APocketBookofMechanicalEngineering 10026767

PR E F A CE .
T m s boo k is t he res ult of t he w ri t er s end eavor t o co mpact t he grea ter

'
part of t he ref eren ce i nfo rmat i on usually r eq u ired by m ec han i cal engi
n eer s a nd st uden t s i nt o a volu me w hose d i men s i on s perm i t o f i t s be i n g
ca rr i ed i n t he p oc ket w i t hout i n conven i en ce .
I n i t s prep rat i on he has consult ed standard t rea t i ses an d referen ce

a
b k s t he t ran sact i on s of en gi n ee ri ng so c i e t i es a d h i s own memoranda
oo , , n
w h i ch ex t end bac k over a peri od of fi ft een yea rs A a
l rge amou nt of val
.
u a h l e and t i mely mat t er h as been obta i ned from t he co lum n s of t ec hn i ca l
peri od i cals and a l so from t he ca ta log es wh i ch ma n u fa ct u r crs have cour

u
t eo u sl y p lac ed at h i s d i sp s i t i on
o .
W h i le very great ca re has been t aken i n t he prepa rat i on of man uscr i pt

and i n t h e re d i ng of p roo fs i t is n evert heless a regret tab le fact t hat
a
fi rst ed i t i on s a re n ot a l ways i n fal l i ble an d t he w ri ter w i ll accord i ngly be
.
u nder obl i gat i on s t o t hose who wi l l cal l h is a ttent i on t o such e rro rs i n

statement or t yp grap hy as may come t o t hei r n ot i ce
o .
Suggest i on s i nd i cat i n g h ow su bseq uen t ed i t i ons may be made of great er

u s efuln es s a re r esp ect fu l ly sol i c i t ed .
CHA L M SA M ES R ES . .
S ECON D E D I T I ON , F O R 1 90 7 .
A LL mat t er con ta i ned i n t he fi rst ed i t i on has been ca refully scrut i n i zed

fo r errors com p ri so ns hav i ng been m d e w i t h t he o ri gi nal so urces of t h e
a a
i n f ormat i on from w hi ch i t was co mp i led as i t was found t hat n early a ll
,
t h e i n ac cu ra c i es occ u rred t h rough recopy i ng from n ot es .
A n um ber of altera t i on s have been mad e i n t he t ext cert a i n dat a have .
b ee n replaced by fresher ma t t er a nd t he work has been en larged by t he

,
of an ap pend i i n wh i c h new subj ec ts are t reat e d some om i s

x ,
and m uc h spa ce gi ven t o recen t a nd valuable ma t t er relat

Pumxp Machi n e Desi gn
k
.
o
ai n 0 t
.
C M S . . .
PR E AF CE .
FO U RT H E D I T I O N , FO R 1 9 1 1 .
N ew a a
ma t te r h s been d ded on nearly o ne h u nd red subj ec t s The
a dd i t i ons deal ch i efly w i th N ew A lloys and A lloy S tee ls ; Ste e l C s t i ngs ; a
.
A llowable F i ber S tresses ; Streng th of Cha i n L i nks R i n gs Fl t Pl te s a a

H ollo Spheres Keys R i ve t ed J o i n ts and A xles ; R ela t i ve Te nac i t of
w y
. .
a au u o f Comb i ned S tresses ;

w
. .
M e t ls a t A b no rmal Tem pe r t res ; G es t s La '
A llowab le B el t Tens i o ns : S teel B el s ; Fr i c t i o n and Ma g ne t i c Clutc h es ;

t
Fr i c t i on I n volute an d H e rr i bone Gear i ng ; J ou rnal P i vo t and C ll r o a
B ear i ngs ; K nu c kle J o i nts : F ex ib le Sh afts ; C r i t i cal Speeds o f Shaf t s ;
. .
P is to n R ds ; Cork -I nsert Pulle 8 ; R 0

o D r i ve ; H o i s t i ng D r m s ; Bel t u
Fl igh t and Sp i ral Co n ve rs ; yo a mme rs and P resses ; H ea t I s nu
,
ower
a a
lato rs ; S team T bles (new ) ; N e w Satu ra te d nd Su perheate d S team For
m ul as ; M odern S team E ng i ne P ro p rt i o ns ; Governo rs : Poppet V alves ;
o
S e m P i pes ; P ressu re D ro p f S te m nd C m p ressed A ir i n P i pes E u
ta o a a o ’
y
t rop ; Cyl i nder Lubr i ca t i on ; S team Turb i nes ; Lo comob i l es ; H ea t rang
m issno n i n S team B o i lers ; C a lo r ifi c V alues of Co l a nd Pe t ro leum ; CO : i n
a
.
Fu rna e G as es ; C l i n Towe rs ; Safe ty V al ves : E co nom i ze rs ; A u to mo

c oo
b i le E ng i ne D es i gn ; i nd P ress re ; A ir Li ft P umps ; Mo is tu re i n A i r
u
A ero p lane D es i gn : Fr i c t i o n Loss i n Wate r P i pe a nd Chan nels ; W ate r
s
;
H ammer i n P i L i nes ; Ce nt r if u al P m ps ; D es i g n of Tu rb i n es and I m

u
pulse W heels ; g § a te r R h e s tats ; u n gste n Lam ps ; Candl e Power of E le
o c
t r i c L m ps ; Tra nsm iss i o n L i ne Co ns tants ; Cu rren t D e ns i t i es m B rushes ;
a
E lec t r i c D r i ve for M ach i ne Tools ; Power R eq u i red by M ac h i ne T ls e t c e tc oo
N e w d t h ave als b ee n i serted t m n p l es i th e e
aa o n a a y ac n t xt
. .
C
.
M S
CON T E N T S .
MA T H EMA TI CS
W e i ghts d M eas res anA it hm et i c Alg ebra Logari t hms u . r . . .
M e s u ra t i on Tri gonomet ry
a . .
C H E MI C A L D A TA
MATE R I ALS
Pro pe rt i es an d Tables f We i ght s of M t l W o od s St ones an d o e a s, ,
B uil d i n g M t i l We i ght s an d Di mens i ons f R od s B ars

a er a s . o , ,
Pi pes B o i le r
,
Tu bes B olts N uts R i vets N ai ls Sc rews , , , , , ,
W i re R ope Ch a i ns et c
-
, , :
TH E ST R E N GT H O F M A T E R I A LS ST R UCTU R E S AND , ,
M A C H I N E P A R TS
S t resse s St re ngt h of M ate ri al s
. Fact ors f Safet y St ren gt h . o .
of Chai ns R opes Cy l i n de rs B o ile rs B olts Fly wheels R i ve t ed

, , , , ,
-
,
J o in t s Cott r J o i nt s S h f t i n g Keys Spri ngs B eams Flat Plates

, e , a , , , , ,
St ayed S u f aces Cr an e H o ks Co l umn s an d S t ru ts etc

r , Car o , , .
ne gi Stee l Tables
e R i nforced C nc re te G raph i c St at ics S t ress
. e o . .
Diagr ams for Framed St ruct ures et c , .
E N ER G Y A N D T H E T R A N S M I SS I O N O F
Force M ass .E nergy Powe r E le men ts o f M ac hi nes
. Ma . .
.
c hi ne Parts C nn ec t i n g R od s S h aft i n g
. J o urn al s B al l an d
o - . . .
R oller B eari ngs Geari n g

- B elt i n g P ll e s
. R ope Tra sm i s . . u y . n
s i on Fri ct i on
. Lubri c at i on Power Me asu r emen t et c
. .
,
H EA T A N D T H E ST EA M E N I N E G
H eat Steam The rm al E ffi c i enc i es I n d i cat or Di grams
. . . a .
En gi ne Des i gn and D at a Tem perat u re En t m py Di ag rams .

-
.
S team Turb i es Loc omot i ves n

Steam B o ilers an d A ccesso ry
. .
A pp arat us I n te rn al C m bust i on E ngi nes Ai r Co m p re ssed

.
-
o . .
Ai r Fans an d B lowers H eat i n g an d V en t ilat i on Mech an i cal

. . .
R efri ge rat i on etc , .
H YD R A UL I S A D HYD R A UL I C M A C H I N E R Y
C N .
H yd ra l i cs W ate r W heels Tu rb i nes P m ps Pl un ge r

u . . . u .
P mps u d P mpi g M c hi e r H d ra li Power Tr a sm is

an u n a n y . y uc - n
si n eo , tc .
CO N TE N T S
SH OP
Cup la D ata
o Weld i g
. Tem pe ri n g
n . S rew Thre d s Wire . c a .
an d Sheet -Metal G auges F i ts G ri nd i ng W hee ls

. d D at
. an a .
tt i g Speeds
Cu n Hi gh S peed Tool St ee l Power Re qui red by
.
-
.
Machi ery Cost of Power and Powe r Pl n ts et

n . a , c .
E L ECT R O T EC H N I CS
Elec t ri c Curren ts . Elect ro -M agnet
m i
E lec t ro M gn ets
s . Co n -
a .
t in u o us-Curren t D namos a n d M otors

y Al te rnat i ng Curren ts
. .
Al te rn at in g-(h rren t enerators Tran sfo rme rs El e t ri c Powe r

G . . c
Tr s mi ss i on
an . E le t ri c L ig h i g
c El ec t ri c Trac t i on e tc
tn . , .
A PP E N D I X E S
S Y M B OL S A N D A BB RE V I AT I ON S . .
A re a m square fee t
Am Ame ri c an M ac h i n i s
.
o
. M ac h . t .
° A rea i n sq uare i n ches

w
.
a B en d in g m omen t
s flu
.
t B rake horse- po wer .
s e B oard of fi ade
ii u
’ .
s fi ? B r t s h t he rmal ni t
i i u
.
s éb B rmi n gham w re ga ge .
o Cen t
o M od n e o t ran sverse el s i i t t a tc y
a o
.
p r C st i r n .
Ce n ter .
s Ce n t i meters
ty
.
g Ce n te r o f gravi .
(fi rcul ar mil s
an
.
C dle power -
C bi c
u
.
C effi c i en t
o
.
Larger o r outs i de di amet er 1 n mches

.
Di ameter i n i n c hes
, . .
De gree s
M d ul u s o f d i re t el ast i c i t y
o c
.
c
.
H P E le t ri c al ho rse power -
E lec t ro m ot i ve force
. . .
M F -
E n g i n ee rin g N ews
. . .
g
l . .
E n gmee ri n g R ec ord
c
.
W E E le t ri c al W orld an d En gin ee r
Fahren he i t
. .
Tr ac t i ve fo rce m poun d s
.
n
A ccelerat i on l n fee t pe r sec on d
.
f
.
fr fs p oun ds per squ are i n c h (compressi on shear t en

i
St resses
n
. . : , ,
si on
fr M d l s of r pt u re
o uu u .
ft . Feet .
ft -Ibs Foot p o un ds -
Poun ds i n on e c ub i c _foot of water

. . .
G
c
.
a A cce le rat i on of gravi t y in fee t per se on d Grams

G
.
a l lon s
G ram c l o ri es
a
.
-c a l
g
-
t b
. .
I H eig t o head m fee ; t otal heat i n ste am a o ve 3 2 F m

- °
gT iJ
H P ho rse p ower R ated -
H e i gh t 1n in c hes sen si ble hea t i n the li q i d ab ve 3 F u o

. . .
°
h 2
H ori zon t l a
.
,
h or . .
hr H ou rs
M omen t of in e rt ia
. .
I
Pol ar m omen t of i n e rt 1 e
.
1,
I H P I n d i c ated h o rse power
.
ac n
. . . .
I ng T s hen buc h E n gin ee r 8 Poc ket B ook (H tl t t e ) B e rli

’
c
. .
.
,
in . I n h es .
S Y M B O LS A N D A B BR E VI A T I O N S .
M od ul us of vol met ri c el a st i c i t y u .
Spec ifi c heat at con stan t volume .
pressu re
K i l ograms ; k g m k il ogram meters
.
- -
K i lome te rs
. . .
,
K i lowat ts
.
Lengt h i n f ee t ; laten t he t i n B T U pe r l b of ste m a a

.
n
. . . . .
Len gt h in i c hes .
Po un ds .
L in ear
Po i sson s r t io a
.
’
.
See p m .
M agn et o mot i ve force -

.
M ass i n
M ete rs
M i l l i mete rs
.
M et er k i lograms
.
o u
.
N um be r of rev lu t i on s pe r mi n te .
sec on d
Tot al press u re i n poun ds
.
Pressure i n po un ds pe r square in c h
.
Pi tc h i n i n c hes ( ri vets sc rews ear tee t h )

.
,
M ean e flect i ve p ressure i n po un g

-
a n
, , , .
'
s pe r squ re i ch
Perpen d i c ular
.
Flow of ai r or water in c ub i c feet per mi n te u

.
second
.
6 6 C l 4 ‘ 6 6 i t l ‘ 0 6 0 0 l l
i o n i
.
R ad us in feet ; t he rm d y a m c c onst an t
a i a iu i o x
.
R di us in n c hes ; r d s of gy rat on i n i n ches ; rat i of e

p an smn
i
.
R evolu t on s per mi n u te
o u
.
M d ul bendi n g f sec t on
o
s in
i t o rs i on
.
S i de o f square in in c hes ; di st an ce i n fee t in ve loc i t y fo rm l s ua

.
Seconds
Spec i fi c gra vi t y
.
sp gr. . .
sq S uare
u
. .
T A sol ute tem pe rat re in degs F ( also r )

Twi st i n g m omen t
. . .
Tm
G reater ten s i on in belt o r rope
.
Tn
Thi c kness in in c hes ; t i m e i n se ond s c
.
t
Tem perat u re or ri se of tem perat ure in d egs F
.
°
t (or t )
Lesser ten s i on in bel t o r rope
, . .
in
V eloc i t y i n feet per m i n te ; vol ume in c ub i c fee t u
.
V
V eloc i t y i n feet per sec on d
.
1)
V ert i c al
.
ve rt
W rough t i ron
. .
W I
W e igh t or load in poun ds (also
. . .
w
Y ard s
Ze i t sch ri ft des V ere in es deut sc her I n gen ie ure
.
I B erli n
Coe ffi c i en t of l i near ex pan s i on i n degs F
. . .
a ( A lph a ) an an gle . .
19 B et a ) A n an gle
(
G am m a ) P i tc h an l e i n sp i ral gears
.
7
A ( D elt a ) Tot al de ect ion i n f ee t ; A = same in i n ches
.
0 6 1 as a. D eflec t i on o r st rai n pe r i n c h of len gth (d ue t o com

u .
3
p ress i on laterally shear an d ten s i on respect i vely )
c. . ,
, , .
, ,
n ( E t a) E ffi cie n c
0 ( Thet a ) A n gle o tors i on
Coe ffi ci en t of fri ct i on ; t an en t of fri c t i on an gle
.
Mu )
(
.
p
Pi ) R at i o of c ir cu
.
7: m fe ren ce t o iam et e r = 3 1 4 l 59 +
R adi us of c rvat u re i n bend i ng u
.
p ( R h o)
2 ( S i gm a )
.
“
S ym bol in di c at i n g sum m at i on
au c a a
.
r (Tau ) A b so lu te tem pe r t re i n degs F ; n o rm al p i t h i n sp i r l ge rs . . .
(Phi ) E n t ropy
V ari es as
.
or
. .
G reater t h an .
Le ss t han .
H Parallel t o
Ac ross
.
.
MAT H E MAT I CS .
W EI G H TS AN D ME A S UR E S (E N G L I S H ) .
L e gt h n mi l s = l i n c h ; foot ; 3 fee t = 1 ard 5 5 1 2 i n ch es ==1 y

1 l i n k ; 1 00 l i n k s = 1 c hai n
.
m
.
ards = 1 rod pole o r pe rc h 7 92 i n c hes =

il e = 5 2 8 0 fee t ; 1 f u rlon g = 4 0 r ds ; 1 kn ot or n aut i c l mi le o a
.
, , ,
0 c hai n s 1
feet i le a u
,
g e
u ac
.
S rf e ft ; y d ; 30 2 5 3 q y d = l sq
1 a r e m i l = 0 000000 785 4 sq
. . . . . . .
rod ; 1 60 sq rods = 1 ac re = 4 3 5 6 0 sq t
ou
.
, .
V l me 1 7 28 c u in = 1 c u ft . 2 7 c u ft = 1 c u y d ; 1 co rd of wood
, . . . . . . .
1 2 8 c u f t ; 1 perc h of m ason ry = 2 4 7 5 c u ft
t
. . . . .
A v o i rd u p ol s W e i g h (The grai n is t he same in all systems ) 2 7 3 4 375 . . .
grain s = 1 d ra ch m = 1lg o u n ce ; 1 po un d = 1 6 oz = 7 000 gr ai n s ; 1 lon g t on .

,
2 240 lb 1 n et o r sho rt t on = 2 000 lb

W e igh
oy 2 4 grai n s = 1 pen n we i gh t ; 2 0 pe nn ywe i gh ts = 1 oun ce
t y
.
, ,
Tr .
,
1 2 o u n ces = 1 l b = 5 7 60 grai n s ; 1 c arat = grai ns 205 gram )

h e a ri es
ot c e igh t W
. .
Ap
’
20 g grai n s = 1 sc ru ple ; 3 sc rupl es = 1 d rac h m ; .
8 d r a ch ms = l o z ; 1 2 o z 1 lb = 5 7 60 gra in s
i d DI ea=su r e 4 gi l ls = 1 p in t ; 2 p i n t s = 1 quart ; 4 qu ar ts = 1 gal
qu
. . . .
,
Li
B ri t is h I m pe r i a l gal = 27 7 2 7 4 c u i n
.
°
l on ( U S gal 23 1 c u i n 31 5
a
. . . . . . .
gal 1 barrel ; 2 barrels = l hogs he d

u a u u
. .
A p o t h e ca r i e s F l i d M e s r e
’
60 m i ni ms = 1 fl i d d rac hm ; 8
d rac h ms = 1 fl u i d o un ce = 43 7 5 grai ns
.
D r M=e s r e , U S 2 p i t s = 1 ua rt ; 8 qua rt s = 1 pec k ; 4 pec ks

y a u n
. .
2 l 5o 42 c u i n u q 1 B ri t i s h b ushel = 8 I m pe ri al gal c
. .
1 bus h el
c
, . . . . .
c u ia = u ft
’
Ci r l r M e s re
cu a a u c nu u
. . .
60 se on ds = 1 mi t e ; 60 mi n tes = 1 deg ree ; 90

degrees = l q u ad ran t = 1 c i rc umferen ce
.
>
oa B a urd M e s r e (B M N o of f ee t board measu re = l en gt h i n fee t x

w X t h i c kn es s i n i n c hes
. . .
i dt h i n fee t .
DI E T R I C DI E A S U R E S .
The fo l low i n g p re fi xes are employed for subd i v i s i on s an d m l t i ples : u

M i l li = 0 00 1 Ce n t i = 0 0 1 D ec i = 0 1 D ec a = 1 0 H ec t o = 1 00 Ki lo = 1 000
M yri a = 1 0 000
.
, .
, .
, , , , ,
n t
.
,
Le g h 1 mete r = 3 9 3 70 1 1 3 in = 3 2 808 4 ft 1 ki lometer = 3 280 84 3

1 in c h = 2 5 4 cen t i me te rs (c m m il l imete rs
. . . . .
, .
ft = 0 6 2 1 37 m ile 1
1 m il e = k i l ome te rs =
. . . . . .
foot = 0 3 04 8 mete r = 3 0 48 cm mete rs

ac
. . . .
S u rf e 1 sq uare e m 1 00 sq m m . sq i n 1 sq meter . . . . . .
sq ft 1 are = 1 00 sq m 1 hec tare = 1 00 ares = 1 0 000 sq m =

c
. . . .
.
, .
ac res 1 ac re = 0 404 7 hec t are 1 sq mi l e = 2 5 9 h e t ares

. 1 sq . . . . .
f t = 0 092 90 3 sq m 1 sq i n — 6 4 5 1 6 sq c m
ou 1 stere = 1 ki lo l i te r = 1 c u meter = 3 5 3 1 48 c u ft 1 l i ter (l )
. . . . . . . .
V l me
1 c u d ec i meter 6 1 02 4 c u i n
. . . . . .
= — O 2 64 2 gal ( U 1 gal ( U
3 7 85 4 l i te rs
. . . . . . . .
1 c u c m = 0 06 1 c u in
W e i gh t a
. . . . . . .
1 gram (or gram me ) = 1 5 4 3 2 ai n s 1 ki l o m

2 20 4 6 2 lb avo i rd upo i s 1 met r i t on = g r c
. . .
. .
g = 2 I 1 gram = . .
gram 1 lb = 0 4 536 kg g
d W e i gh t u an
. . . .
Pr e s s r e 1 lb per sq in kg pe r sq c m
1 kg pe r sq c m = 1 4 2 23 lb pe r sq i n = 1 met ri c at mosp he re
. . . . . . .
. . 1 at mos . . . . .
phe re lb pe r sq 2 lb p sq f t 5 33 94 7 ft of wate r
c
. . . . . . .
,
30 i n of me r u ry (7 6 2 mm ) at 6 2 F 1 e
lbr pe
q r sq in 7 1 in of wate r
°
. . . . .
= 2 04 1 6 m of merc ury at 6 2 ° F
. . .
2 M A T H E MA T I CS .
AR I T HM ETI C AND A LG E BR A .
S qua r es an d C u b e s o f N u ml
e r sn C l r cu mf c r e n ce s an d A r e a s of
t ‘r e l c s .
fi zz -P 4
AR I TH M E T I C AN D A L G E B RA . 3
ua n u Cir cu m f e e nc e s A ea
Sq re s a d C b es of N u mb
é er s.
i r el e s
.
r an d r s of
S q ua an
re d C be R u oot
h y A p ro x l ma t l on From ab ve t able t e o ak
n wh ose c ube o r sq ua re 1 5 n earest t e n u mber o f wh i c h t he root i s des1 re d
.
For squ are root d i v i de t he n um be r by n ob t ai n i n g t he quot i en t

.
t ake
( n 2 ) for a n ew d i vi sor obt a i n i n g 1 1 3 as a q uot i en t ; take
, ,
=
2 for a n ew d i v i sor an d c on t i n ue process un t i l d i visor an d q u o
,
( 2 + 3)
--
n n z
t i en t are a l i ke o r t o t h e requ i red acc uracy

Fo r c ube root d i vi de t he n u m be r by 71 2 obt i n i n g quot i en t m; t ake a
, .
. .
2
2 2 2 "i i
-
ns
( )
i
= n 2 fo r a ne w d1 v1 so r obt ai n i n g q uot i en t "a: t ake

2 ,
3
for a n ew d i vi sor an d c on t i n ue pro ess un t i l c
C mp oo un
d I eres nt
a = c( 1 twhere a = amo un t c ==1n 1 t 1a l cap i
tal p = rate p e r cen t i n h un d redt hs an d n ==n u mbe r of ears y
. ,
mi l T h e r e m
no a o
.
, ,
Bi .
” (n n (n — l ) (n 2)
— —a n_ 3b3 +
(G i b) “ i n“n l I ” o o o
4 M A T H E M A T I CS .
A ri t h me t=i ca l an d G e o=m e t r i ca l
P r g r e s si Le a fi rst e rm of o on t c
t
y ac
.
t h e se ri es b l as t te rm d difi e re nce be t wee n an t wo ad j en t t e rm s (i n

. .
A n t h F rog ) n = n u mbe r of te rms a = sum of a l l t h e t e rms r = rat io of an y

t e rm dw x ded by p re ed i n g one ( i n Geom c n
. . , ,
Th e for A n t h me t i cal .
.
se ri es . b = a + (n —1 )d -
§f —a ;
“ E
2
m M a - a
2 2d 2 2
-
(n
+ (r 1 ) 41 (
For G eomet ri cal se rie s , b = a r"“
a
r
_
r
r" 1
a ( r“ - 1) rb -
a b(r" -
1)
Si k i g F
n n d f r D ep r e i iun o and R e e l 3 c at on n wa
whe re s i s t h e f un d or am oun t t o be acc u m l at ed i n 11 yea rs an d r = l pl us u
.
.
‘
t he rate per cen t o f i n te rest t o be com p ound ed an n ually t he rate be in

E x am ple A e rtai n m hi n e c ost i ng c ac .
exp ressed i n h un d red ths (3

W 1 “n eed t o be re placed by a new on e c ost in a
. .
g t he s me am o u n t at t he en d
of 1 0 ears W hat s um m u t be p ai d i n to a s i n k in g fun d at t he en d s
o f e acyyear t o am o n t t o at t he end of t he t en t h year i nt e rest

u ,
be i ng compo u n ded at the ra t e of 5 per cen t ?

.
1 l )
an d a o r t he an n u l moun t to be pl ed in t he fun d
, a a ac .
,
I e rp l i
nt o at on
W here a v l ue i n termedi ate to t w v l ues in a tab le i s a o a
des i red t he f oll owmg fo rm ula may be employed a
”
. V l u e des i red . .
Le t N N 1 N 2 an d N 3 be four n u mbe rs (equ all y sp ced ) wh se t ab l a r a o u

f un c t i ons are a a l 0 2 an d a 3 Then i n abo ve form ul a t o fi n d a t he t ab u
, ,
~
, . .
, s .
—
l ar fun c t i on of N i be t wee n N an d N ) = x x
’
, (l y n g 1 , n .
b = t h fi rst f t he fi rst
e order of di fferen ces
o ,
sec on d
o1 a o
t h i rd
C
d=
° °
E xample The c ho rds of 3 4 an d 3 6 are
F i n d t he c h ord of
.
an d p t ly res ec 1 ve .
u = (3 1 —3 0 ) — 30
)
a t
Lo g r i h m s ( l o g ) The h ype rboli c or N ap i eri an log of an y n um be r
.
e quals t he com mon l o g X 2 3 02 58 5 1 The c om mon l og of an y n um be r

equals t he h yperbol i c log (loge ) X 0 4 3 4 2 9 4 5
. .
E very log c n s i st s of a w hole part (the c h ra te ri st i c ) an d a d ec i m al pa rt

o a c
. .
(the m an t i ssa ) The m an t i ssa o r dec i mal part on l i s gi ven i n t he tables

The c har ac te ri st i c of t he l og of a n um be r i s on e y
. .
ess t han t he n um b e r of
fi g res to t he left of t he dec i m al po in t i n the n um ber
u .
Lo g log l og et c
Log log — 2 4 7 7 l 2 l og e tc
An y lo gar i t hm w i t h a n egat i ve c h arac t eri st i c as n

.
.
,
may be wri tte

as
— 10 (The su m of 9 an d . 1 0 be i n g l ) .
o
F rm l s o f r ua
U s i g L o g r i h m s log a b = n
log c + l og b a t . .
—l g o a — l og b . l og ab = b l og a .
b a
T A BL E or C H OR DS . 5
a
E x m p les .
i
5 X 4 ( us n g logs ) ; Lo g 5 6 9 89 7
Log 4
.
. 60 2 06
S um w h i c h is t he log of 20 , or the res l t u t e
q u1 re d
u i
.
M l t ply by 0 04
9 698 97 — 1 0
. .
l og 0 5
—2 6 02 06 = 8 60 2 0 6 1 0
. .
l og 0 0 4 = . . .
T he i r su m — 20 or t he l og of
For d1 ff of logs = . 0 = l og of .
Fin d n t h root of
l og 10
d i v i ded by 71 (say 2 ) or log of
R i se
a t o n t h p ower .
10
m u l t 1 p l y1 n g b y 11. (say 2 ) 1 8 9542 4 —2 0 =
Log 1r = 4 97 1 5 ,.
‘o
g l og x
2 = 994 3 ,
.
l og V x = 2 4 85 75 . .
T AB LE 0 1? C H OR D S .
Deg Chd . Deg '
Ch d . Deg Ch d . Deg Ch d D eg | C hd .
.
. . . . .
2 . 03 4 9 20 . 32173 38 . 65 1 1 56 93 8 9. 7 4 : 1 2 036
4 . 06 98 22 . 38 1 6 40 68 4 0 58 9700 . 76 1 23 1 3
6 1 04 7 24 4 1 58 42 7 1 67 60 1 0000 78 1 2 586
8 1 395 26 4 4 99 44 7 4 92 62 1 03 0 1 80 1 2 856 .
10 . 1 74 3 28 . 48 3 8 46 . 78 1 5 64 82
12 . 2090 30 5 1 76 48 . 8 1 35 66 84 1 3 383 .
14 . 243 7 32 . 55 1 3 50 . 84 5 2 68 1 1 18 4 86
16 . 2 783 34 . 58 4 7 52 . 87 6 7 70 1 147 1 88
18 . 3 1 29 36 . 6 1 80 54 . 9080 72 90 1 4 142 .
M E N S U R A T I ON .
F I G U R E S (A ) AR E A S OF P L AN E .
T ri an
gl e s Take as base an y si de wh i c h w i ll be in te rsec ted b
pe n di cu l ar let fall fro verte x o f oppos i te an gle
.
Len gt h of base m .
, len gt h
f—i
2_ 2
l 2 2
—i
—
( n
bh + 2 w here h = len gt h of perpen di c ul ar

a zo i i ua
.
,
T r pe d I f a b an d h = l en g t h s of paral lel s des an d pe rpen di c l r ,

. ,
respec t i vely A = 0
i c
, .
= = 2 = 1r 2 — =
C r le ( r = r a d i u s d di ameter ) A 1rr d 4 Ci r c u m f x d
cto o i i
. , . . .
Se r f C r cl e A of n arc
to i c
.
A = 0 5[ br — c(r
.
S egm e n f C r le b = arc , o = base h = he igh t . .

