i.e., average
the connections. The electrode-electrolyte reaction resistances currents in maximum) to effectively keep the electrochemical
and are representations for charge transfer impedances reaction in the best state.
in electrode-electrolyte interfaces. Warburg impedances
and are due to ion diffusion in electrolyte and in the pores III. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
of the electrodes. The capacitances and represent
The proposed VFPCS, which is shown in Fig. 2(a), consists of
the capacitances on both electrode-electrolyte interfaces. The
an optimal frequency detector and controller (OFDC), a variable
inductances and are attributable to the electrodes geom-
frequency pulse generator (VFPG), a current sensor and con-
etry and the connections. The battery impedance can
verter (CSC), and a Li-ion battery. The VFPG is controlled by
be described as the sum of the ohmic resistance and the
the OFDC to generate desired pulses used in charging the Li-ion
impedances and shown as
battery. The CSC is to sense the charge current under the pulse
(1) charge and to convert the charge current to a digital number
. The OFDC receives and processes the digital number
Then a battery mode constructed by an ac impedance and a to get the optimal pulse charge frequency and then
ideal battery is shown in Fig. 1(b). In electrical circuit view, it charges the Li-ion battery by using this optimal pulse. Fig. 2(b)
is possible to find a frequency to minimize the bat- shows the block diagram of the OFDC, which is constructed by
tery impedance to reduce the energy loss in battery an average charge current calculator, an optimal pulse charge
impedance . That means the energy loss in electrical en- frequency searcher, a full charge detector, and a switch. The
ergy transfer to chemical energy is minimized. In other words, switch sequentially changes the OFDC to work in three oper-
the maximum energy transfer efficiency (i.e., best electrochem- ation modes: full charge detect mode (FCDM), search mode
ical reaction) is obtained in the battery. In fact, a smaller charge (SM), and charge mode (CM). The periodical FCDM, SM, and
400 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2007

Fig. 3. (a) Time sequence and (b) the working state diagram for the proposed VFPCS.

CM conduct the VFPCS with a full charge detection period , reaction, OFDC can detect whether the Li-ion battery is fully
search period , and charge period , respectively, as defined charged according to the digital number .
in Fig. 3(a) and (b). Fig. 3(b) shows the working state diagram In SM, both the average charge current calculator and optimal
of the proposed VFPCS. In FCDM, the full charge detector in pulse charge frequency searcher work together to obtain the op-
OFDC is the primary work for detecting whether the Li-ion bat- timal pulse charge frequency . The average charge cur-
tery is fully charged. If the Li-ion battery is fully charged, the rent calculator can be implemented by software or hardware,
VFPCS will finish the battery-charge process. Otherwise, the while the optimal pulse charge frequency searcher can only be
VFPCS will go into SM, and the average charge current calcu- realized by software. In this section, the software method used
lator and the optimal pulse charge frequency searcher will do to implement the average charge current calculator is introduced
the primary work for determining the optimal pulse charge fre- and the flowchart of the OFDC in SM is shown in Fig. 4. In
quency . The average charge current calculator is for Fig. 4, is the th sampling current digital number
calculating the average charge currents of pulses with different under battery pulse charged with frequency .
frequencies, while the optimal pulse charge frequency searcher After OFDC initialized (i.e., , ), the OFDC
is for finding the optimal pulse charge frequency ac- commands VFPG for generating the pulse with frequency to
cording to the results in average charge current calculator. After charge the Li-ion battery. At the same time, the CSC measures
SM, the pulse with optimal frequency is produced to the charge current and converts it into a digital number
charge the Li-ion battery in CM during the charge period . . The digital number is then accumulated to
Remarkably, the charge period is much bigger than the sum the digital number , shown as follows:
of the full charge detection period and the search period ,
and the minimum full charge detection period and the (2)
minimum search period are determined by computing After that, OFDC detects whether the charge current sampling
speed of the microprocessor. times are finished (i.e., times). If the times of current sam-
For detailed explanation for the process of the proposed pling are smaller than , OFDC will delay a time
VFPCS, the working process, see Fig. 3(a), in FCDM, SM, and and then CSC measures the charge currents again.
CM are respectively described as follows. After times of the above-mentioned process cycle, the av-
In FCDM, the active state-of-charge detection [10] is adopted erage charge current digital number can be obtained
to detect the state of the Li-ion battery. The OFDC first com- by
mands the VFPG to generate a constant voltage (i.e., fully
charged voltage 4.2 V/cell) for charging the Li-ion battery. (3)
Then, the charge current of the Li-ion battery is measured and
converted into a digital number by CSC. Since the charge Remarkably, by iterating (2) times and substituting the
current indicates the response degree of the electrochemical with the accumulated result as in (3), (4) can
CHEN: DESIGN OF AN OPTIMAL BATTERY PULSE CHARGE SYSTEM BY FREQUENCY-VARIED TECHNIQUE
Fig. 4. Flowchart of the OFDC in SM.
be obtained and shows that the flowchart to calculate the average
current is correct
(4)
Finally, the optimal pulse charge frequency searcher written
as in (5) operates to obtain the optimal frequency
(5)
It is interesting to see that all the amplitudes of these charge
pulses with frequencies are the same and fixed at
4.2 V/cell. However, the charge pulse with frequency
has the maximum average charging current, which means the
Li-ion battery works in the best and fastest electrochemical re-
action at frequency as described in Section II. It is un-
derstood that the frequency can be regarded as the op-
timal pulse charge frequency.
After the optimal pulse charge frequency is obtained,
OFDC transfers to CM and the command of frequency
401
Fig. 5. Block diagram of the implemented VFPCS.
is sent to VFPG to generate the optimal pulse to charge the
Li-ion battery for a charge period . After a charge period
, the VFPCS returns to FCDM again to detect the state of
the Li-ion battery. Finally, a cyclic charge processes until the
charge current is smaller than or equal to 0.01 C in FCDM,
where the Li-ion battery is fully charged.
IV. IMPLEMENTATION OF VFPCS
Fig. 5 shows the block diagram of the implemented VFPCS,
which consists of a microprocessor EM78459, a voltage reg-
ulator LM723, two transistors 2N3055 and 2N2222, a current
sensing resistor , and a Li-ion battery. The EM78459 is an
8-bits fixed-point calculating microprocessor with a build-in
8-bits analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and an operation
amplifier (OPA).
In the implemented VFPCS, the OFDC is realized by using
EM78459’s calculating ability. The CSC is realized by using
EM78459’s build-in ADC and OPA with an extra current
sensing resistor . The VFPG is realized by a voltage regu-
lator LM723, a current sensing resistor , and two transistors
2N3055 and 2N2222. In the realized VFPC, the voltage reg-
ulator LM723 is used for generating a constant voltage, the
transistor 2N3055 works as a chipper for chipping the constant
voltage into pulses to charge battery, and the transistor 2N2222
is controlled by OFDC to determine whether the transistor
2N3055 works. Notably, the VFPG output current is sensed
through the current sensing resistor and limited in a desired
maximum current shown as follows: [18]
(6)
where is the sense voltage about 0.7 V. In the pro-
posed VFPCS, the maximum charge current is set below
0.7 C according to the safe-charge consideration suggested
by Li-ion battery manufactory. In the above charge condition,
the increasing temperature in a charged Li-ion battery is very
much little in a charge cycle. Therefore, a thermal sensor and
402 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2007