,
a t cen ter of base

E llipse
.
E quat ion refe rred t o axes t h ro ug h cen ter :

w here a = se mi mi n or axi s b = semi j or a xis an d x an d y are t h e absc i ss a ma
.
- -
an d ordi n ate of an y po in t on t he pe ri meter

,
A = 7ra b Len gt h of pe ri mete r . .
1 a
+ __
64 +b
aa o
P r b la E quat i on o ri gm at ve rt ex : y 2 = 2 pz w here 2 p 1 8 the parame
u Are a of an port i on from verte
n ou u y x
. , ,
t er or do bl e ordi ate t h r g h foc s

,
.
A
3
M AT H E MA T I S C .
H yp e r b o l a I I C mt io n : a zy z — bs
yc o gii i c
.
C l id Le n t of c urve - 4 t mes d iam

. . of gen e rat in g ci r le .
A rea =3 area
A ea of A
r r r eg l r Fl
ny I ua u re S i mps ’
on
8 R le u
D 1 v1de t he le gt h n
o f t he fi gure i n t o an e ven n um r of e qua l parts an d erec t ord i n at es t hro g h u
. .
w here a - su m of fi rst an d l ast ord i n ates b - su m of e ven ord i n ates c - su m

of d d ord i n at es (e x ce pt i n fi rst an d l ast ) an d d = co mmon d i st an ce bet wee n
o , ,
ordi n ates The greater t e n um ber of d i v is i on s t he great er w il l be t he

acy
.
accur .
LO GA R I T H M S O F N UM B ER S .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
00000 00 4 3 2 00 8 60 0 1 284 0 1 703 02 1 1 9 02 53 1 0 29 38 03 3 4 2 03 7 4 3

0 4 1 3 9 04 5 3 2 04 92 2 053 08 05 6 90 0 60 7 0 064 46 0 68 1 9 0 7 1 88 0 75 55
079 1 8 082 79 08 63 6 0899 1 093 42 096 9 1 1 00 3 7 1 03 80 1 07 2 1 1 1 059
1 1 394 1 1 7 2 7 1 2 05 7 1 2 385 127 10 1 30 33 1 3354 1 367 2 1 3 988 1 430 1
1 4 6 1 3 1 4 92 2 1 52 29 1 55 3 41 583 6 1 6 1 37 1 64 35 1 6 73 2 1 7 02 6 1 73 1 9
1 7 609 1 7 898 1 8 1 84 1 8 4 691 8 75 2 1 90 3 3 1 93 1 2 1 9590 1 98 66 20 1 40
204 1 2 20683 2095 2 2 1 2 192 1 48 4 2 1 7 48 2 20 1 1 2 2 27 2 2 25 3 1 2 2 789
2 3 04 5 23 300 2 355 3 2 3 805 2 40 55 2 4 3 04 2455 1 2 4 7 97 2 50 4 2 2 5 28 5
2 5 5 2 7 2 5 7 68 2 6 482 26 7 1 7 2 6 95 1 2 7 1 84 274 1 6 2 76 4 6
2 7 87 5 28 1 03 2 8 3 30 2 8 5 5 6 2 8 7 80 29003 292 2 6 29 44 7 29 6 6 7 29 88 5
30 1 03 303 20 3053 5 30 7 50 3 09 63 3 1 1 75 3 1 3 87 3 1 59 7 3 1 80 6 320 1 5
3 2 22 2 3 2 4 28 3 2 63 4 3 2 83 8 3 3 04 1 33 2 44 3 3 44 5 3 364 6 33 84 6 3 4044
34 24 2 3 4 4 39 3 4 6 35 3 4 83 0 3 5 02 5 35 2 1 8 3 54 1 1 3 5 60 3 3 5 7 93 3 5984
3 6 1 73 36 3 6 1 36 5 4 9 3 673 6 369 2 2 3 7 1 07 3 7291 3 7 4 7 5 37 658 3 7 84 0
3802 1 3 8 2 02 38 382 385 6 1 3 8 73 9 389 1 7 3 9094 3 9 27 0 3 944 5 3 96 20
3 9794 3 996 7 4 0 1 40 40 3 1 2 40 4 8 3 4 06 5 4 4 08 2 4 4 099 3 4 1 1 6 2 4 1 330
4 1 4 97 4 1 6 64 4 1 83 0 4 1 99 6 4 2 1 60 4 2 3 25 4 2 4 88 4 2 65 1 4 28 1 3 4 297 5
4 3 1 36 4 3 2 97 434 57 436 1 6 4 3 7 75 4 3 93 3 44 09 1 44 2 4 8 4 44 0 4 4 4 56 0
447 16 44 8 7 1 4 502 5 45 179 4 5 33 2 45 4 84 4 5 6 37 4 5 788 145 93 9 4 6090
4 6 2 40 4 63 89 4 6 53 8 4 6 68 7 4 68 3 5 4 6 98 2 4 7 1 29 4 7 2 76 4 7 4 22 4 7 56 7
4 77 1 2 4 785 7 4 800 1 481 44 4 82 8 7 4 84 30 4 85 7 2 48 7 1 4 4 885 5 48 996
4 9 1 36 4 92 7 6 4 94 1 5 4 955 4 4 96 93 4 983 1 4 99 6 9 50 1 06 50 2 4 3 5037 9

5 05 1 5 50 65 1 50 7 8 6 509 2 0 5 1 055 5 1 1 89 5 1 322 5 1 4 55 15 8 5 1 7 2 0
5 1 85 1 5 1 983 52 1 14 5 2 2 44 52 3 7 5 5 2 5 04 5 2 63 4 5 2 76 3 2 89 53 0 2 0
5 3 1 48 53 2 75 5 3 4 03 5 3 5 29 5 3 65 6 5 378 2 5 3 908 5 4 0 3 3 4 15 5 4 2 83
5 44 0 7 54 5 3 1 54 6 5 4 54 7 7 7 5 4 900 5 50 2 3 55 1 4 5 55 2 6 7 555 09
5 5 63 0 55 75 1 55 87 1 55 99 1 56 1 1 0 562 2 9 5 63 48 5 64 6 7 5 6 7 03
5 68 2 0 5 693 7 5 7 05 4 57 1 7 1 57 2 8 7 5 7 40 3 575 1 9 5 7 63 4 57 86 4
5 7 97 8 58093 58 20 6 5 83 20 58 4 33 585 4 6 5865 9 5877 1 5899 5
59 1 06 59 2 1 8 59 3 2 9 594 39 5 9550 596 60 59 7 7 0 59879 6009 7
602 06 603 1 4 60 4 23 60 53 1 60 63 8 60 74 6 6085 3 609 59 6 1 1 72
41 6 1 2 78 6 1 38 4 6 1 4 90 6 1 5 95 6 1 7 00 6 1 805 6 1 909 6 20 1 4 6 22 2 1 104

42 62 325 62 4 28 6 2 53 1 6 2 63 4 6 2 7 37 6 2 83 9 6 29 4 1 63 04 3 63 24 6
43 6 33 4 7 63 44 8 6 3 5 48 63 6 4 9 63 74 9 6 3 84 9 6 3 94 9 6 40 4 8 64 2 4 6
44 6 434 5 64 4 4 4 645 4 2 6 464 0 6 4 73 8 64 83 6 6 4 933 6 50 3 1 65 2 25
45 6 53 2 1 65 4 18 65 5 1 4 65 6 1 0 65 706 6580 1 65 89 6 65 99 2 66 1 8 1
46 66 2 76 66 3 7 0 6 6 4 64 66 5 58 6665 2 667 4 5 6 68 3 9 6 6 93 2 6 7 0 25 67 1 1 7
47 6 72 10 6 73 3 2 6 7 394 6 7 4 86 6 7 57 8 6 7 6 69 67 76 1 6 7 8 52 6 7 94 3 680 3 4
48 68 1 2 4 68 2 1 5 68 3 05 68 3 95 68 4 85 68 57 4 68 6 64 68 7 5 3 688 4 2 68 93 1
49 690 20 69 1 08 6 9 1 97 6 9 28 5 6 937 3 69 4 6 1 69 5 4 8 69 6 3 6 697 2 3 69 8 1 0
50 69897 699 8 4 700 70 7 0 1 57 702 4 3 7 03 29 704 1 5 01 7 0586 7067 2
51 707 57 7084 2 7 09 2 7 7 10 1 2 7 1 09 6 7 1 1 81 7 1 2 65 4 9 7 1 4 33 7 1 5 1 7
52 7 1 600 7 1 68 4 7 1 767 7 1 850 7 1 93 3 7 20 1 6 7 2 099 7 2 1 8 1 7 2 2 63 17 2346
53 7 24 28 7 2 509 7 2 59 1 7 2 6 73 7 2 75 4 7 28 3 5 7 29 1 6 7 299 7 0 7 8 3 1 59
54 73 2 39 7 33 20 7 3 4 00 7 3 4 80 73 5 60 7 3 640 73 7 1 9 7 3 799 87 8 3 95 7
L O G A R I T HM S O F N U M B E RS .
LO GA R I T H M S OF NU DI B E R S (C ont i n u ed ) .
No . 0 7 8 9 D 16 .
m _
55 7 4 03 6 74 1 1 5 7 4 19 4 7 4 2 73 74 35 1 7 4 4 29 7 4 58 6 7 4663 7 4 74 1 78
56 74 8 1 9 7 4 8 96 7 4 97 4 7 505 1 7 5 1 28 7 5 2 05 753 58 75 4 35 755 1 1 77
57 7558 7 7 5 66 4 757 4 0 7 58 1 5 7 58 9 1 7596 7 76 1 18 7 6 1 93 7 6 2 68 75
58 7 63 4 3 76 4 1 8 7 64 9 2 76567 7 6 64 1 76 7 1 6 7 68 64 7 693 8 770 1 2 74
59 7 708 5 7 7 1 59 7 72 3 2 7 7305 773 7 9 77 4 5 2 7 7 59 7 77 6 7 0 777 43 73
60 77 8 1 5 7 788 7 77 9 60 7 8 03 2 7 8 1 04 78 1 7 6 7 83 1 9 7 83 90 78 4 6 2 72
785 3 3 7 8 60 4 78 6 75 78 74 6 7 88 1 7 7 8888 790 29 7 90 99 7 9 1 69 71

7 9 2 39 7 93 0 9 7 93 79 794 4 9 7 95 1 8 795 88 79 7 2 7 7 9 7 96 7 986 5 70
7 99 3 4 8000 3 8007 2 80 1 4 0 802 09 8 02 77 8 04 1 4 804 8 2 80550
806 1 8 8 068 6 807 5 4 808 2 1 8088 9 8 0956 8 1 090 8 1 1 58 8 1224
8 1 29 1 8 1 3 58 8 1 425 8 149 1 8 1 558 8 1 62 4 8 1 7 57 8 1 82 3 8 1 88 9 67
8 1 95 4 82 020 8 2 086 82 1 5 1 82 2 1 7 8 2 28 2 82 4 1 3 82 4 78 82 5 4 3 66
8 26 07 82 67 2 8 2 73 7 8 2 802 82 8 6 6 8 2 930 8 3 05 9 83 1 2 3 83 1 8 7 64
83 2 5 1 83 3 1 5 833 7 8 83 4 4 2 83 506 8 3 56 9 83 6 9 6 8375 9 83 8 2 2
8388 5 83 94 8 84 0 1 1 840 7 3 84 1 3 6 84 1 98 84 3 2 3 84 3 8 6 84 44 8
84 5 1 0 84 572 84 6 3 4 84 6 96 84 7 5 7 84 8 1 9 84 94 2 8 5003 85065 62
71 85 1 2 6 85 1 87 85 2 4 8 853 09 8 53 70 85 4 3 1 8 555 2 856 1 2 85 6 7 3 61

72 8 5 73 3 857 94 8585 4 8 59 1 4 8 59 7 4 8 6 03 4 86 1 5 3 86 2 1 3 8 6 2 73
73 863 3 2 863 9 2 8 64 5 1 865 1 0 8 6 570 8 66 2 9 86 7 4 7 868 0 6 868 64 59
74 8 692 3 8 698 2 8 7 04 0 87 099 87 1 5 7 87 2 1 6 87 3 3 2 8 7 390 87 4 4 8 58
75 8 7506 8 7 5 64 8 7 62 2 87 68 0 8 773 7 87 7 95 87 9 1 0 8796 7 88 02 4 57
76 88 08 1 88 13 8 8 8 1 96 88 2 5 2 88 3 09 883 66 88 4 80 88 5 3 6 88 5 93 57
77 88 64 9 88 7 05 88 7 6 2 888 1 8 888 7 4 8893 0 8 904 2 89098 89 1 54 56
78 89 2 09 8 92 65 8 93 2 1 8 93 7 6 8 94 3 2 8 94 8 7 89 5 9 7 8 96 5 3 897 08 55
79 897 6 3 8 98 1 8 898 7 3 8 992 7 8 99 8 2 9003 7 90 1 4 6 90 2 00 90 2 55 54
80 90309 903 63 90 4 1 7 904 7 2 90 5 2 6 90580 90 687 907 4 1 90795 54
81 908 4 9 90902 90956 9 1 009 9 1 06 2 91 1 16 9 1 22 2 9 1 2 75 9 1 3 28 53

82 9 1 38 1 9 1 5 40
9 1 4 3 4 9 1 48 7 9 1 593 9 1 64 5 9 1 75 1 9 1 80 3 9 1 85 5 53
83 9 1 90 8 9 1 96 0 92 0 1 29 2 06 5 92 1 1 7 92 1 6 9 92 2 7 3 92 3 2 4 9 2 3 76 52
84 92 4 28 92 48 0 9 2 53 1 92 58 3 9 2 63 4 92 686 92 7 8 8 92 8 4 0 9 2 89 1 51
85 9294 2 929 93 93 04 4 93095 93 1 4 6 93 1 97 93 2 98 93 3 4 9 933 99 5l
86 93 4 50 93 5 00 93 55 1 93 60 1 9365 1 93 7 02 93 802 93 85 2 93 90 2 50
87 9 3 95 2 94002 94 05 2 94 1 0 1 94 1 5 1 94 2 0 1 94 3 00 94 3 4 9 94 3 99 49
88 94 44 8 94 4 98 94 5 4 7 9 4 596 94 6 4 5 9 4 6 94 94 7 92 94 8 4 1 94 890 49
89 94 93 9 94 988 9 503 6 95085 95 1 3 4 95 1 8 2 95 2 7 9 953 28 9537 6 48
90 9542 4 954 7 2 95 5 2 1 95 56 9 956 1 7 95 6 6 5 95 7 6 1 95 80 9 9 58 5 6 48
91 9 5904 95952 95 999 96 04 7 96 095 96 1 4 2 96 1 90 9 6 2 3 7 96 2 84 9 633 2 48

92 96 3 7 9 964 2 6 96 4 73 965 2 0 9 6 56 7 9 6614 95 66 1 9 6 7 08 96 7 5 5 9 68 02 47
93 968 48 968 95 9 69 4 2 96 988 9 7 03 5 97 08 1 97 1 2 8 97 1 7 4 9 7 22 0 97 2 6 7 47
94 97 3 1 3 9 7 35 9 9 7 40 5 97 4 5 1 97 4 9 7 97 54 3 9 7 58 9 9 7 6 3 5 97 68 1 97 7 2 7 46
95 977 7 2 97 8 1 8 97 86 4 97909 9 7 9 55 98000 98 04 6 98 09 1 0 8 1 37 98 1 82 46
96 98 2 2 7 982 7 2 983 1 8 983 63 98 4 08 98 4 53 98 4 98 98 5 4 3 985 88 9863 2 45
97 98 6 7 7 98 7 2 2 98 7 6 7 988 1 1 98 8 5 6 98 900 989 4 5 98989 9 903 4 99078 45
98 99 1 23 99 1 67 99 2 1 ] 99 2 5 5 99 3 00 99 3 4 4 9938 8 9 94 3 2 9 94 7 6 9952 0 44
99 99 564 99 607 9965 1 99 695 99 7 3 9 99 7 8 2 9982 6 99 8 7 0 999 1 3 9995 7 44
N ote — The d i ff erences i n th e l as t col u m are mean v al ues on l y n For

acc ura t e val ues t he d i ff erence bet wee n an t wo con sec ut i ve v al ues s houl d
y
.
be foun d by subt rac t i on .
S U R FA C E S (A ) A N D V O L UM E S (V ) O F S O LI D S .
rf d3
Sph er e . A = 4 7rr 2 = 7rd2 .
6
i u
R i n g o f C r c l a r C r s s -s e c o o ti n
A = 9 8696 D d V = 2 4 6 74D d
‘
(D =
i
. . . .
ou tsi de di a meter — d ; d = dia m of c ross sec t on )

. .
8 M A T H E M A T I CS .
S e g m e nt of Sp h e re . A = 2 m h = area ‘
of base -i- rrh2 (h =-he igh ) t .
V = x h2
( r
C on e . A ”r s/ 1 4 + 11 2 . V = 0 26 1 8d 2 h (h
. vert he igh ) . t .
C on i c Fr s u tu m . A =f X sl an t height h , .
V=
=
C l i n de r V = 0 7 85 4d2h (d the re v o l vi n a nu s of cyl and ell i p so i d

y
18
aa oo
. .
.
V = 5 2 360 d1
0
E l l p so l d . P r b l id .
P r mi d
ya X are a
1
V= of base
§
. .
F ru s t u m of P y amid
r . + c + V A o ) (A an d a - area s of bases) .
T R I GO N OM E TR Y .
F u ct i on s of t he an gle
n E B = si n e 0 E = cos ine E A
s i ne GC = verse d cosme A D = t an gen t GF = cot an gen t 0 D = sec a n t 0 p
, ,
o , , , , ,
c secan t
o ua
.
F rm l s (A B an d C are an gles )
. ,
.
si n A cos A
=
1 1
t an A — co t A = A cose c A — tan A
C OS A ,; se c
A cos A S in si n A
,
i
s n2 A + co s
z
A = l ; v e r sin A = 1 — co s A ; c o ve r s A = 1 — sn A i .
si n (A t B ) = sin A co s l i
z co s A s n B
i
.
cos (A t B ) = cos A cos B ¥ s n A sm B .
A A A
A 2 sm 00 5 cos A cos 2 .
2 2 2
1 —cos A =
=2 si n
2 1 -’-
r cos A =2 cos
2
A r A
( )
n
t an A 2 t an 1 t an 2 m A -i- cos A +A V 2
L s s1 n
.
.
2
l —cos A
(zr )
7:
m A —M W W “
A
W
c0 3 A -
~
- ° 2
t an ( A A B ] — [ 1 ?3 tan A t an B ] .
cot (A 1 8 ) = [ cot A cot A i cot B ] .
A i B
s1 n A i sm B 2 sin
2 2
A B A R
;
-
co s A + co s B = 2 co s
E .
A B A 8
—cm
;
-
— 2 sin
c os A B=
—
5 .
sin A sin B =i cos (A B) -

} c os
B
i )
.
sin A cos B = Q S n B
si n 3A = i
3 sn A — 4 sin 3 A . co s 3A = 4 cos3 A -
3 cos A .
(cos A i i si n i (1 = V
'
nA i i s n 11 A
N A TUR A L TR I G O N O M E T RI CA L FU NCT I O N S . 9
If A (t he t h ree angles of a t ri an gle ) t hen ,
(1
in
‘
si n A + 8 111 B + s C =4 cos 00 8 co s °
g g
l-
c os A + c os B - -
i c os C = 1 + 4 si n e
e si n si n .
t an A + t an B + t an C = t an A t an B t an C .
N A T U R A L T R I G O N O NI E T R I C AL FU N C T I O N S .
Degs Sin e . Tan gen t .
l
D egs . S ine . Tan gen t .
90 46 . 7 1 934 44
. 0 1 74 6 89 47 . 7 3 1 35 43
. 03 4 92 88 48 . 743 1 4 42
. 05 2 4 1 87 49 “ 7 54 7 1 41
. 06 99 3 86 50 . 7 6 604 40
. 08 7 4 9 85 51 . 7 77 1 5 39
. 1 05 1 0 84 52 . 7 880 1 38
. 1 2 2 78 83 53 . 7 986 4 37
. 1 40 5 4 82 54 . 8090 2 36
3 6 3 97 70 66 9 1 3 55 w2 4 604 24
w3 5585
. .
38 3 8 6 69 67 9 2 050 23
w4 7 509
. . .
4 0 4 03 68 68 92 7 1 8 22
m60509
. . .
4 2 44 7 67 69 933 58 21
w7 4 7 48
. .
44 5 2 3 66 70 93969 20
w90 4 2 1
. . .
4 663 1 65 71 94 55 2 19
w077 68
. .
48 7 73 64 72 95 1 06 18
w2 7085
. . .
2 50952 63 73 95 6 3 0 17
w4 8 7 4 1
. .
53 1 7 1 62 74 96 1 2 6 16
w73 2 05
. .
.
5 54 3 1
. 61 75 . 9 65 93 . 15
‘
. 577 3 5 60 76 . 97 03 0 fi 0 1 0 78
. 14
. 60 08 6 59 77 . 97 4 37 fi 33 1 48
. 13
6 2 48 7 58 78 978 1 5 fi 70 4 63 12
m
. . .
6 4 94 1 57 79 98 1 6 3 1 4 4 55 11
m
. . .
6 74 5 1 56 80 984 8 1 67 1 2 8 HO
m
. .
m
.
7 002 1 55 81 98 7 69 3 1 37 5 ©
m
. .
fl 1 1 53 7
.
. 7 2 654 54 82 . 990 2 7 .
. 7 53 55 53 83 . 99255 1 44 3 5
. Q
. 78 1 2 9 52 84 . 99 4 5 2 5 1 4 36
. O
. 80978 51 85 . 99 6 1 9 H 4 3 00 5
. U
6 4 2 79 83 9 1 0 50 86 9 97 5 6 1 4 300 6 7
65 60 6 86 92 9 49 87 998 6 3 1 9 08 1 1 4
. 66 9 13 . 900 4 0 48 88 999 3 9
.
68 2 00 93 2 5 2 47 89 999 85
fi i
. . .
6 94 6 6 96 5 6 9 46 90 1 00000 I n n te
. 7 07 1 1 45
Cos in e . Cot an gen t . Deg s . Cos i ne . Cot an gen t . De gs .
i n te rmed i ate val ues red uce a gles from degrees mi n utes an d sec on ds
Fo r n
degree s an d dec i m al part O f a deg ee
,
to nd
° ’
46 2 1 r a
e mplo y mt e rpol at 1 on form l ua .
CH E M I CA L D ATA .
A to m i c W eights an d S y m b o l s o f E l e me nt s .
Al um in um
A n t i mon y
.
A rgon
A rsen i c
B ari um
B is m ut h
B oron
i
B rom ne
Cadm i um
C i m
a
ss u
Calc i um
Carbon
C ri m
e u
Chlo ri ne
C h ro m1 u m
Cobal t
C o l mb i
u u m (N iO
bi um )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fl uo ri ne
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
G adol in i u m
a
G lli um
Ge rm an i um
.
G l u cin m ( B e ryl u
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o o o o o o o o o o o o o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
a c u l at i on
C l P e r e n ge C mp s i i o f S bs es of the c ta o o t n o u tanc
( 1 ) A dd t oget he r t he at omi c we i g n
.
ghts O f t he elemen ts t o obt ai t he molec

ular we i ght of t he c om o u n d ( 2 ) M ul t i ply t he at om i c we igh t f the O
elemen t to be c l c ulate d y t he n um be r O f at oms pre sen t (as i n di cated b y
a
.
t he sub s ri pt n m be r ) an d by 1 00 an d d i vi de by t he m olec l r we i ght o f

c u , . ua
t he c om poun d
Fin d t he pe rcen t age of s l ph ur in sulph ur i c ac i d u
.
l t ampl e
gz
.
I S o4
or t he m olec ular we i gh t 3 1 83
a
2
(1 X 2) + 3 1 88 X 4 ) = 97 3 5
t he pe rcen t age of s l ph ur 1 n t he“ ac i d u
. .
. .
= 3 2 5 9 or
W e i g h s f G s e s A vog ad ro s law : I n e
t o a ua a
.
.
,
’
l vol umes of all g ses
I t f o o ws from t h i s law t hat
.
t here are t he same n um be r n m olec ules

t he we i gh ts of equ l vol umes of all gases are p roport i on al t o t he ir m olce a
.
ul a r we ights
The m olec u lar or form ul a we i gh t i n gram s f an y gas occ up i es 22 4 li te rs O
.
°
at 0 C an d 7 60 m m p ressu re
F i n d the we i ght of on e l i t e r Of carbon diomde (00
. . .
Mol ec
g
’
E xample p
ua
.
l r wt of COz = 1 1 grams = 2 4 h t e rs
o r 1 l i t e r we i ghs a
. .
,
1 95 gr
.
g Sl .
( 1 c u ft = 28 . 3 1 7 li te rs ; .l li te r = 0 03 5 3 2 c u ft 1 l b =
. 453 59 2 4 gr am s ; . . . .
12 MA T ER I A LS .
D e l ta Me l ta
Cu + 2 38 % Sn P b
a no i a ta o n on z
.
M g l Me l Pb + Sn ) T bi B r e (59 % C u + .
2 . l 6 % Sn Pb + 8 4 % Zn )
3 S olde r °
2 S n + l Pb f uses at 3 40 F . . . . .
l S n + 2 Pb f uses at 4 4 1
°
an d 20 Sn + 1 Pb (for al umi n um ) at 550 F
°
.
W o od s . A verage Sp . Gr . an d Wei gh t s pe r Cu . Ft .
Sp G r Wt. . . Sp G r W t . . . Sp G r W t
. .
45 37 Re d O ak 46
Hi c kory i
. .
73 46 77 48 W hi te P ne 45 28
H e mloc k Y
. . . . .
. 65 41 . . 38 24 ell ow Pin e . 61 38
62 39 Maple 68 42 Popla r 48 30
Oak
. . .
. 61 38 W hi te . . . 77 48 Spru ce . 45 28
S ton e an d s Mis ell c an e o u s B ui l di n g M a t e r i a l s.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cl y a .
Ce men t R osend ale , .
Port lan d
E art h (l oose )
G r i te an
W e igh t of R od s, B ar s, Pl at e s, T u b e s, an d S ph e r e s of Me tal s.
S q uare Flat R O UD d Pla tes

Lbs .
B ars B ars R ds o ,
Sp he res
Ma te rial r , , , ,
l bs per lbs per l b s pe r l bs l bs

p
. . . . . er .
li n ft . . lin ft . . li n ft . . sq . t .
Cas t 35 3 - 1 3 63d3
W rought I ron
4 50
3 0 .
. 4 80 2 B o 2 6 1 8d2
. 40 t 0 . l 455d3
3 am 2 6 7 0d2 0 1 48 4d3
m
. .
s o e 1 6 7 3d3
g zbb c
oppe 55 2 4 6: 0
. :
1
5 .
raSS 11 +
35 £ 53 8 5 2 8 5 3d2 4 3 6t 0 1 58 6d3
Al u m i
. . .
um
n 1 66 5 ”3 o 908d2 1 3 8 7 5: 0
.
For t ubes m u lt i ply n u mer i cal c e ff for ro un d rods by (dz — dl z) o

F or ho l low spheres m u l t i pl y n ume ri c a l coe fi for sphe res by (d3
. .
,
3 = s i de of sq uare b = b readt h t = t hick n ess d = ex t e rn al d i am di

.
,
= lu te r
na l di a m all i n i n ches
.
, , , ,
.
, .
W eigh t of S qua r e an d B oun d W r ou g h t I r on B a r s in Lb s pe r

L i n e a l F oot
.
8 01
‘
Rd
d
.
010 013 I}
3
04 1 052 1
09 2 1 17 1
1 64 208 2
25 6 326 2}
3
368 46 9 1 2
'
50 1 1 2 19 8
65 4 . 83 3 1 3
. 828 1 3i
1 4
( a= si de of sq . d==diam in in ) . .
M ISC E LLA N E O US TA B L ES AN D DA T A . 13
W e i gh t of Fi at W . 1 . B a rs (1 in . wi d e ) i n Lb s .
pe r Li n e a l F oot .
Thi ck
n ess . n ess
fr i
i
1
i k e ss i i F stee l ad d n n n. or
W e i gh t of Ir on S t e e l , , C o pp e an d B a s S h e e t p S qua e F oot
r r s s er r .
Lbs pe r . sq . f t = t hi ck ne ss
.
.
i i n c hes (o bt ai ne d from ga uge tables ) X 40
n ,
46 , or re spect l v el y .
C o u g atrr e d an d Fl at I on r . L b s p er S . q . F t .
Thi c k ness Flat Co rr Thi c kn ess Flat Co rr

i n in
, . , , .
,
lbs . l bs . in in . lbs . lbs .
. 028
. 02 2
. 018
a
I f g l van ze d , i
lb . pe r sq f t f or fla t plate s an d add
ih f or c or
u a l c
. . .
. .
r gated plate s En d l ps 4 i n an d 6 1 n S d la ps l corrugat i on in

(Ti n ned shee t stee l ) Us al roo fi ng S i e s are 1 4 x 20 an d
at u z
. . . .
T in Pl es . .
20 x 28 (111 i n c hes ) N o 29 B W G wel g hs l b pe r 1 00 sq ft No 27

we i ghs 6 2 lbs pe r 1 00 sq ft
. . . . . . . .
oo at
. . .
R fi n g Sl e ( 1 c u ft we ig hs 1 75 lb ) . . . .
Thi c k ess i n n in .
4 i i 5 4
Lbs pe r sq ft
. .
Sla te s are gene rall la i d so t hat t he t hi rd sla te overlaps t he fi rst by y

Sq of roof c overe d by = N o of slates r e q u1 re d
.
3 in . i n . 1 sl a.t e 0 5 b(l . .
for 1 square ( 1 00 sq (b an d l are bread t h an d

len gt h in i n )
.
S i ze s : 6 t o 9 X 1 2 7 t o 1 OX 1 4 8 t o 1 0 x 1 6 9 t o
t a
.
, , ,
1 0 t o 1 6 x 20 1 2 t o 1 4 x 2 2 1 2 t o 1 6 x 24 1 4 , o 1 6 x 26 (I n c re se s by , , .
steps of 1 in )
Pi e S h i g l e s
n n n
.
N o pe r 1 00 sq f t = 3 600 - n o of i c hes e xposed t o

W t i n lbs of 1 00 sq ft = 864 e n o o f i n c hes ex po sed t o weat her
. . . .
, .
weat he r --
S k l i gh a n d F l
y t oo a
. . . . . . .
r G l ss Lbs pe r sq f t = 1 3 X t h i ck n ess in mches

a n W t i n lbs pe r sq f t = 1 4 X t hi ck n ess i n i nc hes
. . . . .
F l g gi g
i m e W e i g h s f R fi g M e r i l s (Lbs pe r 1 00 sq ft )
ox at t o oo n at a
. . . . . .
A p pr
1 i n sheat h i n g : sp ruce 2 00 ; n ort he rn y
. . . .
ell ow p i n e 3 00 ; sou thern yellow

p i ne 400 ; c hestn u t an d m aple 400 : as h an d o a k
.
, ,
S hmgl es 200 ;
; 1 ; i n sheet i ron 3 00 ; d o wi t h lat h 50 0 ; corruga ted 1 ron
, , , ,
.
1
i in sl a t e 900
1 00 —3 7 5 ; gal van i zed fi a t t i n 70—1 25 ; fel t an d sphalt 1 00 ; a
.
, .
. .
, , ,
1 00—3 50 ,
°
, ,
felt an d gravel BOO skylig hts (glass 1 5 3 2 50—700 ; shee t lead

500 —800 ; c o pe r 80 1 25 ; z i n c 1 00—2 00 ; fi a t t il es l 500 do w i t h
, .
pan t il es
.
, , , , ,
m ort ar 2
W e i h t f C s -i r o P i p e pe r L i n e l F
o Wt in
at n a oot
, , ,
w here an d t are t he i n te rn al d i am an d t hi c kn ess of metal in i n