over-temperature protector is not considered in the proposed

VFPCS. However, a thermal sensor is necessary when the
charge current of VFPCS larger than 1 C is designed.
The working processes of the realized VFPCS in FCDM, SM,
and CM are separately described as follows.
In FCDM, the OFDC triggers the transistor 2N2222 to
conduct the transistor 2N3055, and then 4.2 V is applied to
the Li-ion battery. At the same time, the charge current
is sensed by the current sensing resistor and transferred to
voltage . Next, voltage is amplified to by the
OPA for fitting the input scale of ADC. After that, the voltage
is converted into the digital number and sent to
OFDC by the ADC. Finally, OFDC can detect whether the
Li-ion battery is full charged according to the digital number
.
In SM, the OFDC continuously turns on–off the transistor
2N2222 with frequencies to make transistor 2N3055 work
to generate pulses to charge the Li-ion battery. The charge cur-
rent is measured by the current sensing resistor , the
OPA, and the capacitor and converted to a voltage .
Especially, the capacitor and the OPA are constructed as an
integrator. Therefore, the voltage positively proportions
to the average charge current. It means that the average charge
current calculator is realized by hardware and can be skipped
from the software in OFDC. The voltage is converted to
the digital code and sent to OFDC by the ADC. Finally,
the optimal pulse charge frequency searcher in the micropro-
cessor EM78459 works to obtain the optimal pulse charge fre-
quency . The flowchart of the OFDC in SM is shown
in Fig. 6. Assuming , different frequency will
be tested. The frequency is first regarded as the optimal fre-
quency and a pulse with frequency is used to charge
the Li-ion battery. In order to obtain a more correct average cur-
rent, a delay time above five times of the integrator’s time con- Fig. 6. Flowchart of the OFDC in SM.
stant is necessary. After the delay time, the digital code
is read. Next, OFDC returns to test the next frequency . After
one of the above-mentioned cycles, the digital code can Fig. 7 shows the optimal pulse charge frequency de-
be obtained and then is compared with the digital code . tected by VFPCS during a battery-charge cycle. It is clear that
If the digital code is bigger than the digital code , the optimal pulse charge frequency is variable, which
the optimal frequency will be changed to . Otherwise, means that traditional pulse charge systems using a fixed-fre-
the optimal frequency is maintained. After cy- quency pulse to charge the battery is not perfectly suitable. The
cles mentioned in the above, the optimal frequency will proposed VFPCS, using a variable frequency pulse to charge the
be obtained. In CM, the transistor 2N2222 is tuned on–off with battery, seems better than the traditional fixed-frequency pulse
the optimal pulse charge frequency by OFDC. Then charge system (FFPCS) and the standard CC-CV charge system.
the battery will be pulse-charged with the optimal frequency In order to assess the performance of the proposed VFPCS,
for a charge period . the standard CC-CV charge system and the traditional FFPCS
with 1 KHz and 100 Hz are also included for comparison pur-
poses. In this experiment, a 600-mAh Li-ion battery is sequen-
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS tially charged by the above-mentioned charge systems. How-
ever, the Li-ion battery is fully discharged by 0.2 C and then
In order to verify the performance of the proposed VFPCS, kept in 27 C for 60 min before the Li-ion battery is charged
a design example is realized for charging a 600-mAh Li-ion again. The charging response of the proposed VFPCS, the stan-
battery that is most frequently used in the cellular phone. In dard CC-CV charge system, and the FFPCS with 100 Hz and
this design example, the sampling period (i.e., 1 KHz are shown in Fig. 8, respectively. From Fig. 8, we can
) is 5 min and the number of frequency is 31. The find that the charge times of the proposed VFPCS, the standard
frequency is 100 Hz and the frequencies to are CC-CV charge system, and the FFPCS with 100 Hz and 1 KHz
are about 118, 156, 138, and 132 min, respectively. In compar-
(7) ison with the standard CC-CV charge system, the charge speed
CHEN: DESIGN OF AN OPTIMAL BATTERY PULSE CHARGE SYSTEM BY FREQUENCY-VARIED TECHNIQUE 403

Fig. 7. Optimal pulse charge frequency.

Fig. 8. Charging response of the proposed VFPCS, the standard CC-CV charge system, and the conventional FFPCS with 100 Hz and 1 KHz.

of the proposed VFPCS is improved about 24%. For the tradi-
tional FFPCS with 100 Hz and 1 KHz, the charge speed is im-
proved about 15% and 11%, respectively. The results indicate
that the VFPCS can actually provide charging pulse with op-
timal frequency for Li-ion battery to obtain a fast charge process
as the theory predicts.
Table I shows the charge times of the proposed VFPCS with
different sampling periods s 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10 min. In general,
a shorter sampling period has a faster charge speed, since
the proposed VFPCS with a shorter sampling period can
change its pulse frequency in a shorter time after the state of the
battery is varied. However, the charge time of the VFPCS with
404
TABLE I
CHARGE TIME VERSUS SAMPLING PERIOD T
Fig. 9. Picture of the VFPCS prototype for cellular phone charger.
a 1-min sampling period is longer than that of the VFPCS with
3 and 5 min. The reason is the search period is 18 s in the
implemented VFPC, and then the charge period is reduced
to 42 s in the sampling period. The time of the battery working
in the best electrochemical reaction state is really reduced, and
then the charge time is increased. In order to get a faster charge
speed in the proposed VFPCS, a ratio of the charge period
to search period ranged from 8 to 20 is suggested.
In Fig. 9, the VFPCS prototype for the cellular phone
charger is shown. The VFPCS prototype can be implemented
by fewer electronic components and can be manufactured on a
single-sided printed circuit board. In this paper, the proposed
prototype of the VFPCS is designed for a single Li-ion battery
and it can also charge series-connected Li-ion batteries by a
voltage divider. However, an equalizer [19]–[21] is strongly
recommended for use in the series-connected Li-ion batteries
charge system to increase safety. Since the power of a single
Li-ion battery-charge system for mobile devices, such as cel-
lular phones, is small, a linear circuit can be used to realize
the VFPG in this design example. However, for developing a
high-power VFPCS in industrial applications, a power elec-
tronic technique is required to develop a high-power VFPG.
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a VFPCS that can pulse charge the Li-ion
battery with the optimal charge frequency has been proposed
to improve the Li-ion battery-charge response. A prototype of
VFPCS has been designed and implemented to evaluate the
validity of the proposed method. In comparison with a standard
CC-CV charge system, the charge time of the proposed VFPCS
is improved about 24%. For the conventional FFPCS with
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 54, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2007
100 Hz and 1 KHz, the charge time is improved about 15%
and 11%, respectively. The results indicate that the VFPCS
can actually provide charging pulse with optimal frequency
for Li-ion battery to really get a fast charge process as theory
predicts. In realization, the suitable ratio of charge period
to search period is suggested to range from 8 to 20 to get a
better charge performance. A thermal sensor is also suggested
for safe consideration when the charge current of VFPCS larger
than 1 C is design.
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CHEN: DESIGN OF AN OPTIMAL BATTERY PULSE CHARGE SYSTEM BY FREQUENCY-VARIED TECHNIQUE 405

Liang-Rui Chen (M’05) was born in Changhua, Changhua University of Education, Changhua City, Taiwan, where he is
Taiwan, R.O.C., in 1971. He received the B.S., currently an Associate Professor. His major research interests are power
M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electronic engineering electronics, electronic circuit design, and automatic control.
from National Taiwan University of Science and Dr. Chen received the Young Researcher Award from the National Science
Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., in 1994, 1996, Council, Taiwan, in 2005. He is a Member of the IEEE Industrial Electronic
and 2001, respectively. Society.
He joined the Department of Aeronautic En-
gineering (Avionics Unit), National Formosa
University, Yunlini, Taiwan, R.O.C., in February
2002. Since August 2006, he has been with the
Department of Electrical Engineering, National

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