. .
The w t
of p i pe F or c op pe r m u lt i ply by
. . .
o f t he two fi an ges = wt o f 1 ft . . .
,
for W I by . .
,
W e i gh t of C s a t i r on - W at e r an d G a s P p e s p er L i i e a l F oot
n .
S i ze in in . 4 8 12 16 20 24 30 36 42 48 60
W ater lbs pe r ft , . . 22 42 75 1 25 200 2 50 3 50 475 600 7 7 5 1 33 0
Gas , 17 40 70 1 00 1 50 1 84 2 50 3 50 3 83 5 42 900
T hi k n e ss c o f C a t i on s - r W at e r P i p e s .
— 0 0033d , .
where h = head of water in feet t an d d are t h c kness an d d m in i ia in

iv t
. .
,
R e e d B yd ra u l i c P i e ( Pelt on W at er W hee l CO ) R ead 111 feet

W i i
. .
t hat p i pe i ll safely st an = 48 600t -d W e g h t n l b s pe r hn f t = c dt

i i
. . . .
, .
c = l 5 for 4 in p pe 1 4 u p t o 8 in p pe 1 3 up t o 1 2 m u p t o 24 111
i
. . .
,
an d 1 2 up t o 4 2 i n p pe . .
14 M A TE RI A L S .
W r ou g h t -i r on P i p e D im e n s i on s and T h r e ad s . U . S . S tan d a rd .
I n te rn al Di am I n te rn al Diam .
d B oile u
T b es Lap welded Cha rcoal I ron (M orris T a ke r
t ad a r
n r .
-
. s
(S0 .
O ut si de I ns i de O ut s de i I n s de i
di a m i n . . d i am in i
d am in . d i am in
o
l c 2 62 .
o
o 512 .
o
o 74 1 .
i e 24 1 .
w
s
72
w657
.
6 99 .
c .
l
x 636 .
o
3 o 6 15 .
o 5 73
i c .
a
Su rf ce of t ube 1 ft lon g in sq . . in in .
W r o u g h t -i r on W e l d e d T u b e s . E xt a S t on g
r r .
A c t ua l D iamete rs i n in .
i
O uts de
I n s de i ouble , D
E x St ron g
.
. .
a
Le d P i p e Safe w or k in g p re ss u re in l bs pe r sq Ap
1 (t hi c kn ess ) an d d (d i a m ) i n in
. . .
p rox wt in l bs pe r ft
. 15 .
. . .
M I SC E LL A N E O U S TA B L E S A N D DA T A . 15
N Sq a r e a n d H e
u mb e gr l N s i n 1 00 l b s
of u xa ona ut (U S
u
. . .
Stand ard ; chamfered t r l mmed and p n c hed for stan d ard t aps ) , .
B olt
d i am
O N
B ol t
d i am
'
B ol t
di am
mm S9
mm
. . .
. mm
4 7 2 70 76 1 5 i 2 80 34 40
1 1 70
i
2 3 50 3 000 2 23 29
1 1 20 1 4 30 i 1 30 i 19 21
i 64 0 7 40 1»
96 }
1 12 15
i 3 80 4 50 f 58 4 9 11
3
B olts A rp r o x imat e W e i gh t per H un d ed W e i gh t of 1 00 bol t s

g
r
i
. .
.
in X l en gt h n
B oltd i am .
i }
4
i i i .
1 1} 1} 1}
Sq head s.
an d n u ts .
2 5 7 . 11 23 39 97 1 05 1 90 2 30 325
3 22 30 35 40 50
H ex head s .
an d n uts .
7 16 27 48 64 66 1 50 1 80 2 50
3 22 30 35 40 50
B r i d g e R i e s W e i gh v t tp er 1 00 W e i gh t of 1 00 r i vets i n l hs = u +
u a
. . .
(l en gt h n der he d I n
D iam i n in }
1
}
a
i }
4
i 1 I} 1}
1 8
13 17
Tr ac k S pik e s . Num b e r in Keg of 2 00 L b s.
S i ze 4& X } 5X ]
5X1 5 X 9; 5& X i 5 1 x 19. 6 X 3; 6X}
”
.
1;
No . 53 3 650 5 20 3 93 4 66 3 84 3 50 2 60
W ire N ail s an d S pi k e s . N u mb e r i n On e P ou nd
B arbe d . F ine . Sp i kes

2d 1
4d 1 4}
6d 2
8d 2}
1 0d 3
1 6d .
34
20 d 4
3 0d 45 »
40d 5
sod 5 4}
60d 6
Sp i kes : 6 4 in .
, 9 ; 7 in 7 ; 8 in .
, 5 ; 9 ia .
,
La g S r e s c w A ppr ox i m at e W e i g h t p H n d er u r ed W e ig ht of 1 00
c
. .
l ag s rews in in
I r on W ire . Te n i l e St e ngth
s r p er S qua r e I nc h of Se cti on .
Diam i n i n . .
St ren gt h in lbs .
The above for b ri gh t c ha rcoal i ron w i re I f an neal ed t a e 75 % . . k of au

v l es .
For B essemer stee l add 1 0 % an d f o r cru cl ble stee l

.
16 M A T E RI A LS .
Ga l v an i z e d I on r W i re W ei h t an d R es i ta n c e M le i
gg )
. s per .
( R oe b ln .
L bs . O hms . Lbs . O hms . Lbs . O hms .
Ga l v an i z e d S t e e l w i r e S t r an d (7 w i res tw isted ) -
(R oe bl n g ) i
Di am of ro pe i
. .
1
i i n i fix
W i re ga uge N
.
, .
1;
8 10 l l O 12 15 17
Lbs pe r 1 00 ft
. . 52 36 29 21 10 6
i mated brea ki n g st ren gt h i

E st n of 1 00 ft in l bs . .
W i r e H o i s t in g R o pe (R oe bl i n g ) . . M ade from i t o 2 } in d iam 6 . .

,
st ran ds o f 1 9 w1 res eac h hem p cen te r W t i n l bs pe r Ap

a
. . . .
prox b rea k mg st r i n in l b s = cd 2
. . .
Di am i n i n d=
Swed i sh i ron
. .
,
, o = 30 000 ,
0 3 8 1; S t ee l , c = 60 000 , 9 0
Tr smi ssi anr H l on o au a g e R o p e to I i

} n i n d am i 6 st ran ds of
W
. . . ,
7 i res eac h hem p cen te r , .
Dia m i i n n d =
Swed i sh i ron
. .
,
c = 30 000
a C s t steel ,
,
o = 6o 000
,
E xt a S t on g r r Cr uc i b l e C a t s t e e l R o p s - e (6 st ran d hem p cen te r ) , .
Di a m i n in . d= .
,
w re st r n d c = 70 000
2
1
i a , ,
Cr an e C h a i n P i t h in in (c of 1 li k t o c of n e t )
s (P e n coy d ) . c . . n . x .
1) = 0 1 7 + 2 43 d (where d < l i .
0
7 5d d> I i
d = di am of li n k i re i n in s
. O ut s i de w i d t h o f lin k = 3 3d + fi i n app rox
w . . . .
A pprox wt pe r ft m lbs : for d =

. . to i i n .
— i ) ; fo r . .
,
d = § t o i in —i ) or = t o —
; d i 1 1 i)
D B G Spe i l C h i ca an a a n
. .
, ,
A ver ge bre ki g st rai n in .
w hen 3 5 el n an d 6 2 000d2 — 6 800 (d — i ) w hen .

, i n For proof test , , . .
t ake 4} o f t hese val ues an d f or safe l o d it O rdi n a ry c rane chain s ha ve a

from 8 7 t o 90 % o f t he st ren gt h o f t he D B G spec ial c ha in s
.
,
Cha1 n sheaves
s hould have a d i amete r o f n o t less t h n 7 0d a
.
H l d i g P e r f N =i l s d S p i k =e s (A pprox imat e ) Force in lbs

o n ow o a an
.
re u1 red t o w1 t hd ra w n a il csl w he re l l en gt h of n ai l i n t he wo od i n m
. .
an
.
, ,
s = c1 rcu mfe ren ce of a roun d n ai l o r the four si des of c ut n a l l LD i n

.
VALU ES or c .
W hi te Pin e . Y el low Pin e . W h i te O ak .
W rough t sp i kes c= 3 60 7 20
W i re n a i ls
,
c = 1 67
Cut n a i ls
,
, c = 40 5
W eigh t Fl o rs Sol i d b ri c k arche d fl

of o
oo rs 70 l b s pe r sq f t H oll ow
b ri c k arc hed fl oors from 20 lbs per sq ft for a 3 I t s an t o 60 l b s f o r a
. , . . .
Wooden fl oors lbs pe r 3 ft pe r i n c h 0 t hi c k ess : W h i t e n

. . .
, . .
1 0 ft span
Y e l low Pi ne h i te P i ne an d Sp ruce Hem
. . .
, .
; Ma ple
5
1
, , , ,
oc
F l oo L d s i n l bs pe r sq ft
r oa St reet b ri dges 80 ; dwelli n gs 40 ;
c h urc hes t heat res an d asse m bly rooms 80 ; gr i n elevat or a
. . . . ,
1 00 ; ware
h ouses 2 50 ; fac t ori es 200 t o 400 Prof L J J o hn son state s as t he res ul t
s
, , ,
o f ex pe ri men ts t hat t he excess i ve c rowd i n g of ad ult s may

. . .
, .
rod u ce a l oa d
as hi gh as 1 60 l bs pe r sq ft 1 c u ft of bri c kwork gi ves a oad o f 1 1 5 l bs
oo a y
. . . . . .
pe r sq ft o f suppo rti n g fl r
. .
(M s on r 1 60 l bs ) . , .
M I S CE LLA N E O U S TA B L ES A N D DA TA . 17
R oof L oa
d s in lbs pe r sq ft Co rrugated ron 3 7 t o 40 ; slate 4 3 t o 4 6 i
a a
. . .
, ,
(ad d 1 0 lbs i f pl aste red below rafte rs ) These v l ues in cl ude an l lowan ce
i i u i
. .
of 3 0 l bs fo r w n d an d sn ow
. Sn ow pe r ft dept h
. m ax m m w n d .
,
press ure 50
B ri k M s
c Comm on b ri c ks are 8 4
a on r y
.
,
P ressed
0
111
in x 2 } i n W t 5 to 6 lbs N um ber of br i c ks per sq ft o f
. .
,
. . . . .
wal l o f wall in i n c hes ( approx ) closel y

st a ked bri c ks oc c up about 5 6 c u ft
c y S afe lo d for bri c kwork i n t on s a
oo a n o a
. .
pe r 3 f t for g d li me mort r 8 t o s ; f or go d cemen t mo rt r 1 5 t on s

, , .
(N . Ci ty Law ) .
T H E S T RE N GT H OF MAT ER I A LS ,
S T RU CTU RE S , A N D MA CH I N E PA R TS .
t S r e ss i s t he c ohes i ve force w i thi n the mate r i al w hi c h is c alled in to

ac t i on t o res i st t he load or ex te rn a l l y a p l i ed force
S r i i s the deform at i on p r d uced by t he st ress an d i s p roport i on al
tan o
.
t o t he st ress w i t h i n t he elast i c l i mi t
El s i i
a t c ty is t he pro pe rt y wh i ch a b d y posse sse s of rega i n i n g i t s o ri g o
.
i n al shape an d d1 men s1 o n s afte r d1st or t 1 0 n

M o d ul u s f Di r e ct E l a t i c i ty E
o s .
M o d u l u o f T r an s v e r s e E l a t i c i ty
r
s s . C = fs -—
z a ( for shear ) .
M o d ul u f V o l u m e t r i c E l a s t i c i ty
s
s o K = I —dec rease n i v ol pe r
cu
. .
. In .
E l a s t i c M o d u l i (i n c h a nd pou n d u n i ts ) .
E C
Co ppe
rolled .
(for d rawn E ,
Cast I ron .
B rass an d G un Metal
W ater 300 000
P i ss o o n s
’
R at i o If
a bar be exten ded or c orn resse d t he di rec t
st rai n (6 ; The val ue of I for st ee l i s
a
.
or =
l ate r l st ram (6 1 ) X AI .
f or W I for C I f o r c oppe r an d for brass 3

o u
. . . .
, , ,
W rk The n i t of work i s one foot poun d

. W o r k = pressu re o r force -
.
X di st a n ce = p o u n d s X f ee t = f t lbs an d may be represen te d by t he a re a

-
of a fi g ure w i t h abs i ss a; of di st an ce an d ord in ates of pressure o r force

c
. .
,
R e s il i e e = t he work don e i n deform in g a b d y up t o t he e last i c li mi t

nc o
.
t
S r e ss D u e to I mp u l i v e L oa d
s . M ake ene rgy e qual t o t he res l en ce ii .
$5 n
wv
:
an d F (l b s ) . whi c h i s t he maxi m um . T he mean
o
t tal st ress (bet een 0 an d m ax )
201
w
whi c h appli es t o steam h mme rs .
-
a ,
p i le d ri ve rs et c I n c se of a f lli n g we i gh t a a a o a
1
-
, . sudden lo d n a be m
F4
or cran e ch am ) w(h + d n ) ,
2
S t r e ss C au s ed b y H e at . F = Ea t a
°
.
Coe fi cien t s of Li n ear E xpan s i on (a ) pe r Deg . F .
Tem pered Steel . 00000 7 3 Cast I ron

St ron g S t ee l 0000063 B ras s
M i ld Stee l
.
.
00000 57 Co ppe r
u
.
W ro gh t I ron 0000066 B ron ze

20 ST R E N G T H O F M A T L R I A LS .
A v e ra g e B re k a i n g S t r e s s e s o f M at e r i a l s an d a
S fe S t r e sse s f o r
O rd i na r y L i L oa d s ( i l b vc . n s. p er sq in )
. .
Ten si on Com p re ssi on S he r a .
Metals .
B reaki ng . Safe .
B re ak
mg .
a
S fe .
B reak
mg .
Safe .
ui
C r c ble Cast S teel
i
.
M ld S t ee l
S t ru c t u r l Stee l a
Carbon
Do C
i i dge
.
,
Soft St ee l ( A me r ca 11 Br
M ed i u m Stee l CO Pr act i ce )
a
. . .
Stee l C st in gs .
I ron Fo rgi n gs .
W I Plate s II
Cast I ron
M al leable I ron .
M a gan ese Stee l 14 % Mn

2i
:. .
N i kel S t ee l u l l a t es)
‘ ‘
( orgi n g s
a
M n gan ese B ron ze
Phosp hor B ron ze .
S i li con
Al u mi n m B ron ze u
D a
.
elt a Met l
3 3 60
W here vac an c i es oc c ur assume c om press i on t o e t i a l

N
t e n smn ,
ot e .
an d she ar t o be
mean s ac ross g ra i n .
0 7 X t e n s1 0 n
.
in t able
. mean s parall el i t h grai n or 6 t r
,
W é ,
T e s i l e S r e s s-A i
n t ct on
Load = Tot al S tress or w = i .a ( = a rea
p ressed upon in c ase of s t e am ai r or wate r p ress u re )
. , ,
S re g h of C h i
t n t an , . .
w = 1 4 o00d2 l bs for sa fe l oad in w he re d

i n in o t he w i re i n li n k
. ,
.
,
f W t pe r ft = 1 0d2
app rox Cran e Chai n s . . .
,
.
,
a nte j
S re t n th of R o pe s w (saf e ) = 1 , 1 2 0d2 f o r W h te em p i
For wi re H
i
. .
r o pe , w 000 71d2 1bs w here n = n o o f w res an d d = di a m of w i re

i
. .
.
,
i n in .
(See W re Rope , a n te .
)
t n t
S re g h of P i pe s an d C y l i n d e r s P r e s s ed I n e rn l l t a y .
C yli n d e For a lon gi t ud i n al sec t i on bo i ler ) i .

2
11
T h in r s.
f or a t ran sverse or n
ri g sect i on . /
1
=
g S t resses i, m ust be m l t p l ed u i i
by in
t he c ase of bo i lers or ot her c yl in ders w here welded ri ve ted
o r bo l te d c on st ruc t i on is used I n t h i s c ase n= e fl
r; .
i cien cy = st re n gt h O
y a
.
j o in t st ren gt h+
of so li d plate Fo r ord i n ar ste m w a t er o r gas pres . , ,
S TR EN G TH OF P I PE S AN D C Y LI N D ERS . 21
sure s for p i pes an d roug h c yli n ders For mac hi n ing in t he cage
n i n t o above value of 1 Ken t stat e as an aver ge a
.
, ,
of c y li ders add s
deri ved from a n um be r Of r l es : u in

. .
,
T h i k C li de rs
c y n ( For very—h i gh pressures e g hydraul i c ) E xter
.
“hi t P 3 x /f, TI;

. .
, , .
n l di m
a a I n tern al di am .X .
“ “ “
1 2 10 112
T e n s i l e S t r e s s i n d uc e d b y C e nt i f u g a l F o r c e r .
i. = For c ast
9
i ron w = 0 26 1
lb an d I ; safe lb Plac in g t he e values i n fo rm l a == 2 800 s u
1) i s foun d t o be 1 70 ft pe r sec or t he safe theo ret i c l veloc i ty of a fl y a
. . , .
,
w heel ri m (double ac t ual prac t i ce )

. .
,
The wor k in g st ress pe r sq i n

t o f c ro s sect i on at
ot O
.
St r e n g h f B l s s -
t he bot t om of t h read for ord i n a ry j o i n t s = 8 000 lbs for W I an d

. ,
. .
. . .
, ,
l bs for mi ld stee l (I f un der steam o r water p ressure l bs I n t hi s

c ase b ol t s < i i n sho l d n ot be se d an d the p i tc h sho l d n o t exc ee d 6d ) u u u
.
. , .
. .
c yl 2
For steam cy h n de rs e t c N o of b lts —
2 400 bolt d i am
W here bol t s , .
, . o .
h ave t o res i st shoc k the shan ks sh oul d be t u rn ed down t o t he d i am at

.
bott om o f t h ead r
C m p r e s si e S r e s s-A i n w = fca (A pp li cable where l en gt h < 1 2 d )

o v t ct o
.
. . .
(See Co l umn s )
S h e r S r e s s -A i o
a For p i n s t d ri vet s w = ib (1 Is safe == ct n an
.
lb s
pe r sq i n (A m B r i dge CO p rac t i ce )
. . .
,
t t a
. . . . .
S r e n g h o f E y e B r s f . saf e = 1 4 000 t o lb f or soft an d m e

di um stee l re spect i vel y
. .
,
Propo rt i on s : D
.
d = i t o l i b ; t (for b < 5 t (f o r
—8
(ln ) R adi us of fi ll et at n eck = D = o u t s1 de di am
.
b>5 . .
( Pa ssai c I t M CO ) F ill et r adiu s = D (Sh al er Sm i t h )

t n t o f R i e e d J i s — S i n g l e -r i e e d I a p J i n v t o nt v t o t
. . . . .
S re g h S hear
O
. . .
st ren gt h o f on e ri vet = t en sil e st ren gt h f plate bet ween t wo holes o r ,
— d )i d (o f t before ri ve t i n g ; d = d1 (of
af ter r i vet in g (for p lates Subst i t ut in g i n (1 ) d an
m a in g i s = 1 1 2 00 i ¢ =
k p i t c h 1) 1 09 + d1 f or steel Fo r i ron
1 1 4 + d1 ; f o r st eel plat es an d i ron ri vet s p
.
, , , .
" =
plates an d ri vet s p
d l ; for c oppe r plates an d ri vets (Supplee g i ves as st an dard
.
,
pr c t i ce (up t o i in plates )
a an d in p lac e of an d as above )
. .
Cen te r o f ri vet t o edge of plate = 1r overlap 1 5d

D u b l e -ri e e d L a p J o i (st gg ered or zi gzag )
o v t nt a
1 . .
D is .
C h a i n r i ve t e d L p J o i nt (double ri veted but n ot stagge red )

-
p a
Di st an ce be tween
.
,
+d
D ou b l e r i v e t e d B tt J o i nt (w i t h t w c over p l t es ) 3 == 4 36 + d
l .
- u o a ) 1
Di agon al d i stance bet ween cen ters O f r i vet s i n t he t w w =1 8 + d
. .
o ro s 2
1 .
Th c kn ess of eac h but t st rap

i c over p l t = 2t f plate O l p 2d or a e O v er a
T r e b l e r i v e t e d B utt J o i n Th i s c a e calls f t hree rows O f r vet s
. .
- t. s or i
The p t h i t he t h i rd w from edge i tw i ce t h p t h O f t he fi rst two
.
i c O ro s e i c
rows wh i c h are st aggered in g
~
_
, E xam in as a lap j o n t t he
2
i met al be twee n
on e r i vet
a
t wo h oles on p itc h line = (p ” = t he st ren gt h Of .
As 5 ri vet s have t o be t aken c are Of , then 2)

—
t
Consi dered
1 3 1 d2 6 5 0 d| 2
a bu t t j o i n t (1) — d ) = an d for 5 ri vet s p =
.
+ d1 AD
.
as , ,
t
i ntermed i a te val ue i s gen e ral l y t aken (p
” =
pi t c h o f t hi rd row from edge .
"
of plate ) I n t he above form u l a p i s t aken eq ual t o 011 pl us s
etc w h i c h are m l t i ples f i n form ula f o r s i n gle r i veted lap j o i n t

u O
.
-
.
, ,
is
an d are for st ee l pla tes an d ri vet s whe re
I:
For ot her met l s or a
c omb in at i on s Si m i lar m ult i ples of et c shoul d be use d
o r i f ot her s af e st resses are c h osen f o r [ s an d I 4 v l ues a O
.
, ,
, f p f sh ould be ,
’
worked ou t from form ul a O ve rl a p = l i t o 2d f o r t reble r i veted but t -
j o i n t t h i c kn ess of bu tt st ra p = § t f pl a t e O
v tPr p r i o o t on oun a
.
,
Ri e s R d or sn ap he d : l ar ge di am = . .
22 T
S RE N G TH or M A T E RI A LS .
d i am an d he i gh t of he d i d a u
Co n t e rs un k he d : a a
l rge di m a l id
and i s c on ed to r i ve t sh an k at w
. . .
,
en le of
h
Efll cl e n cy of J o i nt s. r;
p 1
( Follow n g t able gi ves i 7) f o r ste el
w he re fg+ l a ==
S in l e r v i D ouble ri v . Do uble ri v . Treble ri v
g
- - - -
. .
l ao . Lap . B u tt . B ut t .
57 73 84 98
54 70 82 92
49 66 79 90
45 62 77 90
40 57 73 87
R i v e ti ng in S t uc tu a l
r r W o r k (e xam pl e —p la te gi rder ) , . Flan ge ar a e
1
i
-
E m ( neglec t in g be nd in g st ress on web ) = a hl Em of web
or all ow in g for ri ve t holes , an d E m (c ons i der i ng be nd i n g S t] ? 3
ht 1 m hi
on an d th e flan ge area n —
7h 8
d Lower an gl es t o web (i n ten si on ) n egl ec t i ng M om en t of
et l n g z
V or t he ve rt i c l a
,
R esi st an ce of web t o ben d i n g ; p i tc h of ri vets

.
shear Upper an gles t o web compr ess mn M of R n egl e ted ;

.
, ,
,
. .
,
c
h/
g
ssq
in in i s
' w here
= least
w = t o t al
st ren g h t
o
l adi n g pe r i n c h
of ri vet subj ec t t o d o ble shear an d bear
of len gt h
u
.
p
”
, h , t in in
,
. .
in st ress ) lbs pe r V an d
in w l bs
ihe p i t h of ri vet s mi n i n g fl an ge plates
q ih i n
E s
c t o an gles 13 6 i n except i n g at
. ,
. .
.
'
.
,
” =
an d n ear t he en ds of flan ges whe re p 4d
Web s i ffen e rs are angles r i veted ve rt i cally t o t he web t o p re ven t buc
t k
. .
li n g of t he lat te r . If t he st i ff en ers sho l d be sp ac ed h i n apa rt u .
( ma xi m m sp i g u= 60 ac n
P i s , b l s a n d r i e s, u n less fi t t i n g t i gh tl y an d t horo gh l y g ri pp in g
n ot v t u
t he plates wi ll be sub j ec t t o ben din g st resses an d sma ller un i t st re sses
for c i rc l ar sec t i on s 0 for square sec t i on s u
,
.
m us t be em ployed V i z
for sq u re sec t i on s fo rc es ac t i n g al on g d i agon al 0 89I 3
a , , ,
t n t er J i s d = di a m of r od = b readt h of c ot ter m i d
ott o nt, , . .
S r e g h of C
T per of c otter 1 i n 30 t o a
. .
way be t wee n en ds = 4 ><t hi ck n ess of c ot ter

l i n 1 00 red m uc h g reater t han 1 i n 3 0 c ot ters are apt t o fl y ou t
a
.
If t
T rsi
o ona ct on x
.
.
,
l S r e s s-A i E te rn al M omen t = M omen t of R esi st an c e

a t sec t i on or 11 7
.
35 3
t n t 1 at c
, 1 .
S r e g h of ou n d S h f s M omen t of R es i st an c e of se t i on = = .
D 4 _ d4
0 1 964 /8d3 f o r
. a ( D for h ollow sh aft s
soli d sh fts an d 0 1 964 f3 . .
S t r e n gt h f S qua e S h a f t M omen t
o f R esi st an ce of sec t i on =
r = s. o
0 2 08f where = i d of
s3 uare i n i n s s e s
F acto f S a f e ty f St] n e = 10 f l on g sh aft s
. s ,
.
r o sh ort shafts ; 1 6 f or ss or or
S t r e gt h f Fl a g e C ou p l i n g B o l t
.
n o n s.
t n t
S re g h o f S u k K e s (A ver e p rac t i ce ) n
B re ad t h = fi (di am y a
D e pt h = § (d i am sg h n gt h = 0 3 (d i am
. . .
of sh aft ) + i‘c i n af t ) +j in ;
'
i or sp i n es or keys upon w hi c h p rt s r ot at i n a W
. . . . .
sh a f t ) 2 + de t h
p l l
‘
i t h sh aft
a a o i al l y i nte rc h an ge t he abo ve di men Si on s f or readt h an d
ax
.
m y l s s li de ,
de t h
n o on an
.
h e A g l e o f T r si i s t he gl e t hrough whi c h on e en d o f a
sh aft t r s r elat i vel y t o the other e nd u nder a gi ve n st ress
un a u
,
ar c r di s ) . .
0 (d X M d l us of t ran sverse el s t ic i t C ) o u a y , .
S re t n h of H e l i l S pri g s ca
For ro d wi re us in g sh ft e q t i on n . un , a ua ,
wr = fa u w he re w = ax i al p ul l i n lbs r = radi us of c oil (t o ce n te r of wi re

i€
. .
C ON I CA L S PR I NGS . B EN DI N G S T R E SS . 23
c
se t ion ) is ( B egt rup an d H artn=ell ) For sq ua re wi re
D
.
,
eflect i on = 2 f8 1r —
,
z Cd
t u rn s or whe re l 2 7rT X N 0 of
i i on s i n in W , .
sp i rals n ; d = dia m of i re an d C = A l l d men s

d fl for roun d w i re sp ri n s a
.
, , .
ect i on = 6 4 mr 3 + C d4
.
Furt he r y nd
(V al ues of fa and C are for steegwi re W
-
, ,
60 5wn r3 I- Cs4 or square

.
-
i re -
.
mr
on i c a l i n gs rou nd wi re wr
z r di us of co i l
a
8
C S pr = where r = l arge st
, .
,
l
.
1 6 wn r 3
De flect on C d4
i
Flat vol ute (rectangular sect i o n of he i gh t h , breadt h or t hi ck ness b) ,
1 81rwn 1 3 (b2
.
‘
h ?)
C b3 h3
S pi r l S p ria ngs in T rsi o o n.
R ou nd w re i ,
wr = z fsd3 + 3 2 Deflect i o n at r
Square w i re , wr i ss
3
6 .
(l ==devel ope d len gt h spri n g in i n he s ) of c .
B e d i n g S r e s s -A
n i n I n an over h g e m or c t ilever t he
t ct o un b a an
up pe r fi be rs are i n a st ate of t en si on an d t he l ower on e s in c om pressi on
. , ,
w hi le in a support ed beam o r r de r t he opposi te i s t he c ase The re

e x i st s t herefo re an i n t ermed i at e on git u din al sect i on where t hese st resses
, , .
are zero in v al ue The i n tersect i on of t h i s l ong i tud i n al sec t i on d an a

vert i c al c ross sect i on i s a lin e c alled t he N eu t ral A x i s whi c h p asses th rough
.
t he cen te r of fi gu re (or grav i t y ) o f t he c ross sec t i on Con s i der t wo sm al l

,
a are s a : an d ac (di st an t y ; an d y f r om n eut r l an s ) an d let p be t he rad i us a

.
u
, c ,
.
of c urvat ure of t he n eu t ral lon gi t ud i n al sec t i on of t he be am w hen n de r

ben di n g stress Then assum i n g t he beam or bar t o be ben t i n t o a c i r
cu l a r r i n g I of bar (before be n din g ) = 2 7r o 1 (after bend in g ) or c i rc m u
. ,
°
i n t ens i on an d l at area a = 2 7t ( p )
a
, ,
feren ce of bar at rea

i n c omp ress i on C n seq uen t ly t he st rai n on fi bers at o
, c c ,
.
,
2 zrp 27 m . an d str ai n at a. 2 m 2 7r( p ye ) 2 1ryc ; b t u A n age er l ly ;
%
Ey
2r y = L
§ sm al l are a
E
an d f = -
(l ) , an d t he tot al st ress on a a,
p
M oi n e n t of R e si s tanc e M o men t of st ress on t he m ail area =
E
. a
f—j cry ?
= an d t he m omen t of al l st resses on t he se ct i on —2 a y2 c y2 =
’
I y
a . I
p
M omen t of I ri e rt ia of c
t he se t i on (or Sec on d M omen t ) = I . M omen t of
l zl
R esi stan c e = R epresen t n g t he m omen t i in term s of t he l i mi t i g n
p
st ress t hen B en din M omen t B m = fS = M o me n t of R es st an ce i S is
c all ed t he Sect i on i i t ac ts )
, , ,
od u l u s ( = vi rt ual are a X ar m t h rough wh c h .
From
M om e nt s o f
an d
I n e rti a o f
§ S =
A
an d
re a .
Fo r B eam s .
Se t i on c .
y
-
d i st of fu rt hest fi be r
.
Re c t an gl e axi s II to bre d t h an d
. a fro m wa s ) .
b i sec ti n g sec t i on
Sq uare , di tt o ,
Sq ua re , axi s b i se t i n g se t i on c c on
(a si de of squ are ) .
24 S TR E N G TH or M AT E RI ALS .
H ol low rect angle or squ are axi s

fl—
,
bl h b h"
as for rec t an gle abo ve .
Tri ngle ax i s II t o b se
a , a
Ci rcle , d i ame te r as ax i s .
H o llow c i rcle m ute r

i
l
'
— d4 ) (b1 k h au d d. are o
s
e .
dimens i on s ) .
For sh af ts ( Polar M omen t .

of I n e rt i a = l p )
c
.
Se t ion . Ip .
y .
c
R e t an gle
b h<b 2
+ h2 ) V b2 + h 2
12 2
84
8 V2=
6
32
H o llow c i rc le w(d1 d4 )
; 2
=
( 1 ou te r
d di m ) a .
The Polar M om en t of I ne rt i a where I an d I , are two M omen ts

of I n ert i a of the sec t i on wh i c h are t ake n at r ig ht an gl es t o e h ot her t h ro g h ac u
t he c of g of t he sec t i on
. . .
The R dia u o f G y at i on s r =i ’ 1
area of se t i on c
, r '
M o m e nt o f R e i s tan c e s G r ph i S o l i a c ut on
A B is t he n eut r l a i s a x
of t he rec t an g l ar se t i on C D H J u c
. .
an d
C D t he l i n e of l i mi t in g or grea test
,
la -
b -i
|
st ress The value of an y h ori zon t al
fi ber E F t o res i st st ress i s foun d by
.
r oj ec t in g t h e same ve rt i c a l]
_
D T t o t he
in e C D an d Jo i n i n g C an d
.
to N
The i nterce p t G M i s t he value de
.
si red A l l fi be rs be i n g t h us t reated
the su m of t he v i rt ual st ress a reas
.
.
w i l l be the a eas C D N an d I I J N r
w h i c h e c h make on e force of t he a
c ouple w hen m ul t i pl i ed by t he l i m i t
B h in g st ress
t e rs of gravi t
K an d L are t he cen
o f t h e areas
f .
M omen t 0 R es i stan ce o f rec t an

.
gular sec t i on (area C D N or H J N )

h 2h bk ?
X ar m ——= f = /s
F
.
3
o me t o f I n
M n ertia o f any S e c
t i on F i n d S by abo ve m et h od
d i v i de by {
. ,
of v a ue I an d mul t i ply
by y
= .
(l Sy ) For rec t an g u lar sec
.
k?
b— h M 3
Fi g- 2 t i on , S= — y an d —
5
.
, ,
6 2
Ce nt e o f r M me Gr a v i ty an d
f I er e e rm n e d G r p h i o nt o n t i a D t i a c
a y l l (F g i
B eam sec t on 1 2 3 4 5 6 12 i
To fin d cen te r of grav
i i i ac
. .
i t y (c on s de rin g r gh t h alf of sec t on ) : Proj ec t e h ho ri zon t al fibe r of

i i i
sec t on v e : t ca l ly t o t he arb t ra ril y ssumed l i n e x 11 } parallel t o base lin e x x a
J i i b fi
.
o n en d s of r oj ec t ion t o po n t an d n ot e the i n te rcep t on eac h be r

The sum of a il t hese be r n terc ept s w ll be t he area a 24 l ? 1 6 2 5 2 6 b a
fi i i
.
whe re A is area of righ t h alf of sect i on (su fl

,
or A 1 Then i cwnt
.
y
.
,
i n c ase of sym met ry ) an d G = di st an ce of ce nte r of gravi t from x x The n

ii a
.
,
G - A l h -z- A w hi c h de termi nes t he pos t o n of neut r l an s z z

, , .
M O M EN T OF I N ERTI A .
To fi n d [ of t he se ct i on arou nd ( c ons i der i ng left h al f of s c t ion ) Proj ec t

2 ?
every hori z on t al fi be r st ri p o f sec t i on t o I I t he l i ne of l i m i t i ng st ress join

. e
en d s o f p r j e c t i n t o po i nt 0 (ce n t e r o f grav i ty ) pr oduc i n g i f m or ssa r u u n t il

o o
.
,
t h e or i gi n al st ri p i s c rosse d an d n o t e t he i n te rc ept s The areas 1 a c 1 4 1 3 l

are t h us foun d an d on oppos i te s i des of ve rt i
.
,
(a t ) a nd c 1 8 2 3 2 2 b c
c al cen t e r l i n e
,
They are t he 1 st momen t s G o t h rough t he same process

a s above w i t h t he a re as a l an c
.
.
d a l an d t he se on d momen t areas 1 a c 1 5 1 4 1
’
,
F ig 3 . .
(n? ) b
an d c 2 1 2 0 1 9 c w i l l be obt a i n ed b o t h be in g o n t h e same s i de
Then (doubl i n g t he result s f o r t he e nt i re sect i on ) 1 =
,
of ver t i c al l i ne .
,
I
)y an d a g )y
'
I n c ast i ron bea ms i f t he n f ,
o
-
.
l i m i t i n g st ress an d t he l i n e 11 should be d rawn a t a d i st an ce y ; from

0 0 0 O O
t he
n eut ral a x i s
Po si t i o n o f C e n e r o f G ra vi y
t t
.
The cen t ers of g r a n t y of regular

’
fi gu res ( plane o r sol i d ) are t h e a me a s t he i r geomet ri c al cen t ers

s
.
Tri a ngle : 5 d i st an ce from m i dd le of S i de t o ve rte x of oppos i te an gle

.
.
26 STR E NGTH or MA T ERI A LS .
Trape zo i d : d i vi de i n to t wo t ri an gles by a d iagon al an d j o i n t he ir c en t e rs

o f gra v i t y ; re pe at proc ess w i t h t he ot he r d i agon al and t he i n t e rsect i on of
t he l i n es j o i n i n g t h e cen te rs of r a vi t y w i ll be e o f g o f t rape z o i d
Se c t or o f c i rc le : on rad i us isec t i n t he arc d i st an ce f rom c en ter
. . .
g
:
.
( 2 X cho rd X len gt h of arc ;

Se mi ci rel e : on m i dd le rad i us 0 4 24 4 r from cen te r
.
Q u d ran t : on m i dd le rad i us
a
. .
,
from c en t e r
Segmen t of c i rcle : d i st an ce from
.
,
Parabola : i len g th from vert ex an d on ax i s

Sem i parabo la i! len gt h from vertex i sem i base from ax
.
,
- is -
Con e Pyram i d : i n ax i s 1 i t s len gt h from base

. .
Parabolo i d : i n ax i s 3 i t s lengt h from ve rtex

, , .
, .
h + 3a + 2 A“
Frus tu m of P r mi d : di stan ce from l rger base ya a -
h R2 + rf 2 R + 3 r
‘
Frust m of Con e u .
4 Ir -
r
'
\ E+T /
a a a a ii
.
h = l ei gh t ; A a , an d R , r
o
l rger n d s m ller b se are as an d rad respec
t i ve i y
i i i
.
T wo or m ore bod es n t he same pla n e : refe r t o co -ord n at e ax es Mul

i i
.
t i p l y t he we gh t of eac h body by t he d stan ce from i t s cen te r of gravi t to

o n e of the axes , ad d t he p rod uc t s an d d v d e by t he sum o f t h e we g t s i i i z
i i
,
t he result be i ng t he d stan ce of t he center o f grav t y of t h e system from

t hat ax s i i
i f bod es are n ot i n a plan e , refer t he m s m larl y t o t h ree rec t
. i i
an gular plan es
o er i nt n tao o un a a
.
M me oi I f C mpo d S h pe s The M omen t of I ne rt i

o f an y sect i on abou t an y a x i s = t h e M omen t of I n e r t i a abou t a para llel axi s
.
pass i n t h rough i t s cen t er of gr av i t y + [a rea of sec t i on X ( di st a n ce be t ween

a x es )
2
f
A lso t he R d i us o f G yrat i on for an se t i on a roun d an axi s par
allel t o an ot he r ax i s t h rough t he c en t er of gra vi t y =
, a y c
By t he se rules t he I an d r o f
t ai n ed — for I by fi n d i ng t h e I of t he se veral c om pon en t s of sec t i on abou t
t he sa me a x i s an d add i n g t he resul ts for t h e c om b i n ed sec t i on
, ,
B e d i n g M m en n n d D e fle i f B e ms f U i fo rm Se i
o ta ct on o a o n ct on
.
( W = t o t a l l oad on beam )
I B eam fi xed at on e en d c on c en trated l oad a t t h e oth er
.
M ammu m
E m at fi xed e n d = Wl
. .
,
0
(E m may be represen t ed by t he o r di n a t es a
W g .
o
ri gh t —an gled t r i an gle h av in g base =
=l an d he i gh t = WI ) D e fl ect ion =
at on e en d un i form ly d i st ri bu t e d load
.
m .
II . B eam fi xed , wt . of be am ) .
M ax . Em at fi xed en d = IZl
0 (E m represe nt ed by ord n ates from base i of
2
len gt h l t o a se m i p arabol i c c u rve ha v i n g ve rt ex at f ree en d of l an d axi s
-
Wl 3
)
l
pe rpen d i c ular t heret o an d w h ose sem i paramete r ,
-
W
D eflec t on i
8B F
III . B eam , en ds supported c on cen t rated , load at c en te r M . ax . E m at
WI Wl 3
cen te r — D eflect i on
T
.
v eam en d s supported c on cen t rat ed l o ad a t an y poin t M ax E m

i B
. . .
, ,
W l
f lo ad fro m De fl ect i on
-
:r a:
w here z = di st ance o support on e .
V . Be am , en d s suppor t ed , u ni form a
lo d . M ax . Em a t cen t e r
5 Wl 3
De flec t on i
3 8 4 EI
'
VI B eam fi xed a t b t h en d s , o cen t rall y l o ad ed M ax Em a t c n te r and e
K
. . .
1 W13
—f rom
l
D efl — P om t s
' '
0f c on t ra 6 ex d1 8 t a n t
’
_ _
e t
c 1
° 0 11 u re -
1n 1
.
8 ‘ ' 4
en d 9
a unifo ml y M ax
.
VI I . B e m fi xed a t bot h en ds , r loaded . E m at en d s

28 S TR E NGTH or M A T E R I A LS .
XV B eam ove rhan g i eac h of two suppo rts b i uni fo ml y

d
st an ce :r ,
n
g
. r
d i st ri bu ted load a t e i t he r s u p po rt an d —— — O 2 SI a t c en t r
t
. Em = -
, (z ) . e .
M ax . E m (when x = 0 2 07l ) .
Comb i n at i on s of load in g m ay e sh g r aph icall y as in Fig 4 W= b o wn

un i form load an d W1 = con cen t r at ed l oad Con s i de r t he beam s me rel a y
. .
suppo rted a t t he en d s w i h a i t self ) Then the pa r t un a

, .
i form l o d , .
,
abol a A F B on b s e A B an d o f , a
i s the c ur v e of E m f o r W, .
A ga in c on si de r be m a s l oaded on l y w i th W, Then t he t ri an gle A GB

a
W i ll be t he c ur ve of E m for Wh an d b y ad d in t he ordi n ates of the se c u rves
, .
,
a n ew c u rve A H E I B i s ob ta i n ed w hi c h i s t e c u rve of E m f o r t he c om
.
A gain con s i de r t he be am as a
,
b in e d load s o n a f ree ly suppo rted be m

fi xed The E m of t he suppo rt ed beam is n ow oppose d by t he re act i on
.
,
ca
.
of t he wa l l wh ich is a c on stan t st rai n an d w hose E m c ur ve is t he re t n gl e

A C D B e qual i n area t o A H EI B The algebrai c su m of t he se ben d in g
,
m omen ts gi ves f o r t he fi xed be am t he shad ed E m c ur ve A C H E I D B I H A

, .
and t he i n te rsec t i on s at H an d I dete rm i ne t he p o i n t s of c on t ra fl

,
e x u re -
The po rt i on s C H an d I D a re st ra i n ed as can t il e ve rs t he u ppe r si des

.
be i ng i ten s i on wh il e t he par t 11 1 i s st rai ed a s a supp rted gi rde r w i t h

n n o
.
te n s i on on l owe r s i de
, ,
c
.
The E m c u rve f o r a mov in g l oad on a t r avelli n g ran e gi r der ) is -
Wl
p araboli c W t h a m ax m um a t cen te r e qua
, i i . co
T
'
S h ea St r e e Th rv e r t i ca l h e a s t r e s
ss s. ca sed b y a con cen t r ted
e s r s u a
load i s rep resen ted by t he ord i n ates of a rec tan gula r area h avi g a len gt h n
d i st f rom po in t of suppo rt t o po i n t of m ax E m an d a he ig h t = r eac t i on
The ve rt s hea r st ress caused b y a un i fo rml y di s
. . ,
at po in t of support
t ri buted lo d is rep resen ted by t he ord in ate s of a r igh t an gl ed t ri g l r
a an u a
. .
a rea h vi g b ase s a b ve an d he igh t at p o in t o f su pp o rt = r ea ct i on a t

a n a o ,
t ha t poin t Thu s in Fig 5 .

, .
,
rec tan gl es 1 2 3 4 an d 2 5 6 7
re fo r c on cen t ra ted lo d W, a a
(see F i g an d t r i an gl es .
1 8 9 an d 9 1 0 7 fo r di s t rib
u t ed load W The al gebr i c a
sum of t hese areas g i ves a reas
.
1 1 1 1 2 an d 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 7 1 2
an y or di ate of w h i c h show s n ,
t he ve rt i cal shea r st re ss of t he
c omb i n ed lo d s at t he po i n t a
w he re ord in ate is e rec ted
H e i ght s 1 4 6 7 an d 1 1 1
.
7 1 5 rep resen t t he re c t i on s a
, ,
o r p ropo rt i on s of W, an d W
respect i vely sust i ed by t he an
po in ts of suppo rt
H ri o zonta a t
.
l s h e r s r e ss
I f a s um mat i on of t he ho ri
.
z o n t a l fo rces ( ten s il e an d com

p re ss i ve ) is taken ro eed in g c
f ro m t he uppe r o r P owe r fi b re
,
t o t he n eu t ral a x i s i t wi ll be ,
foun d t hat t he max h o r S hea r

ax
. .
st ress i s at t he n eut ral is

an d i n a rec tan gul a r be am a t
,
an y sec t i on : M a x h o r shea r
, .
. .
s t ress (3 X V e rt shear at
t he sec t i on con side red ) 2bd
.
an a a
.
whe re b d d ar e b re d t h an d dept h of beam I n lon g be m s t he shea r

i s small c om pa red w i t h t he bend i n g st re ss an d i s ful ly taken c a re of by t he
.
su rplu s sec t i on ; i n sho rt beam s i t should be con s i de red

C o ti n n uou (Re t i on s on suppo rts in te rms of W] t he un i
a ac
.
s B e ms
a
. ,
fo rm l oad o n e c h span ) .
CO MB I N E D ST R E S S E S .
3 suppo rt s 3 10 3
4 4 11 11 4
5 11 32 26 32 11
6 15 43 37 37 43 15
7 41 1 18 1 08 1 06 1 08 1 18 41
8 56 16 1 13 7 1 43 14 3 137 1 6 1 56
9 1 52 44 0 3 74 3 92 3 86 392 37 4 4 40
10 2 09 60 1 51 1 53 5 529 5 29 53 5 5 1 1
T he ll A o w a b l e D e fle ct i o nfo r can t il eve rs is 3 5 in pe r f o t 1

o of span an d
a ,
.
1 5 i n pe r f t
1
. . of sp n f o r girde rs .
B e m s a n o f U n i f o r m S t r e gth
( R ec tan gu l r Sec t i on ) —Wi t h c on stan t a
brea dt h t he dept h va ri es as t he ord in ates of : I a sem i parabola wi t h ver
.
tex at loaded en d : I I a t ri an gle base a t fi xed en d : 1 1 ! an d I V tw o se m i

, .
parabolas ve rt i ces at sup po rt s bases j oin i n g at load pomt ; V a se m i

, , ,
e ll i pse W i t h con stan t dep t h t he bread t h va ri es a s t he ord in ates of : I a

, , ,
t ri an gle base at fi xed en d ; I I d i st an ce be twee n t wo c on ve x parabolas

.
,
whose vert i ces tou c h a t free en d : I I I an d I V t wo t ri angles bases at load

, ,
po in t : V d istan ce be twee n t wo s m m et r i cal concave para bo las i nte rsec t y , ,
i n g at po i n t s of s uppo rt (I I I I I I e t c refe r t o c ond i t i on s of loadi n g

,
un de r t he head in g of B end in g M omen t an d D efl ect i on of B eams a n t e )

.
.
, , , ,
S reng h f C i r
t t o
cu a at at
, .
l r Fl P l e s of R adi us r (G rashof ) — Plate sup

a t c i rc umfe ren ce an d un i fo rml y l o aded :
.
orted S a me l oad
p
i n g plate fi xed at c i rc mfe ren ce :
. u Plate s pported a t c i r u
lo aded ce n t r al l y Wi t h w ( f radi u
cu mf e ren ce
t
, f == o s
i l og
S r en gt h f S qua r e an d R e ctan g u l a r F l at P l at e
o s, Un ifo rml y Loaded
(Un wi n ) — fi R e ct an gu i a r
xed at edges w he re plate :
i Sq uare plate fi xed at edges
.
,
b= b d t h an d
rea =
gt h f plat e i n i en o n :
i i i
. . .
f = 0 2 5 t w he re
0 3= s de n n
+ S u "
rface supported by stays f = 8 :
w here = di stance i in be t wee n t he cen te rs f st a y s w hi c h
.
, .
0 22 2 p 2
‘
1 8 + 8 n o
a re arran ged i n rows l w k i g st re ss i n l b
.
, , . ,
a
or n s
t o f F i t S tay e d S u r f ac e (See S t eam B oile rs )

. .
S r e n gth a s. .
D eflec t i on
2
i bt
St r en g t h o f L a m i nat e d S t e e l S p r i n g
= 1 —
6l
s. . ,
A=
E ,
whe re w = ma x st at i c load on one en d o f a sem i e ll i pt i c o r max l oad on -
f u ll elli pt i c sp ri n g ; f = all ow abl e st re ss i n lb s pe r sq in (varyin g acc ord

. .
,
i n g t o homogene i t y an d tempe r ) = 90 000 f o r i in pla t e s

. . .
f o r i in - -
t an
.
, .
, ,
an d fo r i i n u = n o of pla e s ; l = h al i sp i n in s ;
(R e u l e a u x an d Ga i nes )
-
. .
C m b i e d S r e sse s o n t .
B ending n d Te si ( Loa d pa rall a

el t o ax i s a d i st an n on
ce r ) —B end i g t n
ten s i le Com b i ned m ax tens i le
.
ac t i on .
r
st ress on edge neare st axi s of — (See M od ul us of R up
08
t ure )
an e H ook i i i de
.
S t r e n gt h of w = a bf ¢ - C
Cr w he re a = rad u s o f n s s.
i i de
,
of =
o
h ook o r sl i n g h b r e adt h of b oo k o n h e r se c t on t h rough cen te r o f i n s

h ook c i i
, .
rcle , b = t hi ck ne ss o f sec t on , w = l oa d in lbs , i, safe = 1 3 000 .

, to
lb
V alues o f C :
h -z—a = 1 2 3 4
Rec t an gu l a r sec t i on C=l2 6
i i
, .
T r ape zo dal sect on C = 15 3 28

i
.
E lli pt c al C =2 l 5 .
Dist a n ce from cen te r of h oo k c i rc le to shoulde r on bolt en d = 2 h . D ia m .
of bo lt en d d;
7
i
I n trape zo dal sec t i on s t he wi de edg e b s ho l d ,
u
be next t o rope or c h in ; a n a r r ow e dg e b1 =
=b +
(I n g Tasc hen b c h )
. u .
30 ST R E N G TH or MA T ERI A LS .
To wne gi ves the fol l o i ng pr o rt ion s : as it ) rned w N ec k = d (t ak en un :

tu
sh an k = 0 8 7 d ; l
s g i d i am = 1 di m i di m of sl in g
n a o f t p on h e r a
a a
0 7 d ; r d i l m d t h of fl at ten ed wedge sec t i on o he r sl i n g diam = 1 4d n
. . . . . .
‘
t h i c kness of i n n e r wedge ed e = 0 8 7 5d ; d o ou te r ed ge = 0 25d ; i W

. . . .
.
dth at
a a
. .
m o i of sli n g = l 25d
g
S e de d lo d in w he re d is in
meg
. .
Re ul eau x gi ves the foll o w ng : 20 = l 95d l 1 5b 2 X di m i a

i i
. .
o i h ook t o n h e r l ne th rou h c of h ook sh n a t hook

Q .
i
.
i c ua
o pe ni ng I he se values agree a rly well w t h t e Tas c h en b u h fo rm l s
‘
.
(ta i ng k form u l ai g
= w
n d i n g an d C o mp e s i on S ubs t itut I f I i fo rmul as f ben d

Be r s e or
'
n or
s hi p s d av i t s
. . ,
i ngan d te n s on E xample i :
’
C l u m n an d S t r ut s W h ile t he se a re c ase s i bend i n g an d

. .
o s l i n vo v n
comp re ss i on t he r ac t i on Whe re l < 1 2§ t hey r ca l
.
. .
m ore co mp l ex i is a e
l t d fo r d i rec t c ru h i n g on ly ; l onge r c l umn s ben d b f o re bre ak ng
, .
cu a e s o e i .
G o do n Fo m la [ b eak i g bot h en d s fi xed o r flt ;

’
r s r u s. r n a
a
one en d fix ed ot he r
12 n ou ,
(75)
hi ged or r n d ;
bot h n d e s hi gedn or
oun d r
where l =lengt h in in s , r =leact ra di u s o f g y rati on an d a and b are as

fo o w
ll s:
,
6 .
1
$450
W . I . an d v e y s oft teel
r s " t°
im
a
M edium S t eeL .
ot
S f
A m B ri d 00 Pract ieo
m
. , .
8
M edium " u e s.
[ ( re b akin g ) i n l b s pe r
. sq . of sec t ion in sq . in .
For W I an d s ee l , fa t o r t c of y
safet = 4 f r dead l o d o
a an d 5 f or mov in g
an
. .
.
l oad For C I n o t l e ss t h
8
an a f e xp e ri men t s t h a t G ordon u
. . . .
Prof L z a s ta te s s t he re sul t o ’
s form l a s
y a
.
do n ot appl i n t he case o f c st i ron c ol umn s an d h e recommend s -

,
l bs pe r s q i n as the hi ghest all owable saf e lo a d i n g t he l en gt h of col u mn

n t to ex ceed 2 0 t i m es i t s d i a me te r an d t he metal t o be of t h i c n e ss s u ffi
o k
.
. .
,
c i en t to in su re so n d c as t in gs u
e ri Le d i n
cc nt c a ta t
.
E W hen t he re su l n of t h e l oad d oe s n ot pas s

o
t h r ugh t he c . of g o t he sec t ion le t r = di st an ce be tween resul tan d t an
c of g of sec t i on ; I i t s m omen t of i ne rt i a bou t an ax i s i n i t s pl an e pas s a
.
,
c a ua b s
. .
i ng t h rou h t he of g n d pe rpen di c l r t o r ; y = d ist an ce e tween ai d

a i s an d hre n de r gr eat est comp re ssi on ; w = t ot al p re ssu re on sect i on
x u
. .
w wr y
Then -
a
—
I
A s sume a s e ct ion comp t e I , u d if i t ex cee d s safe , an
a ue
v l f or C . I )
. a u ss me n he r s e i a ot
d ct on an comp ut I until a f e sa e
A N EG I E
C R R O LL E D S TR U C T UR A L ST E E L .
val ue is found t c
E ccen r i l oadi n in b i l di n gs i s due t o t he n eq a l di s u u u
o on oo s o oc o y a
.
t ri b u t ion o f l ad s fl r I f li a l e t c u r n l i n rare c ses i may be

a n
.
,
t ke at l b pe r sq i n f or C I
oa ou qua a t on C o n C ty
. . . . .
S af e L d s f or R n d an d S re C s Ir lum s ( i .
C
u
B i l din g La ws ,
S af e l oad i ton s o f 2 000 1b =
p
n , .
a
.
bd2
N ew Y o rk B os ton C hi cag o.
un d
. .
C ro 8 or5 5
squ a re ) 500
ro un d )
.
4 00 8 00
.
R e i tanc f H o l l o w C yl i n d e
s s e o to C o l l a p e (S Fu rn ace Fl ues rs s ee
un de r Steam B oil er )
.
“ ”
s
T o i on d B e ndi ng T hi c omb n a t on f s t resses e x st s t o a g eat e r
0
rs an s i i o i r
E qu i v alen t t wi s t i n g
.
or less ex ten t i l l s h af t n g n a i .
l en t ben di n g m oment E m Bm T m w here T m t wi s ti n g m omen t V 2 z

,
fsl v + 11
2
T o i on
safet y fact or
rs
ou b
5 sh l d e u sed
a n d C m p r e ssi
of
o on . o
(Pr pel le r s h f ) at .
12
“
32;
M od ul u u tu u ob t o
.
s of R p re The lt i m ate st ress tai n ed from he m men tal

i i i yb
.
form ula n break in g a so l d be am b ! bend n g wi ll u suall e foun d m uch

n o e
ate r than i t breaki g M d ulu s o R up t u re w here general l = 2 c y
i u ia a ia i o a
.
or c rc l a r an d sq uare (on e d gon l ve rt c l ) se c t on s , f r s uare n d

a i an u i
rec tan gul r se c t on s , an i
d n t y f or I d T se ct on s Th e v ues of o
a i i
.
K,
de n d howe ve r on t he m ate ri al : R e c t an gul r se c t on s ; F r , to
O n
t o 1 ; Pi t c h - p i e , to C I , 2; W I , Forged stee l
a ua c i
. .
Forge d
. .
Gun me t l , 1 Ci rc l r se t on s : 0 I W I ,
un t ct t k
. . .
z fl
.
st
e zl l 6 ; G m e a l I se i on s : 0 I 1 + (w e b hi c ne ss --
an ge
i
.
,
w1 c t il )
.
C AR N E I E R L L E D S T R U C TU R AL S T E E L G O .
In t he foll ow i n g t ables w = weigh t in l b s r li n e l foot a = ar ea of sec a

c an a
.
, ,
t i on in sq in h = dep t h o f be m or h
. n in i n , b = wi dt h of fl an ge i n
.
, .
i n t = t hi k f w b i i c n e ss o e n n.
f g f se c ti on an d (1 ) out side f c h an nel w b ;
.
,
x = di t
x x, z 2 be tween s an ce 0. o o o e
(2 ) outs i de f fl ge o n T ; (3 ) bac k f fl an ge f equ l leg ang le
. .
o an o o a
S = M ome n t f i radi us f g yrat i on d sect i on m od ul us whe re
.
I r, ti o ne r a, o an
Ne u tral ax s i p p di l t w b a t cen te r (B eams an d c h .
i s er c
ar cu a r o
,
l i
e
ne 3
parall el to l on ge r flan ge (Un equ l l g an l ) a e es
t h rou h c f g paral le l t fl an ge (Ts an e q ual l g
.
. o . o e
an g es )
t h r ough c of g pe rpen di c ula r to w b (Z )
.
e s
= M om n t of ne r t i a an d radi u s of gy at i on w here
. . .
I ’
r
’
e i r
Ne u t ral a xi s i s co inc i den t wi t h cen te r l in e of web (B eams)
. ,
p ara l lel t o c n t r l i ne f w b (C ha els ) e e o e nn

shorte r flan ge (Un e qu al leg an gl e s)
.
t h rough c f g coin c i den t W t h s te m (Ts )

.
u uu u t o
w b (Z )u
. o
u
. i
at
e S
.
Leas t r adi us f gy rati on n e u tral axi s d iag o n al

.
-= r
”
o
S = Se c t i on m od ul us w he re
.
,
’
N eut ral ax i s i t h roug h c of g c o i n c i den t wi t h s tem (T )

,
u u u
u u Web (Z )n
s
u
.
u
.
t o
S
s .
pa al lel t o s h orte r fl ange (Unequ al leg an gles )

.
r
fi bre st re ss of
.
C = C ffi i t f st ren gt h f oe c en lbs pe r sq
o f or in. or
be am s c h an ne ls an d Z an d lbs pe r s q i f
. .
,
T , s, . . n. or s.
C = WL - 8M =
§ = o = m m t f for c
’
f t 1 6 000 1b ; Jll , s . o en o es
i n ft lb W = f un i fo rml y d i st rib u te d load i l b

- s sa e L= p i fee t n s s an n
For con en t rated lo ad at mi dd l of span
.
. .
, .
,
on e h al f t he v l ue f C
.
c t he e u se -
a o in
tables Fo r q ui es e n t load s f = 1 6 000 lbs pe r sq i ; for m m g load s
c n. ov
lbs an d if im p ac t i con s i de rable f = 8 000 l b
.
, . . ,
s s
c ol umn s o r st ru t s c on s i st i n g of t wo l t i d h f c ol umn
.
, , , . .
F or l at ce c an n e s, r o
e c t o (ne u t axi s i ce n t e r f sec t i on II to webs ) = d s t an c be tween f g
O
s i n . n o i e 0. o .
32 STR E NGTH or M A TE R I A LS .
of ch ann e h a n dcen te r of c ol umn se ct ion (n egl e t in g t he I s c of ch an n el s

ao
r un d t he i r o wn axes — a ahg h t e rr or o n t he safe si de )
, .
an
C r e gi e S e e l I B e m s t a .
(S i z
e s wit h x an
p re fi ed a r e st da rd o the rs a r e spec ial ) , .
a . t . b
. r . r
’
.
7 25 2 3 80 hs
. w
7 19 2 309 c fi s
a
w
. v
7 13 2 239 hs
m
. h
7 07 2 1 68 he
. b
7 2 08 7 o h s c
h
.
o
o U s
o
o g
o D 0
o fi C 0
x as
i
7 1 4 66 m as
ww
.
1 2 68 s
c w
.
6 32 1 2 19 s
c w
. c
6 25 1 1 69
i
s
w w
.
6 26 92 1 r
o w
.
w
6 18 88 1 s
o w
.
6 09 84 1 o
s
wr
.
6 7 95
i
. c
6 77
n
900 o g 8
.
6 68 8 7 2 o ee
.c c
6 58 8 4 5 c an
. u e
6 48 8 17 oo a
i 1
-d 0 q
m
.
6 4 7 95 Ae
m
b
w
.
6 29 69 1 o
m
.
6 19 6 63 g
.
6 l 636 N
6 60 9 O 8 (
5 75 511
5 65
g
55
5
5 61 32 1
5 49
5 37
5 25
5 09 2 28 .
5 2 15 .
5 10 1 58 .
4 95 1 46 .
4 8 1 34 .
4 66 1 22 .
4 77 111 .
4 61 101 .
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
CA RN E G I E R O LL E D S T R U C TU R A L S TE E L .
C a n e gi e S t e e l
r I Be am s — C. ont i n u ed.
w
. t . b . I . I . r
'
. S .
—
7 - 1 01
m-
A
41
:
57 e
. . i . . c 38 1 00
—
34 H 55
l
6 x 0 93 58 o ti
3 6000
w
—
. . . . .
26 6 A
‘
85 59 58 s
e 3 3 90 0
w
. . . I . .
‘
. 19 6 77 . l 64. . 59 3 1 800
. 36 2 0 60. .
l
b 15. . 52
a
n
-D C 2 0 7 00
26 2 x H 19
1
. 53. . . . 52 u O
O 1 9 1 00
2 0 H 23
1
. 17 46. . . . 53 H
I
N
C r eg i e S e e l C h
an t an e l n s.
i i
(S ze s w t h p re fi xed a re s tan da rd o the r s are , a
spec i l ) .
— c
ST R E N G T H O F M A T E R I A LS .
C r e g i e T S h p e s (S e l e
an a ct e d ) .
C r e g i e S e e l A n gl e s
an t wti h E l Le g s
qua .
M ax an d M in W t s
. . .S pec i al S i ze s m arked
36 ST R E NGT H or M A T ER I A L S .
C a n e gi e S t e e l
r Z B ar s. - '
C onl i n ued .
Di men si on s . w . I
'
.
.
S . S '
. r . r
i X Bi X5
X 3 95 X 5
X 3} X 5
X 3} X 5
X 3 153 X 5 ¢ 26
X 3§ X 5
‘
X 1x X4
3
I
fi X S } X 4 3;
§7 X 3 fi X 4 i
‘ 13 8
X 1gX4
3 6 73
4
1
X 3 } X 4 1l g 15 8 4 66 11 18 7 96
3’
1%X 3 1 3 X 4} 17 9 5 27 12 74 9 26
§ X 3n 4 18 9 5 55 12 11 8 73
‘
g
l x 3 t X T;4 20 9 6 14 13 52 9 95
’ 24
X 1 x X 4f
3 23 6 75 14 97 11
i X2 X3 fl 6 7 l 97 2 87 2 81
a m ; x 3 3, 8 4 2 48 3 64 3 64
§ X 2HX 3 9 7 2 86 3 85 3 92
1
fi X 2 § X 3 1; 11 4 3 36 4 57 4 75
—
2
i X l 3X 3 12 5 3 69 4 59 4 85
{3 X 2 } X 3 ‘
1 ; 14 2 4 18 5 26 5 70
R E I N F OR CE D C ON C R E TE C O N S T R U C T I ON .
A re inforced c on c rete con struct i on i s on e whe re con cre te an d steel are

used jo i tly be i n g p ropo rt i on ed t o car ry t he st rai n s of com pressi on an d
n
t en s i on respec t i vely Su c h c on st ruc t i on s have all t he ad van tages of a
,
p urely m ason ry c on st ruct i on al on g w i t h the elas t i c i ty of one of st eel

.
The y
are perm an en t p roof aga i n s t fi re ru st rot ac i d an d gas an d d o n o t
.
req ui re at ten t i on re pa i r o r ai n t in g
, , , , ,
M oreove r t he st ren gt h of c on c re te
i n c reases w i t h age an d a sa ety fac t o r of 4 at t he t i me of comple t i on of
, , .
.
s t ruc ture m ay c asil am o u n t t o 6 o r 7 afte r t he lapse of a yea r o r so

v a ta
.
Ad n ge s rushed ston e san d an d cemen t are p roc u rable on

s h or t n ot i ce w hi le st ruc t u ral steel i s often subje c t to l on g delays i n d cl i v
. , ,
’
Con c re te m ay be m olded i n t o an y d es i re d form an d mason ry s i m u

,
e ry
Deflec t i on un de r safe l oad i s p ract i cally n i l i t be i n g e ssen t i al t hat
. .
l a t ed
a beam fa i l by t he p a r t i ng o f the st ee l afte r i t s elas t i c l i m i t ha s bee n
. .
e xceeded t he st ret c h i s suc h t hat a re i n for ed con c re t e beam sho u l d deflec t c

,
se veral fee t befo re f ai lure

D e s i g n The con c ete sh oul d be re i n forced i n bo t h ve rt i cal an d ho ri°
.
t h e ve rt i cal re i n fo rcemen t be i n g i n cl i ned a t an an gle of 4 5

.
z o n t a l plan es
to t he h or i zon t al an d a p p rox i mat i n g t he reby t he l i ne o f p ri n c i pal ten s i le
,
s tress The she a r membe rs s h ould be r i gi d ly con nec t ed t o the ho ri zon tal
re i n forc i n g s t ee l Steel s hould be d i st r i bu ted propo r t i onally t o t he st re ss
.
ex i st i ng a t an y p o i n t
.
The c on c ret e s h ould be com po sed of the best grade o f Portland cemen t
sharp clean san d a n d b roken s t one o r gra ve l (t o pass a 1 in ri n g ) i n t he
,
p ropo rt i on s 1
.
,
5 f o r fl oo r slabs an d 1 2 4 f o r beam s Steel ba rs

i n from bot tom of beam The c on c re te should
.
sh ould be a t least
be t horou g h ly rammed i n to place and t he cen te ri n g left i n pos i t i on fo r a t
. .
l east 1 8 d ays and i f free z i n g h a s occ urred fo r s uc h add i t i on a l t i me as

ma y be req u i red fo r eve ry i n d i cat i on of frost t o van i s h an d f o r t he con
, . .
c rete to become t h oroughly se t

t o o For span t ake d i st c t o c of
.
M e h ds f C a l cul a t i b n B EA M S
bea r i n (for slabs t he cl ea r spa n + sl a b t h i c k n ess ; i f cont i n uous over
. . . . .
m ore t an on e span ta ke d i st c t o c of beam s )

,
Max i m um B end i ng M omen t s : B ea m or slab suppo rt ed at ends wl 2 + 8

, . . . .
i fi 2 -—
,
( i n cont nu ous or xed bea m n ot l ess t han w l 2 12
Co c effi i ent s o f E last i c i t : E s y a

. .
,
E . ( con cret e ) f or ,
RE I N F O R CE D C O NC R E T E C O N ST R UCT I O N .
wea ker t ha n 1 may be taken as eq ual

t5
rri i x tu no to
E8
‘
g !
That part of t h e con cret e above t he n eut ra l ax i s i s assumed t o ca rry t h e

comp ress i on t he st r ess varyi ng un i formly from 0 at t he neut ral a x i s t o a
.
ma x i m um at t he com p ressed ed ge
,
The st ee l re i n forcement i s as s um ed t o carry al l t he t ens i on t he st ress

.
bei n un i form over i t s c ross sect i on

,
g — I f t h e c on crete i s of a q ual i t y su ch t hat i t s crush i n g

.
o r k i g
n S t r esse s z
st ren gt h af t er 2 8 da ys i s l b s per sq i n an d t h e st ee l ha s a
t e n a cit y > o r = 60 000 l bs per sq i n t h e follow i n g st resses ma y be al lowed :
. . .
,
. . .
,
Con crete i n comp ress i on i n bea ms subj ec t e dt o ben d i n g 6 00 lbs per sq i n

,
Con c rete i n column s un der s i m ple com p res s i on

. .
,
500
Con c rete i n shea r i n bea ms 60
A d hesi on of con c ret e t o st ee l 1 00
St eel i n t ens i on to
For ot h er co n c rete allowable st r e s = X cr u sh i n g st ren gt h ( c rush i n g s
For st eel o f a d i ff erent st ren gt h a llo wable st ress

.
st ren gt h for col umn s )

X st ress at y i eld —po mt
,
.
1 .
Let b = wi dt h o f be m i n i n ch es a
d = dept h o f bea m (t o p t o cent er of st eel bars ) i n i n ches
.
bl = wi dt h of up per fl an ge o f T bea m (slab ) i n i n ches

.
a n ge of T bea m (slab ) i n i n ches

.
d1 = t h i ck ness of upper fl
(bl sh ould n ot be g reat t har i d i st c t o c o f fl oor bea ms
l
. . .
-
.
;
d; is generally from — to
12
A = bd = area of c ross sect i on -
.
m Es E c:
i i i i n i n ch
.
M = ben d n g m omen t at sect on con s dered -

pounds
st ress i n st eel i n l b s per sq uare i n ch
.
t = t e n sil e
c= compress i ve st ress i n con cret e i n l b s per sq uare i n ch
. .
z = d i stan ce of res ult an t t h rust i n con c ret e from compressed ed ge o f

. .
bea m i n i n ches
kel = d i sta n ce from com p ressed edge t o n eut ral a xi s i n i n ches
.
A = k bd = area o f con cret e i n compres si on i n s q uare i n che s

, .
A t = a rea of st eel i n t en s i on i n sq uare i n ches

c .
i percent a ge of re i n forcement
.
= A —bd = rat o o f st eel t o con crete =

p
l = span i n i n ch es
, .
w= load per i n ch run o f span (we i ght of re i n forced con cret e ma y be

.
taken as 1 50 lbs per cu . .
I t can be sho w n t hat
a n d a ls o t hat
I
I
k c( 1 —5k )
°
For T bea ms wh ere d1 > k d , ,
A = b1 dl + b (d — d l ) =
dl < k d ,
M
Mi d — z)
2M kd
_
'
c (2 k d -
z )
st d — 2 d,
where 2
3
X : d m
l
38 T
S R E G T H or N M A TE R I A LS .
St ir ru or r i gidl y at t ach ed web m em be rs or i n cl i n ed ba rs sh o u ld e b

p rov i det ra t and n ea r t he end s of t he bea m s w here t he ave rage sh ea ri ng
s
st ress on a vert i ca l se ct i on ex ceed s 60 lbs per sq i n of t he bea m sec t i on

The ad hes i on req u i red i n t he case o f a un i form ]y load ed beam sup po rt ed
. . . .
at t he ends w i t h h ori zontal st eel bars n o t t u rn ed u p at t he en ds i s found

,
, ,
as fol lows :
The d i fferen ce o f t ens i on i n l ft len gt h of ba rs a t end of spa n = t a n ge n t ia l -
force bet ween t he st ee l an d con cret e i n t hat d i stan ce

.
A t t he en d M = O
a n d at 1 ft from end M = 6 w(l — l 2 ) i n — i n cremen t of t ens i on be
.
, .
. l bs . .
t ween t he en d and 1 ft from t he end 1 8 6 mt l — k lbs

§ )
I f n = t otal per i m et er o f re i n forc i ng bars t he ad h es i on st re ss i n l bs
. .
pe r sq i n = w(l — 1 2 ) —2 nd ( l
,
E xam ple :— D es i gn a be m freel y support ed at t h e ends of 1 2 f t span a

. .
t o ca rry 960 l b s pe r l i n ea l foot us i n g 1 % o f re i n forcement

, .
, .
Ta ki n g m= 1 5 k = 0 4 1 8 [ from
.
,
w= 960 + 1 2 = 80 l b s per i n ch run

, .
A ssume t = 1 6 000 l bs pe r sq i n , . . .
, .
.
l = 1 2 x 1 2 = 1 4 4 i n s M = w12 + 8 = i h lbs -
Su bst i t ut i n g t h ese values i n

, . .
2=
bd X
For a t ri al val ue t ake b = 1 2 in s Then d2 = 1 85 an d d = i n A dd
i r g 1 5 i ns t o bot t om of beam t o p rotect t he steel ba rs gi ves a t ota l dept h
.
, , .
0 } 1 5 i ns
.
,
A be m 1 2 X 1 5 i n s w i l l we i gh
a l bs per l i neal i n ch co n seq u e n t l
.
=80 + 1 6 sa y and a not her cal cu lat i on m ade wh i ch wi fl

. .
,
10 should be t aken =
i n clude t he wei ght o f t he beam approx i mat ely
, ,
(The forego i ng s i m ple met hods are t hose em bod i ed i n t he R eport of t he

.
,
R e i n forced Con cret e Com m i t t ee formed u nder t he a u sp i ces of t h e R oyal

I nst i t ut e of B ri t i sh A rch i t ec t s and a re und oubt ed ly as rel i able as a n y
,
t hat ca n be i t ed ) c ,
C o L U M N s —Let P = t ot al we i gh t t o be support ed by colu m n i n lbs : and

.
A 8 = sect io n a l a rea o f st ee l re i n forcement Then us i n g t he n ot at i on

. .
.
,
"
under B ea ms :
For l i ght l on gi t ud i nal re i n forcemen t (less t han P = c (A + mA 8 ) (1 )
y
.
For heav ( l % an d over ) P = (m 1 ) A 8 ] (2 ) ,

.
E ample : —D es i gn a col u m n t o susta i n

x lbs us i ng 1 % re i nforce
Subst i t ut i n g i n (2 )
.
,
m en t . c= 500 ; m= 1 5 .
5OG[ A (1 5 1 )0 0 1 A ].
5 7 0A ,
an d A = 7O sq i n s = 8 4 in s sq uare or in s d i am
The longi t ud i na l b rs should be bo un d arou nd by st eel st raps or r ds a o
. . . . . .
t o preven t t he i r ben d i n g an d t hese st raps should n ot be spaced a p rt a

m ore t ha n 2 4 t i mes t he least lat eral d i mens i on o f t he lon gi t ud i na l ba rs
,
Sp i ra l H oo ped Col um n s :
.
P= 1 1 7 80 d2 -l
.
where d= d i m p ri sm an d h oop i n g A , = sect i onal a rea o f st eel i n t h e

a . of ,
d
W
hoops or i re an d 8 = spac i n g of h oops o r sp i ral s— generally from
,
to 2 .
IO 7
Take c= 400 a n d t =
These form ul as h old where t h e len gt h o f t he col um n i s n ot great er
t h an 1 8 t i mes t he d i amet er or least lat era l d i men s i on Few cm a ri se
i n pract i ce where s uc h a len gt h i s exceeded
.
d hes i on bet wee n t he st eel an d con cret e i n t he case of sm oot h

a
.
As the
bars is open t o u n cert a i nt man y ba rs have bee n dev i sed wh i ch gi ve y
a p osi t i ve bond t hrough be i ng t w i st ed corrugat ed i n dent ed o r ot he rw i se
,
d ef orm ed at close i nt ervals alon g t he i r lengt h

, , ,
ayo a t
.
S umm r f B e m Tes s From a bo u t 200 r e o r t ed t est s T L Co n

o 3 1 5— 0 3 ) d ed u ces t h e f ofiow i ng form ula
. , .
d i n (W S o c o f E n
.
— U lt -
B u (i n i n ch l b s ) w here n = 4 50 f o r h i ghl y el st i c st eel ba rs a

. . . .
(n 5 5-
) bd 2
posi t i vely b n d ed t o t he con cret e

o for pla i n bars o f ord i nary st ru e
.
,
t u ra l st eel ) ; P = per ce n t ag e o f re i n forcemen t sect io n ) + bd ; b

an ] d i n i n ch es .
I
RE NFOR E C D coNoRETE C O N ST RUC T I ON .
39
i
Fo r ord nary con cret e ( 1 3 6 ) P may
vary from to econ om y
l y i ng between and For ext ra st ro n g con crete ( 1 2 4) P m ay be
i n creased t o
tS r e ss Di g r m s i n F r m e d S r
a a res I f t h ree obl i que forces
a t uctu
m ai n ta in a body in a state of rest t he i r d i re ct i on s m ee t at one po i n t an d
.
t he i r p roport i onal values m ay be shown by t he respec t i ve s i de s of a t r i

.
,
an gle d rawn parallel to t he forces

I f a bod y remai n s at re st u nde r t he ac t ion of a n umbe r of forces i n the
.
sam e plane t he i r relat i ve m agn i tude may be s ho n by a polygon w h ose w

s i des t k en in orde r are d rawn para l le l t o t he forces
a
,
.
, ,
G en e ra l C as e S i m p l e R o t T r ss (F i g o u
'
. .
} we i gh t of a b(W) w i l l be suppo rted a t eac h po i n t

4
, a an d b
ac( W )
’
a c.
i M
I
T h e we gh t t hen at , , a = .
The rea t i on a tc R w h i c h bal a n ce s a =
C‘ I
R 0 0
Tot l reac t i on at
a R
40 G
ST R E N T H O F M A T ER I A L S .
The fo rce s bei n g t h us stated le t te r e ac h ce l l o r en c losed sp a e (in t h is c

case b t on e 1 c the t r i an gle A ) an d also eac h sec t i on of t h e e xte rn al
u
,
.
, ,
space a s d wi de d by t he lme s of t h e fo rce s an d the me m be rs of the t ru ss .
Fig 8 . .
0 5W
.
as B C D
an d F E D raw t h e force d i agram for eac h se t of radia t in
y
Co n s i de r the fou r force s a t t he po i n t 9 eac h de fi ned b t he spe c ia
.
, , , ,
fo rces . .
l e t te rs t h us : F B B C C A A F (u smg one di rec t i on o f rotat i on through

, , .
ST R ES S D I A G RA M S . 41
ou t —preferabl y r i gh t h a nded )
,
-
. Set O i i
H n the force d agram F B
BC =
l-
—
I
r
. D raw AF pa ral lel t o the ri gh t mem be r of
tr u ss a c the n A C w ill be par al lel to be a nd mee t B C at po i n t C ( ee I ) s

N ot i ce t ha t ar row s m u st fol low e a c h ot he r a ro u n d t he d i a
.
,
ag
g ram in one
d i rec t i on
. 1 1 an d I I I show d i rec t i on o f for ce s for po in t s a an d b AF, .
Fig 10 . .
A C an d A B in t he t
d iagram a re then he st resse s in the mem e rs of b
,
t he t russ an d a re measu rable by t he sc ale assumed f o r W an d W '

Pl e ac
arrow s on t he mem be rs of the t ru ss as in d i ca ted b y lI I I an d I I I ; t hen
.
arrows po i n t in g t o wa rd ea c h ot her show t ha t the mem be r i s in t en s i 'on an d

, .
vi c e versa for c om p re ss i on Gene ral ly A E = A F W = W an d R = R = W ’
The t russ d i ag ram s ( F i gs 7 8 9 yan d 1 0 ) i llust ra te the appl i c at i on of

.
, .
t he p reced i n g p rin c i ple s

.
Re d u hda n t me m be rs (t hose n o t st re sse d ex

, , .
ce p t i n g when d i stort i on take s p lace ) ma v be de te rm i n ed by i n spe c t i on an d

.
t he 1 r u x e r = t he n um be r o f me mbe rs i n ex ess o f [ ( tw i ce t he n um be r of
c
o n ngb
j i ts l
ST R E N GT H O F M A T ERI A L S .
Fi g 7 sh ws the stresse s in a symme t ri cally loaded W a rren r uss i e by

o t
t he we i gh t of l t s me m be rs F i g 8 sh ows t he sa me t ru ss un de r an y c n een o
. . .
, ,
t r a t ed load I V wh i c h may be take n fo r a r o ll i ng load by dete rm i n in g t he

. .
s t re sse s caused a t eac h Jo i n t by i mpo si n g t h i s load an d de s i gn i n g eac h

,
mem be r fo r t he max i m um st ress i t may h ave to w i th stan d N ote f rom

.
Bl ( JD ( F i g as compared w i th sa me mem be rs i n b ig 7 that t he mem

be rs a re subjec t t o e i t he r te n si le o r c om p re ss i ve st re ss and sho l d be ca l u
.
,
c u l a t e d fo r t h e g rea t e st st ress of each k i n d

I n t he rafte rs of t h e roof t russ ( Fi g 1 0 ) the l oad on each raf t e r = W
.
ports i s d i v i ded (as pe r table fo r Con t in uous Be am s

.
,
an d hav in g th ree
.
3sup ,
1 OW
,
a nt e) as fo l l ow s : at e ac h en d suppo rt an d
T6
on t he midd le su pp rt
10
o .
The t otal h o ri zon ta l w i n d p ressu re . J = 40 to pe r sq ft X wid t h o f P 00 lb s

( see d i agram ” i s re sol ved i n to two co m o
. . .
bay be t wee n two r afte r s

n e n t r .— on e paralle l an d on e n ormal to t he rafte r . The l at te r P n =
g
, ,
Sp u 5Pn 3 Pn
an d 1s d i s t ri b ut ed a t a, d, an d c as 16 8
re spe c ti ve l y .
If a be fi xed an d b loose expan s i on i s p rov i ded for an d t he re c t i on a

R i s ve rt i cal R u
, ,
’
’
R an d P n mu t al ly balan ce an d mee t 1 n the oin t :1:
(fo u n d by p r od u cmg P u to i n te rsec t R
.
,
B y c on nec t i n g an a: t he
d i rec t i on of i s gi ven an d val ue s of
R an d R a re obta i n ed from t he a i l
'
R ux
i a ry force d iagram I f t he i n d bl ows from t he r i gh t P n ac ts o n be an d
w
a: w i l l be above i n stead of be low b Eac h me mbe r should be des i g ed t o n
.
.
, ,
res i st t he m ax i m um st resse s i n i t cause d by t he we i ght o f roof raf te rs

.
sn ow an d also t he w i n d p ressure from whi c heve r s i de a max i mum st re ss

, ,
in the pa rt i c ul ar mem be r i s caused

, ,
a t ures f T h r e e D i me s i
t uc o n on
.
F r m ed S r s m u st be sol ved by c on
side rin g e ac h plane o f ac t i on se pa ra te ly For e xample i n a shea r l egs
subst i t ute fo r t he t wo r i g i d ly at tac hed legs a sin gle on e i n a plan e w i th
. .
t he th i rd or j o i n ted leg de te rm i ne t he respe c t i ve st re sse s an d t hen re sol ve

t he st ress i n t he subst i t te d leg i n to t he stresse s f or t he t wo legs 1 t rep l ace s
u
, ,
44 E N E RG Y AND T H E T RA N S M I SS I O N or po wsa .
Fo r a c omp oun d pen d ul um (r od of rad i us r ) : 2
(ball rad i u s r ) : l = a +
of
b a l l of we i gh t (d i st W . a and ba ll of W1
o2 + a ,2 W1
( d 1et bot h on sa me s 1de of p om t of suspe n s1 o n ; a _
W + a , Wl
m
.
a
B al ls W(a ) an d W p0 1n t of sus p en s i on be t wee n : d i st of c o f g of
.
W + a ,2 W|
. .
a2
y st e m = an d !
W + w,
8 x
the last t wo case s

In W
i s t he large r we ig h t an d t he we igh t of c on nec t i n g
li ne o r rod is neglected T h e len gt h of a s imple pe n d ul u m w h i ch osc il l ate s
,
sec ond s at N e w Yo rk i s in
.
no r t he capac i ty f o r pe rfo rmi n g work is of t wo fo rm s : Poten t ia l

y
.
E erg
E ne rgy w hi c h i s stored o r laten t an d Ki n e t i c En e rgy o r t he ene rgy of
,
mot i on I n an y system k i n et i c e n e rgy + po t e n t ia l e n e rgy = a con stan t

, , ,
I n an y ma ch i n e t he en e rgy b u t i n = t he useful wo rk gi ven o u t + t he

.
, .
wo rk lost by res i stan ces (St ored ene rgy n ot c on s i de red ) E i the r k in d of
ene rgy may be t ran sformed in t o t he ot he r k i n d
. .
E s ima e tf E e rg i e s t o e n i l E n e rg of a we i gh t i n at
n ot t a y
.
T he P
he i gh t H = wH f t lb s I f al lo we d t o fal l t he ve l oc i t y on reac h i ng t h e
. ,
-
. .
,
2
ground , f rom But i =
a . an d 8 =H v= V 2 gH an d H
2
Subst i tu t i n g (i n wH ) E e r g (n ow K i n e i ) i n f t 1b s 31 n y tc 0
-
.
, .
20
p l i cable t o a l l cases of mo vin g bodi es i t be in g s t ri ctly p rope r t o ass um e
t hat t he veloc i ty i s caused by gra vi t y
,
W hen a bod y rotate s a roun d an a x i s ri m of fl y w hee l of we igh t w)

.
-
, , ,
i 1
Y an d t he E n e r g y o f R otat i on in f t
1: (l n ear ) 2a .
( n =
00 ) .
- lb s .
w(2 7rR N ) 2
0 000 1 704 wR 2N 2
. .
2g
L
The E n e r gy o f a C o m p r e s s ed Sp ri ng = % ft .
-
lbs .
; t he E e r g n y of a
C m p r e s s e d G a s = mean e ff ec t i ve t otal p re ssu r e X st r ok e
o
f One H e n U n i (1 y o at t
.
T h e E erg lb wate r rai se d . 1 °

F .
when n e ar f t lbs .
-
.
E n e rg y of Po w e H a mm e r
r ,
s. E ne rg y of falli n g hamme r =
2g
.
ergy re ce i ved by t he h ot i r on = me an l p re ss u r e in lbs .

17. X de p t h of
a s2 t ota 2
i mp re ss i on H in f ee t an d pH p
_
' The g re ate st t ot al
aH
, ,
°
pressu re 2 p
f R e oil yo c
.
E n erg Le t w] an d u 2 = we 1 gh t s o f g u n (w1 t h carri age ) '
an d pro j ect i le ; v1 an d v2 = v e l o c1 t y of r e c0 1 l n d p ro i e ct 1 le v e l o c1 t y a t a
.
w
mu zz e . Then , 10l 212 20 2 an d v1 fl v
The ene rg y of a bod y in m ot 1 on
2g
. hen ce t he ene rgy of r e coil =w
1 2g . an d t he ene rg y of t he
2
p ro e cti il e '
20
'
u 21 2
P o e r i s t h e ra t e at wh i c h work i s pe rform ed t h e u n i t e i n g on e h or se
w b
.
foot poun ds exerte d d u ri n g on e m i n ute

,
powe r o r -
nt ac
.
,
E l em e s of M h in es A m ac hi ne i s an as se m blage of pa rt s wh ose
re lat i ve mot i on s are fu ll y con st ra i n ed an d i t s pu rpose i s t he t 1 an sm 1ss1 0 n
.
or t he m od i fi cat i on of powe r be t he po in t whe re t he powe r 1 8 P

.
Le t
appl i ed an d W
t he po i n t w he re i t i s rem oved o r u t i l i zed
.
Th e n w ork
(neglect i n g res i st an ce s ) W
. .
put in at P = wo r k t aken out at A s work .
force X dist an ce P 3 Wal o r w he re s an d 8 1 are t he d ist an c es t rave le d

, ,
1
by P an d W Fur t he r
ve loc i t y o f force W = P ,
W
.
=
ve loc i t y of W f o rce
M ech an 1 cal
P A d van t age ,
P
'
E L E M E N TS OF MA C H I N ES .
T he v
Le e r By t he p rin c i ple of m omen t s P r = =Wr1 an d t he
M echan i c al A dvan t age =

W .
a r
r n d r l be in g t he respec t i ve radi i of
,
[
P an d W from t h ful c rum (f st ra i gh t le ve r an d para ll el force s )
e
1
or
L e v e r Sa f e t y V a l v e Le t w w an d W be t he we ight s f l
.
- val ve o ev e r ,
ly i n l b an d R t he di st an ces f om cente r of
. . ] , ,
and ball i resp e t t v e r s r ,, r

gra vi t y f le ve r valve cen te r an d ball cen e r t f ul rum i i
.
. , .
o d t he t o c n h
valve d i am i n t he st ea m p ress ure pe r sq i n of valve
, . .
,
an d
.
, in .
, Then p . . . ,
If t he le ve r i s ben t o r t he forces are n ot para llel t he arm s r ; an d are R

u
,
t hen e qual t o t he len gt h of t he pe rpe n di cu la r drawn from f l c rum t o t he

l i n e of d i rect i on o f eac h force
whee l rad i u s
.
W h e e l a n d A x l e Me ch amcal A d van t age

r
a x le rad i us R
.
Tr i of G e ring
an i s appli ed at rad i us of fi rst whee l t r smi t ted
a P an
by i t s t oot hed axle t o c i rc umfe ren ce of secon d wh ee l w h i c h i s t oot h ed
. ,
by se con d axle c i rc mf e ren ce t o t h i rd whee l c i rc u mfe ren ce e t c

u
,
, .
W
Me ch am cal A d van t ge a ,
P
_ :1 X 1
RI
_
RQ
2 .
X
R3
’ etc .
Bl o c k an d T ac k l e The p u ll P
on t he rope t h rough t he d i stan ce a
rai se t he we i gh t W t hrough t he d i st an ce
.
wi ll
In an y m o vable
I f
2
—
0
W r i si ng onl y o ne - half t he he i gh t t h t P does a
1
.
D i ff e r e nt i a l P
e T wo p ulleys w hose d i amete rs are d an d d] rotat e
u ll y
as one p i ece about a fi xed ax i s An en dless cha in passe s aroun d bot h
.
p u ll e ys an d one of t he de e n d in g l oops of t he c ha i n passes aroun d an d

.
sup o rt s a ru n n i n g bloc k from wh i c h

p i s h un g i s appl i ed on t he W P
cham run n i n g di rect ly t o p u l le y of l arge r d i am
.
d .
,
IV _ P d i st
’
d 2d
M echamcal A d van t age _
P
s
W s d i st
’
.
7r d — 7 d1 d—d
'
. z
l
In clin ed Pl an e an d W e dge . W h i le P ni
o ve s t h rough base b W i s ,
lz
ai sed t hr o ugh t he he i gh t h an d M ec h A dv = A cam i s a re vol v i n g
/
r
P
.
, .
mel plane
n ed
T h e S r e w i s an inc l in ed plane wrapped aro u d a cyl i n de r so t hat t he
c n
. .
he 1 g h t of t he plane 1 5 paralle l t o t he wa s o f cy l mde r I t 1 3 opera t ed by

force appl l e d at t he en d of a leve r arm (o f len gt h r ) pe rpen d i c ular t o
.
ax i s h e ig h t o f i n c l i ned p lane f o r on e r e v ol u
-
a
Le t p ” =
p i t ch o f sc r e w =
S d i st
.
t i on of sc re w Then Mec h A d v E P 2” .
W s d i st p
, . .
P ’
C o n n e ct i n g R 0 d s a re sub j ect t o alte rn ate ten s i on a n d compressi on

.
an d t he d 1 am d, at m 1d len gt h i s cal c ul ated by mean s of Gord on s form ula -

’
f o r column s (bot h en d s h i n ged ) where r 2 = d1 2 + 1 6 u in g a safet y fact or

.
The d i a m at smal l en d (d ) i s des i gn ed

,
of 1 0 an d val ues of a an d b for stee l

t o r e s1 st com press i o n on ly t hat at large en d
(dz) be in g obta in ed by con
. .
t i n ni n g t he t ape r from small d i am t o d i am at m i d len gt h an d t hen ce t o

,
. .
-
the large en d an d i s equal t o 2 dl — d Ken t gi ves a s t he average of a

large n um be r of fo rm l as con s i de red by h i m : u
, .
of
C Yl in de r X V p (steam ) B arr gi ves a s t he ave r ge o f t welve Am bui lde rs :
. a .
d i am X st r ok e (f o r l ow speed en gi n es ) an d t h i c kn ess t
.
-
, .
46 E N E RGY AND T HE T RA N S M I S S I O N o r ro wan .
: wi d t h - 0 8 m nds
.C e on n ct n
( i n c re ase d t o
St i
rap en d -B o d t h ic k n e s
33 m at mi d -len gt h an d also at en d s when slot t ed for gi bs
s = 0 2 2m
E .
-
.
, .
d = di a m of c ran k p i n
.
an d cotte r ) ; dept h o f b ut t en d of rod = 1 1 d + fi in -
m= d + 0 2 in
. .
-
.
,
H
. .
Cr k -A r m s
an ro u g h t I ron )
d i am of c r an k pi n eye = 2 d, ; len gt h o f
.
ub
-
h ub le n g t h =
i dt h of we b = 0 7 5 X
0 9d ; .
W
.
d i am of ad j acen t h ub or eye ; t h i c kn ess o f a

. .
. of d j acen t
h ub o r e ye (d = least di am of s haft ; d| = diam of c ran k pin ) . .
-
.
Ec c e nt r i c s S heave d i am X t h row ) X shaft d am i ) bread t h

a
. . .
ih .
; t hi c kness of in .
( 3 dia m
d = . of v l ve
ste m .
S H A FTI N G .
H P
For st ren gt h aga i n st pe rm an en t deform at i on d = 3 33
. .
. .
N
fln ess t o res i st t ors i on (m ax allowable t w i st < 0 pe r foot i n len gt h )
'
st i
°
. . 0 75 .
These values are f o r W I . .

; for stee l sh aft s d h as but 84 %
of t he val ues gi ven by form ulas I n des i gn i n g t ake t he la rge r of t he t wo

val ues o f (1 obt a i n ed from t he fo rm l as u
.
3
A act i c e d
v e r ag e Pr where c (for cold rolled shaft i n g )
.
-
for sh afts car y i g p ul leys

r n = 7 5 ; for l i ne sh a f t in han gers 8 ft apa rt = 55 ;
f or t ran sm i ss i on on ly Fo r t rn ed i ron 8 af t in g un de r s i m i la r con u
. ,
= 35
di t i on s m u lt i p ly val ue of c by
, .
Len gt h between he ari n gs t o l i m i t deflec t i on t o i n pe r foot of shaft . .
i n g : f o r bare shaft s L (i n f e r shaft s c a rryi n g pull eys

, ,
\/
= 3
L
h eel Sh f s
F l y -W For sh aft s c arry in g fi y wheels arm at u res o r
at -
ot he r heavy rot at i n g m asses fi n d t he e q i valen t t w i st in g m omen t of u

. .
t he com b i ned t ors i on an d ben d i n g i n i n c h lb s an d apply same i n t he t wo

,
.
fo rm l as at t he be gi n n i n g of t h i s t op i c remem be ri n g t hat
u
.
H P
Tw i st i n g m omen t ( Se e p
. .
2 7:
3
A v e r a g e E n g i n e P r act i c e Cran k shaft d i am d = 6 8 t o X V fV .

-
.
, .
H P .
for l ow an d h i gh spee d re spe ct i vely (B ar ) A lso d = o 4 2 t o 0 5 X pi t r s on

m ac h i ne sh ops = 1 2 0 t o 1 80 ; f o r wood wor kin g
. .
.
,
di am (S tan wood ) N f or - -
d woolen m i l l s 3 00 t o 400
. .
sh ops 2 50 t 300 ; for c ott on

, o an
'
, .
J O U R N AL S .
The al l owable p re ss u re p in s s on t he proje c t e d a re (l ) lb pe r q i n a

n
. . .
o f j ou rnals is a s foll ow s : F o r v e ry sl ow spee d j ou r al s p = 3 000 ; for -
c ross head j ou rnals p = 1 2 00 t o 1 6 00 ; f or c r n k p i n Journals l ow spee d a

. .
800 t o 900 ; d i t t o A m prac t i ce for m ari n e en gi ne

-
, , , .
p = to
c ran k p i n j ou rn als 400 t o 500 ; ra il wa y j ou r als 300 ; c ran k p i n j ou rn al s n
. .
,
- -
for sm l l en gi n es 1 50 t o 2 00 ; m a i n beari n gs of en gi ne 1 50 ; ma ri ne sl i de
a
. .
, .
bloc ks 1 00 ; c ross head sur faces 3 5 t o 40 lbs pe r sq in ; prope lle r t h rust

be ari n gs 50 t o 70 ; m a i n sh aft i n g i n cas t i ron b oxes 1 5
-
, , . . .
vg J un ou na W hen u
.
. .
O e rh r ls O n end o f shaf t Constan t p ress re . . .
I
N < 1 50 d = 0 O3 P f V or W I an d st ee l ; :
to 2 Whe n
Ti
. . .
. .
,
N > I SO ,
-
d for w . 1 . an d f or s tee l . A l so
1
(1
0 1 3 x /7V f or
. W . I . an d f or s ee l t .
BA LL AND R O LL E R B EA R I N G S .
J ou r na l s un d e r Al t e r nat i n g P ress res u cran k -

p in ) . Wh en
for W I W
'
N < 1 50 ,
. . an d 0 . 02 4 V P for stee l ; for . I .
an d for st ee l . W hen N > I 5O d = o , for W . I . an d
f o r stee l ; f or W . I . an d G I N/N f o r st eel . Am E n g . ine P r ac
t i ce : d (for c ran k t o 0 2 7 X pi st pn d i am l = 0 2 5 t o 0 3 X pi s
Cr oss head p i n s : d1 = 0 8d ;
. . .
t on d i am (Stan wood ) -
N e c k J o r n l s , o r t hose formed on t he bod y of shaft need bu t t wo

u a
. . .
t h i rds t he d i amete r of ove rh u ng j ou rn als of t he same len gt h For bal l

a u
.
an d soc ket shaft h n ge rs l = 4 d ; dept h of sho lde r on ne c k j ou rn al may

-
be t aken a s 0 o7d + i i n
,
Pivo s t
. .
Fo r N < I 5O p = 700 350 or

. l bs pe r sq i n an d , , , . . .
,
or f or W I on bron ze C I on bron ze . .
, , . .
,
W I o r steel on l i g n u m v i t ae re spect i vel y

. . For N > I 5O -
, .
,
an d 0 035 V P f or W I (or st ee l ) on b ron ze an d l i gn um v i t ee re spect i vely

. . .
-
, .
n ess of coll a r = 0 4 (D — d ) = } X S p a ce bet ween coll ars (d = sh af t d i am )

t u i i slee ve coupl i n g I = 2 6 6d +
. .
Shaf Co l n gs For a cast ro n keye d - -
i i For a cast flan ge c ou l i n g

.
. , .
in ; . ex t e r i i a d am o f n . .
,
l of h ub o n eac h h alf = 1 3 3 d + 1 l n ; h ub in ; an ge
i n ; w i dt h of fl an ge
. . .
i n ; fl ange . .
bol t s = — + f%i n
Fo r plat es forged
in ; .
on
no . of
abu t t i n g shaft en ds
d i am
t = 0 3d ;
. of
g
ou t s i de d i am
-
.
=
.
, .
no
g. of b ol t s =
a t h i c kn e ss i n t he cen te r
(d = sh a f t d i am ) .
i
B ra ss es shoul d have (whe re wea r s greatest )
0 1 6d +
. in .
B AL L AN D R OL L E R BE AR IN G S .
R oller Be arin
Le t n = n u mb e r o f roll ers ; d = diam o f rollers i n
s.
i n (for c on i cal r o e rs t ake d i am at m i d len gt h ) ; l = l en gt h of rolle rs i n
.
in ; t hen i f t he ro l le rs are suffi c i en t ly hard an d are so d i sposed t hat t he

. .
ad i s e qually d i st r i buted ove r I an d n Load i n lbs P = m l d w here c = 3 5 5

.
,
, .
,
for C I ro l lers on flat C I plates an d 8 50 for stee l ro l lers on flat steel

. . . .
,
plate s (I n g Tasc hen buc h )

Fr i ct i on ma y be red uced 40 t o 50 % by t he use o f ro l ler bea ri n gs
. .
The H yat t fle x i ble roll ers con s i st of fl at st r i ps of spr i n gy st ee l w ou n d

.
sp i rally in t o t ubu la r form ; t hey gi ve at al l t i mes a c on t act alon g t he i r

en t i re len gt h I t i s cla i med f o r t he m t hat t he y save 7 5 % o f t he l ubri ca
t i on (an d 1 0 t o 2 5 % o f t he power ) n eeded by ord i n ary bear i n gs o f e q u a l
.
p a c1 t y an d t hat t hey c an n ot become ove rheated

B ll B e a r i g s
a Di am of en clos i n g n
. .
where d = diam
ball c = cl e a r an ce bet ween eac h p i r of bal ls ; F a fac t or as foll ows : a
. . .
'
14 15 16 17 18 19
No . of bal l s 21 22 23 24
Factor F 7 02 6 6 7 6613
or, gen eral ly D ,

= d+ W he re n = no . of ball s .
si n
0 2 5d
If t ake c= ot he rwi se , o = o 00 5 . . All di men s i on s in
i nc hes .
48 E N ER G Y AND T m; T R A N sM i ssi o N or r o wan .
Cr u sh i ng St re n gt h of B alls .
B reak i n g Load i n Lbs .
The A u to Mac hi n e ry Co s dat a an swe r t o break i n g l oad = 82 400 d2 ’
an d are a fa i r ave rage of t he fi rst two c ol umn s (result s obt ai ned by F J

.
,
H a rr i s at i t ose Polytec hn i c i n st i t ute ) t he su rface o f ball r ace be i n g co n

. .
a sphe r i cal an d a plan e surface

,
si d e r e d a s b e t wee n .
an n ula r e ari n g b
w he re n ran ges from 1 0 t o 1 8 (S t r ibe ck I n g Tasc hen buc h ) Prof C H
B en j am in reco m men ds a safet y facto r o f 1 0 t hat i n above t able i s 8
. . . . .
,
R d i l B ll B e r i g ,
a a a i h 4 p i
a= n w t o nt con act
.
,
t .
I f P > 3 000 l b P 3 00 + 2 90 d
s n
T h r u s t B e a r i n g w i t h 3 p o i t contact
. .
, ,
, n . to
1 1 4 3 (nd
, to
to 1 5 00 + 808 nd
, .
T hr ust Be a ri ng , B all s b e we e t n Fl at Pl at e s.
W hen nd 3 5 7 9 10
P , safe , i n lbs .
= 4 75
Th r u t s B ea r i ng , 2 P o i t (B
n a lls i n R aces bf Larger Di a m) .
W hen nd 6 8 10 12 14
P , safe , i n lbs .
= 3DO 80 0
R el at i onbe e e B l l D i a m (d )
tw n a d S h a f Di m ( D ) . an t a . .
T hree —po i n t Th rust B e ar in g d = 0 1 4 3 + 0 1 7D , . .
F lat plate
- d = 0 l 2 5 + 0 1 90 .
Two poi n t race

- d = 0 06 2 5 .
R di al fou r po i n t
a ,
- d = 0 3 D w hen in .
, .
d = 0 3 1 + 0 1 5 D w hen D > . . in .
The forego i n g p roport i on re resen ts t he pract i ce o f t he A me ri c an B all

of Pro vi dence as der i ve from t he i r catalogue by t he aut hor an d
mz y be t aken a s gu i dan ce i n des i gn
,
i r i ct i o n o f B l l B e r i g s M 1 G olden (Trans A S M E ) from

a a n
.
e x pe ri men t s on balls from f t o i in i n d i am i n radi l o r an n l ar be r a u a

. . . . . . . . .
ded uces as a t en t at i ve fo rm ul a
. .
i n gs at speeds from 2 00 t o
“
.
Fr ict ion = L o ad where d = di am . of bal l , an d

D = di am pat h of bal ls i n t he races
of
r p m c hat te ri n g t akes l ace
. .
A t spee ds aro un d an d exceed in g

whi c h may be reduced t o a marked degree by the se of o i l H u
. . .
.
e ou n d .
=
a o 00 4 7 5 t aken as i n form u l a )
D b l e l l B e r i g s I n an ord i n ary ball bear i n g t h e t u rn i n g of
ou a a n
.
t he s haf t rotates t he balls i n such a man ne r t hat th e su rfa ces of t wo co n

.
ous bal ls rub or grin d upon eac h ot her an d t h i s i s sa i d t o be t he cause

'
t
a large ro po r t io n of t he fa i lu res recorded i n t he u se of ball bear in gs
,
0
I n t he C a pma n d ouble ball beari n g a sm a ll e r ball (n ot i n c on tact w i t h
.
t he s haft i s i n t rod uced bet ween e ve ry t wo ball s of t he beari n g p ro r

and a ro i n g c on tac t t hroughou t t he bear in g i s t he reby est abl i shed The
,
Chapman Co ( Toron t o O n t ) c la i m t o save 80 % o f t he work lost i n f ri c

.
t i on by ord i n ary e lf o i l i n g j ou rn al bea ri n gs an d refe r t o r n s of 1 }

s u to
. ~
, .
-
2
ya e rs d urat i on W
i t hou t l ub ri cat i on or app re i ble we r
,
ca a .
G EA RI NG .
G E A R IN G .
a
S ur G e rs are t oot hed wh ee ls for t ransmi t t in g p wer e ween parall e l o bt
sha t s t he t ee t h be in g parall el t o t he a es of t he w h ee ls They are eq u i v x
al e n t t o fr i ct i on cy lin de rs o r d i scs havi n g tee t h pr o w de d t o avo i d sli pp i n g
.
,
w i t h heavy lo ds an d w i t h an i n fi n i te n um be r of t ee t h t he ge a rs wo u ld
a
bec ome smoot h surfaced c y l i n ders en gag i n g wi t h eac h ot he r at t he i r c i r
, .
These c i rc umfe rences ar e cal led p i tc h c i rc les an d t he

-
c u mf e r en ce s
veloc i t y relat i on bet wee n an y t wo w hee ls i s determi ned from t he i r re spe c
.
t i ve p i t c h c i rcle ra dii
Fo r t ransm i t t i n g pe rfec t ly un i form mot i on t he cu rves of t he t eet h are
spe i a l ly formed t he con d i t i on f o r su c h m ot i on be i n g t hat t he n orm al
c
t o a ll surfaces o f con t act bet wee n t he t eet h m ust pass t h roug h t he mee t i n g
.
po i n t of t he t wo t angen t i al i tc h c i rcles
Epic l o i d l T e e h [ 0 1 w ee l s are fo rmed a s fo l l ows : The part o f
yc a t
.
'
t oot h c urve o ut s i de of t he p i tc h c i rcle is t he pat h o f a po i n t on t he c i r

cu mf e r en ce of an arb i t rari ly c hosen c i rcle wh i c h roll s o n t he outs i de o f
t he p i tc h c i rc le an d t he part of t oot h c urve in s i de the p i tc h c i rcle i s t he
pat h of a po i n t on t he c i rc umfe ren ce of t he same arb i t rari l y c ho sen c i rcle
.
w hen roll i n g i n s i de t he p i t c h c i rcle

For rac ks t he p i t c h c i rc le (of i n fi n i t e d i am ) becomes a st ra i gh t li n e
.
an d t he t oot h out l in es are gene rated by a po in t i n t he c irc umference of

.
a c i rc le roll i n g on t he l i n e abo ve an d below

W he re gears are t o work i n te rc han geably t he same roll i n g c i rcle m ust
be used t h roughou t Teet h s houl d be des i gned so t hat at least t wo pa i rs
are con st an t ly en gaged
I n o l t e T e e h possess an ad van t ge ove r ep i c yc lo i d al teet h in th at
v u t a
t he d i s t a n ce be t ween t he whee l en ters may be s l i gh t ly vari ed w i t hou t c
a ffec t in g t he acc urac y of c on t act ; t hey are gene rated as foll ows : D raw
p i tc h c i rc les an d con nec t t he i r cen ters T h rough po i n t o f c on tac t o f
c i rc les d raw a l i ne i ncl i n ed at an an gle of 7 5 t o t he l in e o f en te rs an d c
.
from eac h cen te r d raw a c i rcle t an gen t t o t h i s l i ne The se c i rcles are

base c i rc les and t he t oot h c urve i n eac h h ee l i s t he pat h m ade b y a po i n t W
.
i n a l i ne u n wrapped from t he ba se c i rc le of t hat whee l The prolon ga

t i on of t h e ou tl i ne i ns i de t he base c i rc le t o dept h o f t oot h i s a radi al l i ne
.
Di am of b ase o f p i tc h c i rcle
.
I n vol u te rac k tee t h

have st ra i ght out l i nes w h i c h m ake an angle o f 7 5 w i t h t he p i tc h l i n e
. .
C i r c l a r P i h (p ) i s t he d i stan ce on t he p i tc h lin e bet ween t he cen te rs

u tc
.
of t wo su ccess i ve t eet
teet h No of
D i a m e t r a l P i tc h (pd t he n um be r of tee t h pe r i n c h di amete r
.
f
p i t c h c i rc le = w
or o
Use d l rgely i n c ut gea ri n g

7
= § —
d i am c i rc ular p i tc h
' a .
P r o p o r t i on o f T e e t h I f d i am f roll i n g c i rc le f gene rat i n g ep i

.
s
'
o or
c yc lo i dal tee th i s t aken eq u l t o 1 7 5 X i p i t ch t he t oot h out l i ne
. .
l a c r cu ar
from p i t c h c i rc le t o bot t om f t oot h i n a p i n i on f 1 1 t eet h w i ll be a r ad i al
.
,
o o
l ne
i A dden d um (or rad i al he ig ht f t oot h outs i de o
D eden d um ( rad al dept h of t oot h i n s i de p i t c h
.
or i hen ce
p i t c h c i rcle = — p
t t al len gt h of t t h = 0 7 p
o Thi c k ess f t oot h
oo .
;g n o on
§é
2 l —1 9
space bet ween t ee t h = p bac k l ash = -
clearan e c
—0 3)
p .
The forego i n g f o r c ast w hee ls . For c u t gears sub
st it u t e an d respect i vely for t he
fl
,
ab ove coe i me n t s of 7) (Sellers )

Di a m e t r a lP i h F r m u l a s f o r S m a l l G e r s ( B rown
tc o a
.
Sha rpe
M fg Let P = di a me t r al p i tc h ; D d = p i t ch c i rc le d i amete rs :
’ ’
D of ee t h ; V v = v el oci t y rat i os t
.
,
= n = mos
.
d
.
0 u t snde d i amete rs ; N
(cap i t als f o r gear an d sm a l l let te rs for p in i on en gagi n g w i t h same ) ; a = d i s
, , .
,
b
~
t an ce e t wee n cen ters of w h ee ls ; b = n o of tee t h in bot h wheels Then . .

,
'
D +d b 1 1 1) bv N V bV PD V
’
b = 2a P °
a ' N n
2
’
2P V v+ V v+ V v
NV P 2a ( n + 2
; D = '
50 E N ERG Y AND T H E T R A N sM i ssi o N or PO W ER .
i
Fo r a s n gle wheel (in ad d t on t o f o re gf i in g lette r n g ) let t = t hick n ess ii i
i i
,
o f toot h or c ut te r on tc h c rcle ; D = wo r k i n g dept h o f t oot h ; a ad de n

” ‘
a
d um ; l = mo u n t d ed t o t o o t h dept h for clearan ce ; D + I = a
=t ot al dep t h
of t oot h P — C i rc ul ar p Then , P= —
’
I) D P
,
=D ’+ 2s ; N = PD = PD
’
—2 ;
t l
( “
fo ' 0 3 1 83 P
.
-
N
—
N +2
,
g
P ( 1+
20
0 3 6 85 P
’
v a r i n g is
u sed t o con nec t sh aft s wh ose d i rect i on s m ee t at
. .
B e el G e
an y an gle The p i tc h su rface o f each gear i s t he frust um o f a con e bot h
cones hav i n g a common vertex
. .
The teet h have t he ir s u rfaces generated

by t he m ot i on of a st ra i gh t li ne t ravers i n g t he ve r t e x w h ile a po i n t in
.
t he l i n e i s carri ed roun d t he t races of t he t ee t h on a c on i cal su rf ace w hi c h

surface i s gene rated by a li n e dra wn from t he ex t rem i t y of larger d i ame te r
,
of p i t ch su rface frust m t o t he ax i s an d pe rpen d i c ul ar t o an elemen t in u

t he p i tc h surface
a a
.
S p i r l G e r s are used t o c on n ec t n on paral lel sh aft s w hi ch d o n ot

i n te rsect Let a = a n gle of i n cl i n at i on of a es an d r v n R N t an d T
-
x
be respect i vely the p i tc h an gle cir cu mf veloc i t y re vol ut i on s r di us a
.
, , , , , , ,
n o of t ee th c i rc umferen t i al p i tch an d n ormal p i t c h of whee l A an d

, .
, , .
s i m i lar values for w heel B

.
, . ,
7 1 vi n 1 et c
i R
. , , .
, .
=
s n r n] sin r N
Th en r l-
n t a 1 80 0
an d -
when ce - -
sm n R , 8 m 71
o
1) n N1
sin an d T 1 = t 1 s i n
.
T =t r n . an d as T m ust e qu al T 1 ,
=
22 For mi i n
m um sli d i n g make = The pos i t i on of t he co i i mon t an gen t at p oi n t
g—
r n .
l
con t act of t he p i tc h c yl i n de rs i s dete rmi ned from "
C Ot r 7
of
‘
RI C ot
n
-
A lso , co t 7
+ c os a
= 90° ,
re i s (7 00 f “119 W “ .
For a cot r or t an r
revs (n l ) of d ri ve r
, , .
n
W o rm G e a r in g an
.
= N =1
°
. I n t h i s cas e a 90 d t he t eet h , of B a re
n
i n cli ed at an an gle r t o t he edge of w h eel , an d t an
G e r Te e h (W i l fred Le vvi s)
S t r e n gt h f Load in lbs t ran sm i t ted a t
7:
o
by t ee t h W fp by w here b = w i d t h of t oot h face an d y = a fact or depen d
. .
”
= , , ,
i n g on t he n o of teet h (n ) an d t he c u rve em ployed . .
obl i qu i t y = 0 1 54 0 912
y, f or i n vol ute tee t h , 20 °
.
(an d ep c yclo dal ) = 0 1 24 i i .

0 684
t ee t h w i t h rad i l a fl k = o 075 O 2
an s .
——
Sa f e W o k in g St r e s s f r , , in l bs .
p er sq . in.
S pee d of t eet h i n
fee t pe r min 1 00 2 50 500 .
Stee l f=
z
,
B ron e f =
a
,
C s t I ron f = ,
A pp r x i m e S r e goh Safe lo d W i n atlb s = 3 00bp

”
for C It n t a
i s t o be p rov i d ed f o r L i n eh am )
.
, . . .
”
( 1 20 bp i f sh oc k
hide aw An c
, .
W i n lbs 57 t o l l 4 X bp
.
R = "
( I n g Tasc hen bu h )
n
Ame ri ca gear mak er howe ver st ates t hat rawh i de h s t he s me st re gt h a a n
. . . .
a
~
, ,
s c ast i ron .
B e el v W h e el s . W = Ip by
52 E N ER G Y AND T H E T R A N S M I SS I O N or PO W ER
belt s For d ouble be l ts d i v i de by i n stead o f

S g f B e l s a d P r pe r D i s
a o t n o tanc tw n a a
.
e be e e S h ft s (S g in in = a ; . .
Len gth i n
N arrow belts ove r sma l l p ul leys L = I 5 ft s = l 5 t o 2 in ; w i de r belts
to 4 in ; m a i n be lts over very
, . .
ove r l arger pu lleys L = 2 O t o 2 5 f t

large p ulleys L = 2 5 t o 3 0 f t a = 4 t o 5 i n
, .
n t o t
, .
, .
Le g h f B el s O pen be lt : .
Crossed be l t
2
: cos 3 ; w here L = l en g t h of be lt -
7t
in i n R an d R , = radi i o f la er an d smaller p ulleys res e ct i ve l = an

i t an d cen te r l i ne of g ff
a i
,
be t ween st raigh t p rt of
deg ree s > ) = dist a n ce be t ween cen te rs of
. .
C i rcul ar
§ n i n meas u re l ,
p u ll eys i n i n
one P l l e s (ope n bel ts ) — To secu re u n i fo rm tens i o n t h e lengt h o f
u y
.
C
the b el t m us t b e exac tly t h e sam e fo r eac h pa i r of pu ll e s i n the se t y
.
Le t
B i = d i m o f sma l ler pu l ley of a
a a i r D 2 = l arge r u i e y n = D 2/ D i l
.
d i s tan ce between pu lley cen te rs (a l i n i n ches ) an m = 1 58 1 1 4 t — l ) o i n

. . r
, , ,
wh i ch B o = d i am of eq ual pu ll eys (g i v i ng speed ra t i o u = 1 )

, .
,
. Then (0 1 + .
.
Set tle o n values of I D o a nd n su b st t u t e t ese

i n eq ua t i o n a n d sol ve for D 1 ; the d i am o f co rres o nd i ng p u l iey D z = n 1 i
, , , . -.
Th e values th us ob ta i ned are correc t to the f o u rt dec i m al plac e - far b e

. . .
o nd the accu racy requ i red i n co ns t r c t i o n Th i s equat i o n i s der i ved fro m u

fir u rmeste r s g raph i cal m eth od g i ve n i n h is Lehrbu ch der M ech an i k
.
“
B "
’
Le t n an d m be t he lowest an d hi ghest respect i ve spee ds f o r an y set

.
.
of c one p ul leys an d :c t he n um be r of speed chan ges ; t hen t he speed rat i o

, ,
l
— i
success i ve spee ds i i
.
be t ween an y t wo , a =
V n
(geo me t r c rat o ) . If a
bac k ge ar i s used t he n um be r of spee d
- is doubled an d t he speed c ha n ges
rat i o o f t he bac k —gear c orrespon ds t o t he term o f t he se r i es h e re i t i s W
i n t rod uced
Pri i pl e in B el D r i i g
nc The ad van c i n g s i de o f be l t m us t m ove
t vn
.
at r i ght angles t oward t he s h aft i t approaches w h i le t he ret reat in g s i de

.
m ay make an y de v i at i on
,
L i g
ac n Pun c h b + 1 holes i n eac h en d of be lt arran ge d z i g z g i n a
.
The edges of holes should be 4 i n from s i d es an d i i n from

. ,
t wo rows . . .
en ds — rows at le as t 1 in apart Lacin g shoul d n ot be c rosse d on t he

s i de run n i n g on p l ley u
. .
,
( b = W i dt h i n i n )
nt t
. .
C eme e d B el s ( Form ul a for c an vas an d leat her )

G utta perc ha 1 6 part s ; I n d i a rubbe r 4 ; p i tc h 2 ; shell ac 1 ; l i n seed
. .
2 ; m elt an d t ho rough ly m i x
, , , ,
oil
at el D res i n g t wi t h t he d d i a
. .
Le h er - B s Use t allow for d ry belts —

t i on of a l i t t le res in for wet or d am p places
. .
For h ard d ry be lts a pl y

neats foot o i l an d a l i t t le res in O i l d r i pp i n gs dest roy t he st ren gt fi of
.
,
u
.
leat he r Le at he r sho l d n ot be exposed t o a tem pe rat ure m uc h above

.
1 10 F
°
P UL L E Y S
.
D i n
j
( e s g of ) r = r ad i u s of p ul ley ; b = w id t h o f ri m = i i t o H X W i dt I
t = t h ick n e ss of r i m at cen te r
. .
o i belt ; to t 1 = t hi ck n ess of ,
h ub = 0 7 5 h t o h ; l = l en gt h of h ub = b ; n = n u mbe r o f arm s ; h = W i dt h
, .
.
r
o f a rm at cen te r of h ub ; hl = widt h o f arm at r i m = O 8 h ; n = 2 5 + . . .
b r
in Th i c kness of a rm s at h ub an d mm an d [a r espe c
4 l on 2
.
2
t i ve l y (The above for arms of oval cross sect i on ) Pul leys wi t h m ore -
t han on e set of a rm s m ay be con s i dered as se arate pu lleys com b in ed

. .
wi t h d i men s i on s for eac h as ab ov e e x ce p t in g t at a rm propo rt i on s n eed

.
be but from 7 0 t o 80 % of t he val ues g i ven Cro wn i n g ; ri se at ente r c

,
o f ri m = 0 05 b
Fri i ct on a n
. .
G e ri g P = t o t al pressure forc in g wheels t oget her at

l i ne of c on t ac t ; F n = t ract i ve force t o overc ome fri c t i on ; c = coe ffi cien t
.
of f ri ct i on = o i 5 t o 0 2 0 met al on me t al ; to wood on met al ;

leat her on i ron ;
. .
, ,
wood on c om pressed pape r .

RO P "
T RA N S MI S S I O N .
R u = aP ; Tran sm i t s powe r W i t hou t j ar but is

li m i ted ve ry l i g a t load s
,
to .
T R A N SM I SS I ON RO PE .
W i re R ope Used whe re belt i n g i s i mp ract i cable for span s of 7 0 t o

R opes use d are 0 st rand 7 t o 1 9 w i res pe r st ran d
. .
4 00 feet The sheave

u
. , .
p l leys have a deep V groove wi t h a ro u nded bott om of al t ern at im leat he r -
an d rubber bloc ks T u e m i n i m um d i amete rs of sheaves for o t a in i n g

m x i m um work i n g t ens i on i n rope w i t hout ove rst ra i n in g by ben d i n g
a
.
a re l 50d 1 1 5d an d 90 d f o r rope s of 7 1 2 an d 1 9 w i res pe r st ran d re spec

i i
, , , , ,
t iv e l y whe re =
d d i a m of rope n n A ct ual H P t r a n s mi t t e d = 3 1.d 2v . . . .
whe re sheave d i ams are Prope r de flect i on in feet

,
above val ues . .
0 0000695 ( sp a n i n f eet ) ?
f t pe r mm (v= f t per sec )

.
Speeds from to . . . .
M il R opean a .
}
4
f i i 1 It It It 1? 2 21 21 ‘
1 15 20 30 34 42 50 70 1 12 1 30 1 70 1 92
Ult i mate st ren gt h i n l b s .
= 9 , 000d2 Safe ten s i on , Tn on d r i vi n g s i de =
Cen t r i fugal f or ce , F where w = we igh t of 1 ft rope . .
H P t ran
. .
p ul ley B est econ o mi cal spee d = 5 000 ft per m i n A dd 2 50 ft of rope

t o calc ulat i ons t o p ro v i de fo r t i ghtener S heave d i men s i on s : p i tc h
. .
. , .
i
.
di a m = 40 d t o 80 d ; out s de d i am =
p i t ch in cente r t o
center o f groo ve s 1 5d ; cen te r o f groo ve t o edge d + 1 3 in
.
. .
.
,
= = 1
o D r i i g R p e t ran sm i ts about i more p owe r t h an M an i la

ott n vn o
. .
C
rope f o r t he same d i am S i des of p ul le y groo ve are i nc l i ned at dis
t an ce from cen te r t o cen te r of g roov es = l 5d ; w i d t h of groove at out
.
s i de d i m The bot t om of groo ve i s roun ded w i t h c i rcle of d i am

a
.
1 2 5d . . . .
0 6 6d
. .
l
UM e
(in i n c hes ) s obt a n ed fro m t he foll o wi n g form ula : T n
Sag , s i + ws i ,
T u —F
for d r v n g s de also t n i i i we w here L = l en gt h of
,
g ,
span in fee t .
F R I C TI O N .
The t ract i ve force n ecessary t o overcome fr i ct i on et ween t he su rf es b ac

of sol i ds de pe nd s ( 1 ) d i rec t ly on t he p ressu re be twee n t he s rfaces i n u
c on t ac t ; (2 ) is i n dependen t of t he area o f t he s u rfaces i n c on t act bu t
i nc rease s i n proport i on t o t he n um be r o f pa i rs o f surfaces ; (3 ) i s i nde pen d
,
en t (at low speeds ) of t he relat i ve veloc i t y o f t he su rfaces ; (4 ) t he t rac

t i ve fo rce depends on t he c oe ffi c i en t of fr i c t i on p f or t he part i c lar u
mater i als e mployed
, ,
Trac t i ve force F n = ; 1 P
.
, .
C e ffi i e s f F r i i n , p , f o r P l
o c nt o e Sl i d i g S r f e s (Mo rin ) ct o an n u ac .
(For l ow speed s an d l i gh t l oads on ly ) .
Lub ri cat i on .
Pol
D ry W ater Oli ve Tal D ry 1shed “
. .
oi l .
Lard .
low . Soap an d .
greas y .
W ood on w ood
Met al on w od o 12 12 1
H o
. .
em on w o d
Le t er on w d a oo
St one on w o d o
St one on st one
St one on
M et l on met al a
L
ea t he r on ron i
54 E N ERG Y A ND T HE T RA N S M I S S I O N or PO WER .
V al ues of p o
f r S tat i c Fri ct i on ( B roomall ) .
D ry . We t . D ry . W et .
23 . 4 54
. 3 65 . 47
. 4 74
= t an gen t of t he an gle o f fr ct on , i e , t he g rea t est nc l nat o n p ssi ble i i . . i i i o

fore shdmg oc c urs
.
u ia i i i i i
.
I f s u rf aces are t horo g h ly l ub r c ted t he fr c t on s ne t he r so l d n or

fl ui d but part akes of t he at u re o f bo th n
o a i on o i an ui ct i on i i i i
.
C mp r s of S l d d Fl d F ri So l d f r ct on var es
i i
.
d rect ly as t he p ressure an d is n de pen den t of t he area of su rf ace an d o f

i
veloc t y (when low ) Fl ui d fr i ct on s in depe n den t o f t he press u re va r es i i i
i i v
.
,
d rec t ly as t he area of wetted s u rface d re c t l y as (at ve ry slow speeds ) ,

ii i ii
,
as v2 (at moderate veloc t es ) an d as v3 (at h gh vel oc t es ) For l ow

i u
.
speeds M or n s t able m ay be se d
’
Fo r flat su rfaces 4 0 0 t o ft pe r
i
.
, .
mi n C I on C I , l ubr cated u = 0 23 , at a p ressure of 50 lbs pe r sq in

.
, . . . .
, . . .
i ct i on o J ou na a in
.
Fr f r l Be r g s ( B eauc hamp Towe r ) -i-

p,
i i in
.
w he re v = li n e a r veloc t y in ft pe r sec , an d p = p ressu r e n lbs pe r sq

j o urn al
. . . . .
of t he projected area of ( Projected

of c vary acc ord i n g t o t he l ubri can t em ployed v i z : O l i ve o il
.
V al ues -
spe rm o i l
, .
,
l ard oil m i neral grease

-
ra 0 11 - -
m i neral oil These values are for t horough bat h i n ri c a

, , , ,
t i on To avo i d se i z i n g 17 sho u ld n ot e xceed 600 lb s pe r sq i n

,
A rough ly acc urat e e xp ress i on for t h e coeffi c i ent of fr i ct i on for mach i n ery
. . .
.
,
o il ,
ded uced from t he experi m en t s of Tower a n d O sborn e R eyn olds i s ,
(for speeds over 2 0 ft per .
—2 0p w here v= su rface speed i n ft per m i n

excess o f o il t em perat ure a bove 60 F an d p = bea ri n g p ressu re
. .
, ,
0 = °
i n lbs per sq i n
.
,
. . .
The p roper len gt h for a l ubr i cat ed bear i ng i n wh i ch t h e bear i n g pressu re

sh a l l b e les s t ha n th at req u i red t o sq ueez e o u t th e o i l fi lm i s l = P 4 Cd (d N ) i .
where l i s len gt h i n i n d = d i am i n i n P ==t otal load on b ea ri n i n l bs

an d N = r m — (J T Ni col son a n d D empst er Sm i t h i n T he g
. . .
, . ,
y n i ne er
. . . .
a .
, ,
London ov 23 06 a nd Feb 8
’
The foll owi n g res l ts we re obt in ed by Prof A L W il l i st on (E W u a

. .
, , , ,
. . . . .
B — 3 18
p (averag e ) . Pressur e pe r Sq I n . .
H yat t R oller B e rin g a 01 18 80 t o 3 4 5 lbs

C I B eari n g
.
. . . . 0 608 80 t o 2 50
B ron ze B earin g . 1 12 80 t o 1 4 5
a ns
The be ri g we re all 1 } in in lub ri cate d i t h m dera te l w o y
heavy mac hi n e O i l of g d qu l i t y oo a z
. .
,
The C I an d bron e he ar in gs we re
‘
reamed t o S i e an d l ppe d to i n s u re pe rfec t s rf ce an d hi gh p oli sh

z a u a
. . .
p at
st art i ng for t he H at t be ri ng was fo n d t o be
a u
.
= o o3 é
F r i ct on of C r B e r i gs
a n o a
For p = 1 5 t o 90 l bs v = 5 t 1 5 f t . .
, o .
,
y
F r i ct i on L o J ou na l s an d C o l l a r (R = t id me an ra d i us
.
i ss n r s ou s e or
l an d col l a r respe t i vely ) W ork lost i n f t l b pe r min
'
for ou rn a c -
s
d i n horse power
.
, , . . .
F = P X 2 RN or
W o k L o s t i P i v ot g i t i = (0 5 t o
a p 7r , , ex re sse -
,
r i n r c on . n ft .
- l bs .
L U B R I C A TI O N .
Spon gy met als li k e C I brasses an d w h i t me tal al lo y n c

)
lesse t ri e- s.
t i on al res i st an ce t o a con s i derable degree bu t the u se of un gu en ts is u c ea c
. .
, ,
Lubr i c an ts a re soli d as
,
sa ry f or ood resul ts aphi t e ; se mi s o li d as

a q i d as o i ls u l bri can t s for t he u
.
, .
gre se s ; The fo l lowi n g are t he

'
st
p urposes in d i c ated :
.
,
Low tem pe rat ur es : li ght m i ne ral lub ri cat in g o i ls

I n ten se p re ss res : graph i te or soapstone u
.
.
H eavy press res at slow speeds : graphi te t ll ow u a

.
Heavy p ressures at h i gh speeds : spe rm c as t or or heavy mi ne r l i ls a o

, .
, , .
LU B R I C A T I O N .
I ight pressu res at h gh sp eeds : sp erm o l ve

l i , i , rape or refi ned pet role u m ,
oil 5
in ary m ac hi nery lard o i l t allow il heavy m i n eral oi l
.
O rd : - -
o
Steam c yl i n de rs heavy m i ne ral o i ls lard t l low
, , .
: a
Del i cate mec han i sms c larifi ed sperm porpoi se ol i ve an d li gh t m in eral
, , .
:
l ub ri ca t i n g o i ls
, ,
M et al on wood be ari n gs wat r

.
E s s e nt i a l P r o p e rt i e s o f G o o d L u b r i c ant s ( 1 ) B od y or v i scos i t y
. .
suffi c i en t t o pre ven t con t act (2 ) Freed om from corros i ve

.
f
surfaces o
ac i ds (3 ) A m uc h fl u i d i t y i c on s i ste nt w i t h bod y
.
s (4 ) Low ffi as s coe
c i ent of fri ct i on (5 ) Hi gh flash an d burn i n g po in ts
. .
e (6 ) Freedo m
f rom su bst an ce lik el y t cau e um mi n g oxi dat i on
. .
s o s g or
S pe c i fi c G r a v i t i e o f L u b r i cant Pet roleu m spe rm o i l
.
s s. -
ol i ve an d lard o i ls
, ,
c astor il - -
o
F l a s h i n g n d B u n i n g P o i nt
, ,
a S pe rm il fl as h s at 4 00 F an d
r s. -
o e
°
.
burn s at 500 F ; lard il fl a hes at 4 7 5 F an d burn s at 52 5 F

° -
o s
° °
T orough lubri c at i on (preferably t he o i l bat h ) i s essen t i al i n orde r t

. . .
h -
o
obta i n t he best re ul t s an d t o pre ven t se i z ing s
G ra ph i t e L u b r i can t Fol i ated t h i n fl ake graph i te when
, .
as a or
appl i ed as a lubri c an t m ater i all y red uces fr i ct i on an d p se i z i n g
.
t i e v en s
an d i n j uri ous heat in g of bear i n gs I t may be appl i ed d ry t surf a es o c
w h ere p ess ures are l i ght m i xed w i t h il grease (3 t 8 % graph i te
.
r or o or o
by we i ght ) for heavy p ressures I t m ay also be used t o ad van t age i n
, ,
i n steam g en g i e an d a i r com
.
t he p resence of hig h tem perat u es r as a s- n -
c yl i n ders an d also i n mmon i a compre sor an d p mm g en g nes

, , ,
re sso r u n i
B
-
a s s
vate r of con den sat i on often su ffi ces for a m i xi n g lubr i c an t
.
,
G raph i te fil ls up t he mi n ute depress i on s an d pores i n metal s rf ces

.
u a
b ri n g i n g t he m m uc h neare r t a pe rfect l y smoot h cond i t i on so t hat a
,
o
cons i derably t h i n ner fi l m of il (wh i c h m ay h ave a greate r fl ui d i t y t han o
usual ) w i ll be s ffi c i en t u
f c ar ax le fr i ct i on by Prof G oss (beari n g pre sure 2 00 l bs pe r
.
A test o -
s
sq i ) gave the foll ow i n g res ul ts
. .
n
Spe rm o i l on ly 9 d rops pe r mi r i se i n tem p pe r ho u r = 2 6 F ; p = 0 2 8 4
. .
°
-
n
Spe rm il w i t h
. .
, .
, .
-
o
4 % of graphi te 28 F ; = 0 2 1 5 °
y
Dix on Cruc i ble C )
. .
,
(From catalogues of t he J os o
P o w e r M e a s u r e m e nt Powe r i s meas ured by d yn amomete rs w h i c h
. .
e i t he r absorb or t ran sm i t t he powe r un d i m i n i shed T h P r o n y B rak e i

. ,
e s
t he t y p i c l form f absorpt i on d yn amometer an d cons i st s of a ho ri zon t al
.
a o
le ver con ec ted t o a re vol vi n g shaft n p ul le y i n suc h a man ner t h t t he or a
fri ct i on bet ween t he s rfaces i n c on tact t en ds t o rot ate t he lever arm i n u -
t he d i rec t i n f t he shaft rotat i on o o Th i s ten den c y i s res i sted by we i ght s

on t he lever arm an d t he we i ght t hat w i l l j ust pre ven t rot at i on i s as er
.
-
o
Let P = W igh t i n lbs le ver L = l g t h f leve r i n fee t f ro m
~
,
t in d
a e e on en o
cen ter of sh af t t o po i n t f appl i cat i on of we i gh t V = l i t y
. .
,
ft p o v e oc in er
f po i n t f appli cat i on of we i ght i f al lowed t o rotate at t he spee d f
.
,
o o o
an d W = wo r k of shaft or power absorbe d per mm
.
t he sh aft ,
.
2 7rN L P
Then W , P V — 2 7zLN P f t .
-
l bs .
, or H P , . .
__
C li n der y d P sto n -R o d L u b r i an i —P i n ts requ i red per hou r t cat on o

lub r i ca te cyl i n de rs = 0 0 00 1 1 5 5D N i n wh i c h D = d iam i n i ns and N
. .
Th i s fo r u la ho lds f o r bo th s i m p le a nd com pou nd eng i nes the

m
.
,
pm
. .
h igh press ure cy l i nder d i am e ter o f lat te r be i ng used i n calcula t i o n

. . .
,
-
For
tr i ple expa ns i o n eng i nes take mea n o f i n te rm ed i ate a nd h p cyl d i am e te rs
.
Fo r 4 cycl e gas e ng i nes m u l t i ply resu l t by a n d for a i r com pres so rs

, . . . .
b y P i s to n rods : P i n ts per hou r = 0 0009 58 d i n wh i ch S = sp ee d of

= su m of al l i n terna l gland d i ame te rs i n i nches
.
,
a i n ft per sec a nd d
1
}h is fo rmu la a p l ies t o the p i s to n rods o f s team eng i nes b low i ng e ng i nes
. .
.
i th i n ternally cooled p i s to n rods ) — L W e iss i n Z

W , ,
and gas eng i nes

a
. .
, .
lso i n I nd u st r ial E n gi n eeri n g M a r 1 9 1 0 , .

, .
H E AT AN D T HE S T E AM E NGI N E .
ll ei i t. m d in
t o t he d yn am i al t heor
m- o i s a m d e of mot i on o f t he c y o
molec ules of a su b i t s i n t en s i t be i n g proport i on al to t he amo t y un
.
st an ce
of mo t i on and i t s most read i l obse rved e ffec t be i n g t hat of t he expan s i on y

.
of t he su bs t an ce
sf e r o f H e
an Heat i ll p ss fr m the warme r of t wo bodi es
at w a o
.
Tr
nt i l t he i r tem pe rat u res be ome eq ual t he t ran sfe r be i n g
u c
.
t o t he colder
e ff ec t ed b rad i at i on cond uct i on or con vect i on
y
,
Ra d i i i s t he t ran sfe r of heat from one bod t o an ot he r ac ross

at on y
.
. .
an i n te rven i n g med i m whose tem pe r t u re i s n o t aff ected by t he t ran sfe r

u a
D ark rough su rfaces are t he best r d i at ors and are ad van t geous i n a a
a p arat us for hea t i n g wh i le l i ght
.
o l ishe d su rfaces are t he poo rest

el ti e R ad i i n g V a l e s
a v at pol i shed met als
u
.
, ,
a mp bl a ck 1 00 ;
c a s t i ron 26 : wro i i h t i ron 2 3 ; st ee l 1 8 ; brass 7 coppe r 5 ; s i l ve r 3
. ,
°
H at t t ou qua o u a
. , , , .
e b a i s R a l a ed p e r " r per S r e Eo o t f S r f c e ( for

1 F d i ff e rence i n t e mperat u re )
°
Pol i shed metals s i lver c oppe r
t in i n c an d brass z t i n ned i ron
.
. , .
sh ee t
i ron ord i n ary shee t i ron
, , ,
O ther ma t e r i a ls shee t lead

c as t i ron n ew
.
. .
gl ass d o rust ed w rough t

i ron p i pe wood st on e an d b ri ck
. , . .
. . sawd ust . water , . .
o il .
Co d i i s t he t ran sfer of heat by c on t t be t ween t he mole ul es
n uct on ac c
of a b d y or t he su rfaces of cont act of t wo d i st i n c t b d i es
o o
tv au r s. S i lver 1 00 ; c oppe r oo on ucto
.
R ela i e V l es of G d C d
i ron a , .
b ras s t in steel le d p lat in u m

b i smut h
. , . . ,
wate r
H e U n l is T r s m i ed pe r sq ft pe r h our for 1 F d i ff e ren ce i n
at an tt
. .
o
. .
, .
te m pe rat u re : coppe r 6 4 3 ; bras s 557 ; W I 374 ; C I 3 1 6 ( i sherwo d )

These v lues are for bri ght surfaces u p to i i n t h i ck
a
. . . . .
. .
For su rfaces c oated

w i t h gre ase o r sal i n e depos i ts con den se rs ) W h i tham states t hat t hese
. .
values should be m ul t i pl i ed by
R elat i e V l es o f Po o r C
v au d rs as H e I s l a o r s : M in on ucto at n u t
e ra l wool 1 00 : ha i r felt cot t on wool 8 2 ; shee p s wool an d in
-
a w d an d a i r sp ce oo a
, , . ,
f u so ri a l e rt h c harcoal . sawd ust , .

-
,
C o mpa r at i v e R a d i t i on f r m C o e red Pipes B are a o v i pe

ri ng of ni ag nesia + 7 % as best os pl a ste r of Pa ri s
.
,
co
(L3 v
e
, o a sbestos ,
R adi t ion
f r m B r e W I P i p e s i n B T U pe r sq ft pe r h ou r
a o a
pe r deg ree F d i fference of tem pe rat ure be t ween p i pe an d s urroun d i n g
. . . . . . .
,
°
med i um (t aken a t 70
R ad i at i on an d on ve t i on C c
De gs d i ff . . a
R di at on i .
10
50
1 00
1 50
t a
S e m-P i pe C e ri g s The fol low i ng fi gu res are for co ve ri n gs 1 i n
ov n
t h i ck a i n ) su bt rac t t he
.
.
( For eac h 15 i n d d i t i onal t h i c k nefi ( u p t o

pe rcen t ge g i ven ) a nder ve rag e c n d i t i ons (a i r at abou t
U a o
.
. .
. s t eam abo u t
M E A SU R E M E NT o rv H E A T . 57
lbs pressure ) sq ft of bare p i pe w i l l g i ve fl a b out pe r

”
1 00 .
1 . . o 3 B T U . . .
h ou n
B T U rad i ated pe r h ou r pe r sq ft o f s u rface f o r eac h deg F d i fference
i n t em perat u re bet wee n steam and ou tsi de ai r (a
. . . . .
. .
H a i r felt-
,
Re ma n i t (2 M an v il le sect i on l , a ,
best 0 5
.
M sg nesm A sbe stos sponge fel ted . , ,
A s best os ai r cell N avy asbestos -
A sbesto s fi re fel t
, ,
Co ver i n gs of 85 }, m agnes i a an d sol i d c ork cove ri n gs ( l i n t h i c k ) save

K
,
about 83 % of t he eat t h at would be rad i ated from a bare p i pe

.
R e ma n it
(carboni zed s i lk wrapped ) saves abou t
.
C o n e c i o n i s t he t ransfe r an d d i ff us i on o f heat i n a fl u i d eff ected by

v t ,
t he m ot i on of i ts part i cles W a t e r i n t he bot t om o f a ves se l o r a i r on t he

fl oo r of a roo m be i ng heated bec omes l i gh te r an d r i ses all ow i n g c olde r
.
,
fl ui d t o t ak e i ts place Con vect i on c u rre n ts be i ng t hus formed t h e heat

, . ,
i s d i st r i buted t h rough t he fl ui d
.
E p a n s i n resul t s from t he appl i c at i on of heat t o all bod i es

x o
.
( For
c oeffi c i en ts of li near expans i on see foot o f page
.
W ate r be twee n
3 2 and 3 9 1 F i s an e xcept i on t o t he gene ral law : i t c on t rac t s as t he
° °
tem pe rat ure i nc rease s Cast i ron b i sm ut h an d an t i mon y expan d w he n

.
.
soli d i fy i n g , wh i le gold s i lver an d c oppe r c ont rac t

. , ,
au f He r e i s a me asu r e of t h e i ntens i t
to at atu y
.
, ,
M e s r em e n T em pe r
of heat an d i s dete rm i ned by t he emp lo me n t of a t herm omete r or a y
.
p yr omete r
o t
.
Th e rm m e e rs The free z i n g and b o rl i n g p o mt s o f water (un de r -
atm ospher i c p ressure ) a re m arked on al l hermomete rs t he space bet wee n t

.
be i n g gr d uate d as fol lows

a
,
Syste m . Free z i n g po i n t -
. B o l ng po n t ii -
i .
F a h ren he i t (F )
Cen t i grad e (C )
.
R eaum ur .
° =
w hence F l 8 an d
P r o m e e r s are sed t o measure very h i g h tempe rat ures Le Ch a t el ier s
y t u
.
'
be i n g a t hermo elec t r i c c ouple of plat i n u m and plat i n um rhod i u m al loy

,
- -
em ployed i n c on nect i on w i t h a gal van omete r and cal i brated sc ale T he

h i gh tem pe rat ures o f fu rn es m ay be app rox i matel y asc erta i ned by ac
.
means of t he coppe r c yl i nde r p yrometer A small coppe r c yl i nde r of

we i gh t 11) (spec ifi c heat = 0 0 95 1 ) i s allowed t o at t a i n t he te m pe rat ure
.
t of t he fu rn ace and t he n pl un ged i n t o a k n own we i gh t w; of water wh ose

.
i n i t i al and fi nal tem perat ures re t i n d T respect i vel y Then a a

,
° °
. .
0 09 5 1 w
H e at Uni s The heat m ot i on in t ab t
.
od y de pen ds ou i t s mass hea

.
'
,
ca aci t y and tem pe rat ure

h e B r i i s h T h e rm l U i t is t he am oun t o f heat requ i red a nt
.
,
t o ra i se t he t em pe rature of o n e poun d f wate r t hrough on e degree o

Fah ren he i t t he wate r be i n g near t he tem pe rat ure of i t s greatest dens i t y
y
, ,
F O n e B T U = 778 f t l b s of energ -
T h e C a l ri e (met r i c system ) i s t he am oun t of h eat req ui red t o rai se

o
. . . . . .
on e k i logram of wa t e r o ne degree Ce nt i grade at o r near 4 C 1 B T U =

°
Calori e 1 Cal = 4 2 6 8 i logram mete rs = k

. . .
1 Cal = 3 968 B T U . . . . . . .
-
ft lb s -
c c H ea B od i es we igh t f or we ight vary in t he i r c apac i t i es

t
. .
Spe ifi
for absorb i n g heat I f t he heat absorb i ng c apac i t y of wate r i s t ake n
. , ,
the relat i ve c apac i t y of an ot her substan ce i s c alled i t s spec ifi c

.
a s u n i ty
‘
heat and is t he refore eq ual t o t he amoun t o f heat i n B T U req u i red t o

,
ra i se t he te mpe rat u re o f one pound o f t he s ubst an ce t h rough 1 F

. . .
,
Spe i c c H° e a s f V r i o s S° b t o a u u tanc
.
fi s es W ater at 3 9 1 °
F
wa t er at 2 12 F i ce at 3 2 F c ast i ron
. .
,
merc ury
w rought i ron
, ,
s t ee l c opper c oal , , . ,
t in lead gl ass brass c oal ashes

G ases (unde r c onstan t pressure ) c arbon i c ox i de c arbon i c ac i d
, , , , ,
ammon i a
, ,
ai r h yd rogen
x an n The volum e o f a gi ven aw
, , ,
E p s o
i o f G a se s M a r r i o t te s L
’
o on a v gas ari es i ve rse l y as i t s press u re if t he te m pe rat ure be con n

. .
p rt i of ,
58 i n| s i icA M
‘
i N Gi N E
'‘ ’
‘
.
a c on s t a n t
sl ant . l lo
1
1 l ’
and I l ’ '
v e
a c onst an t . The p ress u re
c u r ve of a g as expand ing acc ord i ng t o t h i s law is a rec t an g lar h ype rbo la u

a nd is called t he i s ot he rm l of t h e g as a
The i nc reas e i n vol me of a gi ven port i on of a u
.
G a y L u ssa c u L a w
0
'
-
a s t he i nc rease i n te m pe rat u re i f t he p ress ure be c on
y
.
( as vari e s d i rec t l
t he or i gi nal vol ume the i n c rease
' '
s t u nt and l g he res pec t iv
Le t V l
.
u e
i n vol me and t 0 ‘fi nal vol ume- and l t he r i se i n tem pe ra t ure =Then
, .
where ti coe ffi c ie n t of c ub i cal ex p n s i on ( c oe a

.
. .
and l , l a l
' '
l
of l i near e pan s i on x ir a
,
" - l al ° ' ’
l V+ l , l a for
00 203 0 1 ! for eac h degre e f

ou i f a gi ven vol ume of ai r at 3 2 F be red uced atu
.
A b s l t e T e m pe r
°
re
i n t em pe r t u re i ts volume w i ll t he o re t ical l
a
. .
°
4 0 l 13
b ec ome ze ro a nd i t s heat -m ot i on may be c ons i de red as h av i n g ce a sed
.
F be low t he melt i ng po i n t o f z
.
Fo r a pe rfect ‘ as absol u t e e ro is
i ce or rae t ically 4 01 F
-
— from wh i c h po i nt al l te m pe ra
. .
—
,
° °
2 73
n real i t al l gases l i quefy before re ac h i n g k y
.
, . ,
t ure s a mi ld be rec oned

A bsolute Tem pe rat ure
z
. ,
abso lu t e e ro of the rm ome te r

i n ( legs F
.
C o mb i na n an a aw n
. .
t i o o f M a rr i o t t e s
’
d G - L u ssa c s L’
s P V =a co
For l of a i r at 3
.
and P l r ; P V Rr °
F c u ft )
'
at an t at fl 1 2
unde r at m ospher i c pressure r sq i n
. . . .
,
lb s l b s pe r . . . .
sq . t an d as t = 4 93 °
.
, ,
R
L at e nt H e at c hang i n g from sol i d t o l i qui d an d from l i qui d t o in
gase ous st ates bod i es pas s t h rough c ri t i cal po i n ts c al led respec t i vel y
.
t he po i nt s of fus i on and o f e vaporat i on and at t hese po i nt s heat i s absorbed

,
The L ten t H e at
W a
,
t o pe rform t he ork of m olec u lar rearrangeme nt

o f a su b sta nce is t he q uant i t y of heat un i t s absorbed o r g i ve n ou t i n c hang
.
i ng one poun d of the substance from one state t o an ot he r wi t hout alte ri n g

i ts t em pe rat ure
L te n H e
a t at o Fus i on I ce u tan c
.
f S bs e s i n B T U p er L b
t o 1 44 ; i ron E vaporat i on : W ater
. . . . ,
to lead
a m mon i a 5 29 ; b is u l h i de of carbon 1 6 2 8 0 2 1 64
, , ,
atu a on an oili g P i s Sat u rat i on i s sa i d t o occ r w hen n o nt u

.
. , ,
S r ti d
B o i li n g oc c u rs
.
all t he laten t heat re u ired for steam has been t aken u p

when t he tens i on i n t e water overc omes the su rroun d i n g pressure D ry
.
sat u rated ste am i s t hat w h i c h has a s cifi c volume t em pe rat u re an d

.
p re l
ss ure c orrespond i n g t o i t s c omp e t e o r ma t i on W e t sat urate d s tea m
i s t hat i n process of format i on an d i n c on t ac t w i t h t he wate r from w hi c h
.
i t i s gene rated Supe rheated ste am i s t hat wh i c h h as it s te m pe rat u re .
ra i sed above t hat of t he format i on p o i n t

.
S pec ifi c v ol u me = N o o f c u ft pe r lb Spe c i fi c den sit y = N o of l b s

.
. . . . . .
pe r c u ft
M o i s r e i n S e m is mea su red by a c alo ri mete r an d t he pe rcen t ge
tu t a a
. .
heat pe r l o f steam at t he p ressure of t h e supply p i pe

b H 1 = t o t al he a -
t
e r l b at t he p ress ure of t he d i sc harge s i de of calori mete r
. .
k =s
K .
eat of supe rhe ted ste m T

st eam i n t he calori mete r an d t
° =
° =
a
t e mpe ra t u re of t he t h rot tled supe r
t e mpe ra t u re d ue t o t he p ress re o
ific
a t ed a ,
,
u n
t he d i sc harge s i de (P 2 1 2 F a t at m os p ress u re an d
,
= °
A l l but 4 t o 1 % of t he m o i st ure i n steam may be rem oved by t he use

. .
of a se pa rat or i n wh i c h appara tus t he d i rect i on of steam fl ow meet s w i t h

a bru pt c hanges an d t he wate r part i les by reas on of t he i r m omen t m re c u a
,
t h rown o u t of t he pat h of fl ow
li ua ty o u at t a
.
T he Q f S p e r h e e d S e m ( or t he pe rcent age of heat in

x—
e ce ss of t h t d e t o the p ress ure ) a u ° =
where ,
L laten t heat of 1 lb o ste am at t e obse rved p ressu re T

f h ob se r ved
t a
.
.
e m pe r t ure an d d ue t o pressu re
u re R el i atu at on o atu at a o
.
,
P r e s s re a n d T e m pe r s f S r ed V p r Log .
p - a + b a
"
+ fl ( R e gn aul t )
c
"
.
° ° ° ° ° °
32 t o 2 1 2 F 2 1 2 t o 4 28 32 to 2 12 °
2 1 2 t o 4 28°
.
a 3 02 5 908
~ . log a = 9 998 1 8 1 1 0 —1 0 -
l og fl= 0 003 8 1 3 4
.
l og h
— —
.
log e 1 0 1 0 t
° -
2l 2
H EA T AND T HE ST E AM E NG I N E .
l ’
r o pe r l l e s 0 ! Sa t u a t e d Ste a m
r .
p (a bs ) .
I 0
‘ F .
i H .
SP E CIFI C H EA T AT CON S TA N T V O L U M E . 61
e c i fi ch e a t at c on t a n t v o l u m e ) i l ess no ext e rnal work

B gU
T he sp s ov s
b performed and e q ual to
e in g 18
,
E xp r esse d i fo t po u nds an d usi ng cap i t l s f sym bo l s

, . . .
n o , a or ,
K = ft l bs an d K = 1 3 1 42 ft p .
-
. 1 . .
The spec i fi c heat of a = at c o—nstant i s th e sam e at a l l te m re ssur e
p t
er a u re s E xt e rn l w P ( V V ) = a or
Total h t = K ( — ) ; I nte rnal w k = (K —R ) ( — )
.
1
ea p f1 r or r1 r
W hen a gas i s hea te d at constant volume onl y in te rnal work i done

p .
s
consequently K f t lbs -
,
S p e c i fi c H e a t f S u p e h e a t e d S t e a m at constant pr ssu e i s
p . .
Th e o r e r
us all y taken
u Gr i ndl ey states th t i t averages from
as a
(be tween 2 30 and 24 6 F ) to 0 64 82 ( between 2 95 and 3 1 1 F A ssum

° ° ° °
i g a stra i ght l i n e equat i on be tween these val ues Spec i fi c H eat f super
. . .
n o
hea t ed steam k (at
.
0
V I —2 6— g ves v .
,
G i m
r ess ( Z D 1 2 an 0 3 ) i k = 0 3 7 5 4 0 00 2 083 t
( - °
Prof C ones (R 0 4 ) gi ves k = 0 00 1 5 2 5 p where p =

. . . p .
—
.
R J R 7 1 6 — -
absolu t e re su e i n lbs pe r sq in H L orenz

. . .
, p .
,
N 32 0 4 ) o -
employs tpe foll ow i ng formul a where k vari es as the pressure and i nversely
s r . . . . .
, p
as the cube f the absolut e t e mperat r e k = 0 4 3

o (p i n lbs u : ,D .
.
pe r sq i n Fahrenhe i t )
B y maki ng fa i r suppos i t i ons as t the temperatu es i nvo l ved in J on es
. . .
’
o r
exper i ments hi results agree fai rly we l l wi th those of L orenz F l w
s or o
press res the value f R gnault seems corroborated by these
.
,
u o e
i nvest i gators whi le for pressu es aro u nd 1 2 0 lbs a val ue f may be r o
taken
.
,
K f supe rheate d —steam when 3 73 83 ft 1b and

.
or ( k = o -
s
K = 2 88 05 ft lbs K K = 85 7 8 ft lbs and K The tota
, p . . . .
,
v - K =1 3 l 17 : v
heat f supe rheated t m H = H + k (t — t ) where H i s the heat at tem
. . .
p . . .
p . .
o s ea
steam at sat rat on and s the temp e rature atta n e d
, 1 p 8 ,
p t
e r a ur e t f th o i t ei i u
in upe rheat i ng
s
s
E xpa io C u ve A di aba t i c a n d I ot h e m al The area A
.
ns n r s. s s r s.
i ncluded by the ord inates P and P the ax i s f absc i ssas and the curve o
f form ul a P V = P V = C i s
I ,
o A = P V l g (V V) = R l g ( V V) = : o e 1 + T o e
R log r where f expans i on Wh en the curve i s of the form

1 1 1
t e = ti r ra o o
—K ) f the
, .
A = (P V b ii o su
stance employed in the exp ns i on a
W hen a g expands aga i nst a res i stance i t pe rforms work wh i ch req u i re s
.
as
an expend i ture f heat If the gas i tself yi elds th i s supply f heat i ts
o o
te mpe rature i s = lowered and the expans i on i s called ad i abat i c and p
.
re re
sen t ed by P V C If the heat requi red duri ng the expans i on be sup
"
"
p l i ed from external source the temperature f the ex p and i ng gas rema i ns

.
an o
constant and the expans i on i s t e rmed i sothermal
Var i ou E x p a s i o n C r v e Isothermal f a perf ect gas P V = C
s n u s. o : .
A di abat i c f a pe rfect gas P V r=

o C (r 1 3 for superheated steam and
= :
a i r— sual ly taken as E xpans i on f d y saturate d steam
. .
f or u o r ,
I
w i thout becomi ng e i ther wet or superheate d p V = 4 75 (R anki ne ) :

13
or
3 89 (Fa i rb i rn ) A d i abat i c saturated steam
,
f a o :
V = C where fract i on the d yness fract i on
.
"
r
gi the we i ght f the s t eam after the water part i cles are subtracted
, ,
e n o
d i vi ed by the we i ght f both steam and water part i cles
,
= f o n or
i ni t i all y dr steam (Ze uner ) and steam cont i n i ng 2 5 % f
.
= f n or a o
mo i sture R k i )
F
an ne
( For add i t i onal relat i ons be twee n p and see Compresse d Ai r )
.
, v, r .
0
Lt
S p e c ifi c V o l u me f D y S a t a t e d St e a m V = + v Take o r ur . .
t at fi d the i r from tables = f 1 lb

°
f p n p f
nc ea se o l re ssur e or v vo o
f wat r i n cu ft t heat at F (absolute ) i n f t lbs
. .
o e L=l t a en 1
° -
Vol u m e o f S u p e r h e a t e d S t e a m I f greater than that f saturate d

. . . . . . .
o
steam P Vm ( Peabody )
.
Q7 I P - O 25
p
—fi
, . .
T h e m al E ffi ci e n c y o f H e a t E n g i e E fii i y =
r whe re i n s. c en c
t
r s
the absolute tempe rature at wh i ch the heat i s rece i ved (whi ch shoul d be
a s near to that f the furnace g explos i on a po s i ble ) an d 1 the o or as s s , 1
62 ne w AND T HE ST EA M E NG I NE .
ab w l u t e t mpe r ture of rej ect i o n of the heat i th at of t h conden se r

e a e e
or the atmo phe e i f 1 were ab o l u t e ero t he effi c i ency wo uld be t h
.
. .
,
s r s z e
m x imum at t ai nable l he d i ff e enc t herefore (
1
should be the
. .
'
a r e r
g ea t t po i ble w i th av i labl e t empe ra t ures

. . .
ss a
Ca u e f E n e g y L o s i n S t e a m E n g i n es S t eam not supplied
r es .
s s o r s 13
t em pe a t ure (the greatest cause of loss ) an d the te mpe a
.
a t t h f tm e t ace r r
ture of rejec t i o i h i gher t han that of the cool in g wate r the conde s r
.
n s in n e
S t e am i t compre ssed from the condenser t empe ra t ure to that of th e
.
n no
( mm
a only a m ll part be i ng c om pressed to the tempe ratu e correspo d
o. s a r n
i ng to bo iler press u re i f t h condensed steam t re turn ed to the e is no

bo l er a correspond i ng we i ght of feed water must be he ted to boder te m
.
i - a
p t
e ra u re i n it ial conden a t i on i n the c y li nder c us e s wa t e only a p or s a s
t ion of h t e m condensed be ing evaporat ed during th e stroke and
. ,
t e s a so re -
e x p nsi on i not ad i aba t i c cle aran ce i the cy l nder re qui res n
,
th e a s n i a
add i t i on l mount of s t e am for ea h stroke whi ch pe rforms no work dur
.
a a c
i g the full pre s u e peri od of t he stroke
n W ater s ti lr i n the ste m i ar c cs a
(due to bo i l er pri mi ng ) pass i nto the condenser wit out p f mmg w o k

.
e r or r
and al o ab tract he at from t h cyli nder i n the i r attempt to vapori e
s s e z
r mu t not be hi h eno u h to b urn the cyli nder lubri cant the p k mg
.
or ar
l i m i t e d by t ge tempe ra t ure of avai lable
s
and i s d mg wa te r con en s
i n compou d engin es Wire
r.
Rad i at i on leakag e of st am rece i ver dro
.
e n
d fri ct i on losses (both of ste am w and of t he mov i ng parts of
. . .
d wi g
ra n an o
the en i ne ) are add i t i onal causes of loss
.
l n i t a i C o n d e n sat i on W hen saturated steam i adm i tted to a

.
s
cyl i nder wh i ch h been cooled to exhau t tempe rature part of it "
.
as s con
l en s A fter c u t fl the condensat i on cont i nues but the cyl i nder
,
'
( se -o as
and steam tempe ature s be come more nearly equ li ed the la t e nt heat
. . ,
r a z
l i be ra t ed duri ng li quefact i on causes a part i al —evaporat i on T h i ni t i al
,
re e
los i n s i derable d be i ng but part i al ly re covered through t h
.
s s co an e re
evaporat i on a quant i ty of wate r i rejected at re le e part of whi ch

. ,
s as
evapora t es duri ng the exhaust and causes back pressure
, ,
M e t h o d o f R e d u c i n g C y l i n d e C on de n sat i on If the engine h

.
s r as
h i gh rotat i ng spee d the t i me of each stroke i t short t allow the
.
a s oo o
tempe rature chan ge s whi ch cause condensat i on to take place Cl othi ng
the cyl i nder wi th non conduc t i ng materi als i s a t i l means of pre ven
.
-
ar a
t i on The s pply of heat from l i v e steam to t e wall s of the cyl in der
u
by means of a surround i ng j acket assi sts evaporat i on pro vi di ng t hat
.
re -
th e p iston spee d i l w enough to pe rm i t the absorpt i on f the heat B y
s o o
compo nd i ng th e work i s d i vi ded amon g 2 to 4 cyli nders and t h range
.
u e
of tempe ra t ure i n a s i ngle cyl i nder i comparat i vely smal l The sav i ng
.
s
to compound i ng results from th e evaporat i on taking place earli e r
.
d ue re -
i n t h t t l expans i on
e o a
Th e u se of superheated steam i the most eff ect i ve pre vent i ve of n
.
s co
densat i on Saturate d steam i s all owed to fl ow through a co i l other or
form of supe rheater i ts temperature be i ng there fi i t l y ra i sed by th e
.
su c en
heat of t he f u rnace g ses to keep i t d ry or nearly du i ng the stroke
.
a so , r
S u pe rheat cannot exceed 750 F cyli nder l ubri cat i on be i ng i mposs i ble , .
at h i gher temperatures ; the be st results however are obtai ed be twee n n

6 50 and Wi th supe rheat the pressures do not need to be so h i gh
, ,
°
be i ng am le except i g in th e large st en gi nes A moderate supe r

,
1 00 l b s p n
heat of 100 t o 1 50 above bo ler te mpe rature ai ds espe c i ally in l ong p i pe
.
.
° °
1
t ransmi ss i ons and e ffects a sav i ng f 1 0 to
,
o
A t 1 2 0 lbs pressure w i th 1 7 0 supe rheat 1 8 % of the steam consumpt i on
.
°
-
has been saved i n a t i l p i engi ne A sav i ng of 50 % has been

. . ,
r p e ex an s o n
record ed b u t 1 5 t o 2 5 more nearly represents average pr ct i ce
.
.
a
The f li wmg form approx i mat ly e x press the re sul ts of a l arge
. 0 .
o o as e
n umbe r of tes t s (S - sav i ng i n pe r cent ) :
S X d g F of superheat (for turb i nes ) ; e s . .
S 4 X degs F of supe rheat (for re c i procat i ng e ngin es ) . . .
H e a t i n g S u fa c e o f S u pe h e at e A (i r q r rs. n s ,
whe re - o heat of supe rheat d steam W = i b a of steam to be supe r e e

heat ed per hour ( bo ler temp t mp after s u pe rh t i ng 1 ==t m
.
. . “
I 1 a
e ea
of f rnace gases to l 2oo Iii ) —6 = trans mi tte d pe r sq t
3 e
. . .
,
°
u
o f h e t i ng s urface pe r ho u w he re (t t ) - 400 to 500 F
a r.
.
a
.
i
° °
.
. .
I N D I CA TO R D I A G R A M S . 63
e a k g e i s nearly i ndependent f spee d f lidi surf ces i s propor

L a o o s n a
l to di fl f pre sure between the two s i es f valve
,
d i
'
ti on a e ren ce o s o an s
i nverse ly the overlap of valve W i th well fi t t i val ves i t may amoun
, ,
as -
n t
to over 20 % f the enter i ng ste am and rarely fa below
.
o
For an u jacketed cyl i nder wi th a gi ven rat i o f expans i on i n i t i al
,
n o co n
densat i on (expressed as a percentage f the steam i n the cyl i nder ) d i m i i shes
.
o n
wi th i ncrease f i n i t i al temperature whi le the total condens t i on per
o a
stroke increases w i th such temperat re i ncrease
,
u
l i evaporat i on for a g i ven rat i o f expans i on i s as great d somet i mes
.
e- o an
greater w i thout jackets as wi th them sho wi ng clearly that the re
,
en e r a
t i ve act i on f the cyl i nder walls wi th a gi ven rat i o f expa s i on i s g l y
, ,
o o n ar e
i ndependent f the i r mean tempe rature
o ( Prof Capper i R eport f n o
Ste am E g i ne Research C m f I M E
. .
,
-
n o o
Cal c u l at i on of I n i t i a l C o n de n at i o n n d L e a k a g e
. . .
s a .
Steam not accounted for by i nd i cator log 0 e r
I nd i cated stea m d /1V \

_
where = t i f expans i on = 6 to 8 for s i mple unjacketed eng i nes

r ra o o c
4 for jacketed sl i de valve engi nes 2 to 4 f Corli ss engi nes (jacketed
, ,
- or
and unjacketed respect i ve ]y very poor engi nes
,
d 12 f an or
I nd i cat o r D i a g a m s ( ig The fi gure shows the i nd i cator d i a
.
,
r
g ram f a s i mple condens i ng engi e ON be i ng the vacuum l i ne l i ne
. .
o n ,
or
Fig 1 1 . .
of zero pressure OS the l i ne f zero volume and I D the atmospher i c l in e o

lbs absolute pressure (0 lbs gauge ) A R i s the length f stroke
. ,
o f o
and S A the clearance wh i ch i s the volume f the l plus the
. . .
o v a ve
volum e between the p i ston at the end f stroke and t h cyl i nder head
,g a ssa es
o e
reduced to a percentage f the stroke (Clearance ranges from 2 to 7 % o
of the total volume ; when unknown i t may be assumed as be i ng 3 % for
.
well des i gned engi nes )

The cle ra ce space fi rst fi lls pressure r i s i ng i mmed i ately to A
.
a n d an
the p i ston moves to B where the steam i s cut ff d expans i on takes lace
, ,
o an
between B and C If the cut ff i s gr du l (due to slow clos i ng the
. ,
-
o a a o
steam port ) the steam w i ll be wi re dra wn d the press re before cut ff
.
“ ”
an u o
wi ll fall along the l i ne A B
- -
, ,
'
The exhaust port opens at C and the pressure drops to D and the
.
on
ret rn stroke th ough D to E where the port i s fully open and rema i ns
.
u r
so u t i l F i s reached The exhaust port clos i ng at F the rema i ni ng steam
, ,
.
n
i s compressed to G (cus hi on i ng the stroke ) where i nco mi g fresh steam
.
,
n
(due to the open i ng f steam valve s l i ghtly be fore the commencement
. ,
o -
o f the next stroke) rap i dl y rai ses the pressure to the start i ng po i nt A -
Th e spac e V be tw ee n th e l i ne s F E and ON repre se nts t he back press u e

, .
-
r
64 n ew AN D T HE ST EA M E NGI N E .
du e to vapor pr ure i the condenser i t be ing im ibl to obtain a n oss e

var es from 2 to 3 1 under fa r co d
ess
perfect vacuum B ack |
.
- i re ssu re i i n i
t i on The theoret i cal expans i on curve B M T an equ lateral hyperbo l a
.
.
. .
is i
a um ng the expans on to be sothermal and should be drawn on the
s.
( i i i )
d i agram or card f com ari s n Tak ng n p mt M on the act ual
ss
or e i o
expans i o curve B M C ar to S R a d t r t
.
w KM p p d
o .
’
ra er e n i cu n i n e se c i n
l l l t o S R and ntersect ng 0
n
i t at K D aw 0 K and also M L
.
r ar a e i i
at L Draw L B perpend i cular to R B w ll be the theoret cal p nt

. .
i i ai
i cut il A ny other po i nt ( M ) may be determ ned by d wmg OA ;

.
.
'
.
'
-o i ra
t hen a pe rpend cular let fall from K W ll ntersect L M (drawn parall e l
o .
’ ’ ’
i i i
to S R from i ntersect ion of O K and B L ) at M the des red p mt Where ’ ' ’
i o
the clearance i unkno wn i t may be approx mately fixed by select n g t w
.
,
s i i o
po i nt on the expans ion l ine (B d wmg the eetan e B K M L ra t
' ’
and prod uc ing the d iagonal l l / to t t ersect on W—th 0 at 0

s .
’
\ i s in i i
Fa lts s h o wn b y I n d i ca to r C a rd ( F g early adm s
.
A t s. i oo i
si on : B — t early rele se : C too early compres on ; D —t —late

u .
.
- oo
oo a si
too late adm iss ion : F too— l ittle com
. . ,
G
.
l w; J t -
-
; re sS i on oo
e rly cut off—; I I choked adm iss ion ; f— hoked ex a st ; leak y
re e a
—
. ,
K
.
a - c u
cut fl; L t much back pressu e double adm ss o
- .
, . ,
M N
.
-o
r ; oo
n; - i i
sl backward — eccentr c t o far ahead ; P nd cator nert a
. , ,
i d 0
'
-
tno ; io ; i o i i i i
p
i ng i nd i cator p iston ; R i n i t al conde sat on ; e vapora
.
— —
,
Q — t s ic S i n i re -
t i on
. . ,
T shows the form of card obta ined from g engi nes the heavy l i ne
.
as -
be ing the theoret i cal card The explos ive charge i drawn along the
.
s in
atmospheri c l ine compres ed along the lower curve and ted at
.
.
s i
the end f compre ion when the pressure ri ses instantly
. .
o ss p n i x a s on
t kes place along the upper curve to po int f rele e where the exh ust
.
.
a o as a
i then repre nted by the atmos heric l ine to t h po i t of begi nni n g of
.
s se p e n
th cycle I a tual cards the i gn it i on i not instantaneous but t akes
n c
s
place along the dotted curves the lower one ind icat ing t late i gn it ion
e .
oo
d con equent loss of power R elease t akes place before the end of the
,
an s
stroke the pressure fail ing shown by dotted l ine

.
m
. as .
(2N )
C al c l a t i o n f i n d i ca t ed H o rse Po w er I H P
u o Where - . . . .
a
i the mean fl t i pressure throughout t h stroke i =n lbs per sq i'
ec ve a
i = stroke i n feet =
s e e
of p iston i q i and 2 N N of strokes
n . . . .
,
a ~
a re a n s a o
per m i nute
. . , . .
, .
To obtain Pm (also abbrev i ated to fi n d the area f the c rd

.
o a or
d i agram by means of a plani meter and d i vi de same by it length thus obtai n s
i ng the me n (or average ) he ight and express t hi s h i ht i l b f pres
.
a e n s o
sure by com arison W th the scale f the spring use i the ind icator
. .
p i o n
d iv ide A R N O ( Fig 1 1 ) into 1 0 equal parts by vert ical l ines mea ure
.
O r. s
the m iddle ord ina t e of each ou tl e d i gram add same and d iv ide by 1 0
.
,
i a
thus obta in ing the average he ght O r trace the card ect i on ruled
, .
.
i on s
paper a certai n t h n mber f squares i ncluded by the boundary line
-
.
,
s e u o -
of the d iagram and d i v ide th s number by the number f squares in

.
.
i o one
hori zontal w between the extreme end ord inates of the d iag ram thu
ro s
obtai n i ng the mean he ight Should there be a loop i n the d iagram (
,
as
Fig 12 for t early cut fl) it area should be s bt r ct d from the
.
'
in oo -o s u a e t e
of the di ram the pre sure i nd icated by the loop i negat i ve
.
m i da n er as s
s
a c u m — The st vacu m for a rec iprocat ing engi ne i from 2 4 to
.
V u u s
2 6 i n when h barometer i wi th a better vacuum the add it ion l
.
t 30 i t e s a n a
are offs t by the losses obtai n ing same A tu b ine shoul d have
.
i ns e in r
t e b st obta inable vacuum each add i t ional inch above 2 4 i reduc i g
.
e n n
the steam consum t i on some 4 to
. .
p
I nd i ca t ed W a t e r C o n u m pt i o=n Lbs water per ho r per s
-
u
where b P of stroke completed at
. .
t g e rce n a e
p mt where the calculat ion i m de ( wh ich may be at any po in t between
o s a
cut fland release ) ;
-o
p t of clearance to the st oke ; w = w ight ce e rce n a r e
i n lb of i s ft of steam at t e ressure of the o int whe e the cal
on p r
culat i on i made ; in 1 cu ft of ste m at t e fi nal compress i on
. . .
s a
p e sure
. .
r s
D i a g a m Fa c t o r a theoret ical di agram wi th ad mi ss ion at bo il er
.
r I n
pressur up to the po nt of cut fi expa s i on along a hyperbol ic
.
'
e i -
o n
curve release at the end of stroke exha st at back pressure (Pb ) and no
.
. . u -
,
compres i on p m g r) pb where r rat i o f exp ansi on number

s
{f ( 1 l . o ; .
a
o
D I A G R A M F A CT O R . 65
of volum es the ori gi nal vol m h exp nded to p and Pb be i g absolute

u e as a n
pressures
,
The actu l P m f an eng ne may be found by mul t ply ng the r ght

.
a o i i i i
d member of t h above equat ion by c the d iagram factor

.
l
i an e , .
Fig 1 2
. .
Values f c o : for s imple unj acket d s lide valve e gi es

e - n n Com
pou d eng nes for hi gh speed u jacketed ; to for
, .
n i —
O6 t o
, .
-
, n
66 H EA T AN D T HE ST EA M E NGI NE .
O rv-s ee p d unjacketed : i m - peed jacketed 0 85 to a s« Corli ss jac ket d

mar ne e ng ne
e .
o Tr iple expans ion h i gh speed n i k t d

. .
. .
. .
- - - u ac e e .
i i s.
to
, .
H y pe rbol i c Lo g a r i t h m s.
D i am ete r of Cyl i n de r f or an y g i ve n I H P.
. .
C y l i n de R a t i os f M l t i pl e
r or u E x pa n s i on E n gi n e s. — For co m
For tri ple expans on engi nes i :
Gauge Pressure .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
For qu druple expans i on eng i nes

a :
H i gh Pres I nter
Ga ge Pre ure
u
sure Cyl
ss .
.
I st
med ia t e .
2 15
The most econom ical po i nt of cut fli n a s i mple non condens i ng engin -

o
'
-
e
l es between i and l f the stroke
,
0
i o
T h B es t R a t i o o f E x p n s i o n The best number of expansion s (N )
.
e a .
Pm
i a s i mple conden s i ng eng i ne i N = i g Where and r
VL ( )
r
n l g s o e
u -
r ;
: r
,
are absolute temperature V and V are vols i n cu ft of 1 lb of ste am L

l
s.
and L are latent heats l and L for the begi nn i ng and V and L
; . . . .
.
’
r, rl
for the end of the expa s i on ( W ill ns )
, . . h . 1
n e
C o m b i n at i o n o f M lt i pl e E x p a n s i o n D i a g ra m In order t com
.
u s. o
pare the expans i on w ith any des ired theoret ical curve the several di a
rams of the mult i ple expans ion cyl inders must be plotted on the same
.
g t l scale of volumes clearances be i ng added to the volumes proper

ori z o n a
A ny referen ce c rve R may then be d rawn
. .
u (Fig . .
6S H EA T A ND ri m s r icA M
'
E NGI N E .
30 in
o ler pressure
B i 11 gauge temperature of s t eam 7 2 6 F 13
°
V acuum
. .
.
. .
Hp m
.
-3 78 lw °
) in
t;t m per
su ne r at
hou lbs and at The
.
. . . .
.
ea p er4 8 1 l b r s
eng n e uppl ied w it h drop p iston valves and h run successfu l ly for
.
. .
,
i is s . as
Fig 1 3 . .
over a year no trouble be ing experienced wi th the h i gh tempe ratures

employed ( T h E n gi er London J une 2
,
e ne
G o v er n o rs S imple Fly ball or W att Governor Let h = t i l
. , , ,
-
ve r ca
d i stance from the po int f support of the rad i us or pendulum arms to the
. .
.
o
pla e i wh ich the centers f grav ity of the balls we ights revolve at
n n o or
any part i cular speed Then h 153 nc hes and N 1 87 6 r

3 0
. Great r ,
'
i , e
sens it iveness may be obta ined by us ing h Porter type f governor wh i ch t e o

an x i al we ight i add it ion to h fl y ball we i gh t s ( h = w) f a
.
h as a if ] n t e -
eac o
s i mple gove rnor I n th is case h = ( 4 £ 22 0 -

10 10 ,
N to 2
V al v es Ze n n e r s D i a g ra m W hen t h crank i on the de d cent r

’
e s a - e
the normal sl ide valve A should be at half stroke 90 i advance of
. .
°
- -
n
the crank and on the poi nt of adm i t
,
t ing steam If the valve h steam as

lap B added to it the adva e
.
nc
would necessar ily be 90 + steam lap
,
°
To ass ist the steam nder compres

.
u
s ion i cushi on ing the stroke st eam n
adm itted sl ightly before the end
.
i s
of stroke and at the dead cen t r t h -
e e
L
alve i then open by amount v s an

called t he lead wh ich must be added
to the ad vance (90 + steam lap ) to
,
°
locate the po it ion f the eccentri c

.
F ig 1 4 o
Steam and exhaust laps (B and C )
s .
.
form an add it onal W dth to the valve face and are for the purpo e of fl ct
i i -
s e
'
c
ing an early cut off of steam or exhaust fl w
-
(F ig o . .
a N ER s
’
VA LVE D I AG R A M . 09
The act i on of a sli de valve i s best shown by means f Ze ner s di agram o n

’
throw draw the rcl

-
(P i O n the d i ameter ) Ci e
AB H I n t he small d iagram ( l ) draw the steam v lve rcle OF nd -

a Ci a
also the exhaust valve c ircle 0 A W i th 0 a a c enter draw an arc W th
.
.
s i
rad ius OM ( = t m lap ) and also W th r ad us OR ( = h t l p )

- .
s ea an a re i i ex au s -
a
If the cra k i s the dead center A the eccentr c W ll be at B 90 + 0
-
°
on - i i or
advance The nte rcepts shaded part made by the rad us
n , ,
M O B
.
in i .
F or i
Fi g 1 5
. .
on the steam valve c i rcle w ill show the amounts f port open ing f the
-
o or
correspond ing pos i t ions f OB the eccentr ic o or
I he d iagram may be sed t better advantage by turn ing t he valve
.
,
'
u o
c ircles b ck 90 a as i the ma i n fi gure Steam i adm i tted before the
°
n s
end f the pre vi ous stroke the crank pos i t ion be ing show by OK wh ich
.
o n
passes through the po int N The angle A OK i the an gle f lead A t
,
s o
the crank i s a dead center at 0 B the steam port i full y open and
. .
on - -
s
at OD steam i cut ff by the closing f the port From D t E the steam

,
s o o o
expands i the cyl inder A t E the exhaust port opens reach ing ful l
.
n -
open ing at G and clos ing at J the steam rema in ing i cyl inder be ing m
. ,
n co
pressed to K where fresh steam i dm i tted for the next stroke
,
s a
G M i the steam lap O R the exhaust lap and L M i the l inear lead
, .
s - -
s
due to the angular lead A OK W Y i the w idth f the steam port and
, ,
s o -
the exhaust has f ll open ing from O V to 0 T (0 i center f c i rcle A B F )

.
u . s o .
70 HEA T A N D T H E ST EA M E NG I N E .
By i nc re as i n g
the st am i p d mi i takes place lat r i the t e -
a a ss o n e n s
ceases earl er ; expans i on occurs earli e and ceases la t er ; ex haust
.
an d i r
compre s i on are unchanged s
By ncrea i ng the exhaus t lap ad m i s ion i unchanged expans on be g
.
i s - s s i i ns
usual b t cont inues longer ex haust later and ceases earl er
,
as u o cc u i s i
and compre i on beg i ns earl er and

, ,
l t ss i ce ase s a er
By i ncreas i ng the t ravel of the valve adm ss ion beg ns earl er and ce ase
.
‘ 0
i i i s
la t er expans ion occurs later and ceases earl ier exhaust beg s and eases
.
in c
later and compres i on beg ins later and ends earl ier
.
,
By i ncreas ing h angular advance adm i ss ion expans on etc ll beg

.
. . 0
t e i a in
earl ier b t t he ir respect ive periods are unal t ered
.
, , , ,
u
V l v e Pro po t i o n s Ports shoul d be d imens ioned to all ow
.
a r so as
a veloc i ty of about ft per mi for l ive steam and about ft
.
n
m n for exhaust For a veloc ty of ft per Po t area
.
. .
,
p i
er . i m . . in .
,
r
of cyl . as poss i ble and W idt h len gth Width of xhau t port
.
fl
a re a -t- . e s
t
fl -i
i gl i
-
w idth of steam port —w i d th of bridge between p t + - or s ex
2
h a unt lap
C rl iss cyl indr i cal sem i rotary valves ; d iam of valve
.
F or o d == - a ririi ss 10 n -
w dth of steam por d am of exhaust valve 2 2 5 X w idth of ex haus t
.
X i t ; i = - -
ort L gt h = di m of cyl W idths to be obtained from area formu la

. .
en a
i sl ide valves
i . . .
or -
P i sto n Speeds i Feet per M inu t e Locomot ves

.
t n i o
mari e eng ines 700 ; horizontal eng i nes 4 0 0 to 6 J O; pump i g e ngi es
.
,
n n -
n
Cyl area port speed ft per
, , ,
= 6 000 pi t mi
_
13 0 i --
t a re a + s on n n
Flo w o f S t ea m Lbs per mi = 0 85 p when d ischargi ng into the
. .
. . ,
n a
atmosphere When flowing from one pressure to another whi ch i d l b
. . . .
. s s .
less and p lb per —d d

) k = o 93 for a s h ort s,
for an ori fi e i a th i n pla te (p = b l t pressure ) A lso
. .
d
[ 1 0 2 2 1 9 an c n a so u e .
,
veloc i ty i n i t per when h = h igh t i feet f a column of e n o

st am of the g iven absolute i n t al pressure a d of mf m dens ty Whos
.
.
.
e i i n u or i e
we ight i equal to the pressure the un t of ba e
,
s on i s .
HD
Fl o w o f S t e a m i n P i p es = 50
L
where L and D are the length . e O
and d i ameter of the p ipe i feet and H i the he ight i feet of a col um n s n n
of steam at entrance pressure wh ch woul d prod uce a pressu e equal t i r o
the difi betwee the pressures at the ends f the p i pe
e ren ce ,
n o .
Q i cu ft
, per m
n i = 4 7 2 3 3 . Where d = d i m of p i pe i n i nches
. n . . a .
W in , l bs . flow i ng per where w = lb s . per cu . ft
of steam at i n it i al pressure p and p = p at the end f p i pe ressu re o

Sett i n g o f Co rl i s V al v es There are three marks the h b
. i . 2 .
T h e s on u
of the wr st pl ate wh ich ind icate the extremes f t h row and the t ;
.
i -
o ce n re
o t accord ngl y as they coinc i de wi th another mark

si i on the tan d
i on s
the wr st pl ate the cent r l pos it ion mh k i g the rod conn ect in g
.
i t: i -
in a 1 oo n
to the eccentr c R emove the back bonnets of t h valves
,
i e
W ll be found on the valves and valve chambers whi ch i nd icate respect i v ly
.
,
i -
e
the work ng edges of the valves and orts B y means f the adjustable
i
rods wh ch con nect the valve arms to t h w i st plate t the st am val ves
. o
i -
e r -
se e
that the W ll have a lap—of i to } in ( the former for a 1 0—i cyl and
-
so
?or a 35
! i 4 h
cyl intermed i a t e s i zes in pro t i )
. . .
,
th l tt
e a er -
in or on
S m larly set the exhaust valves w ith to i i n lap or non conden i ng
. .
, .
.
i i -
n d wth to i
-
s
lap for condens ing engi nes
»
. .
a i in
A d j ust t e dash pot rods by turn i ng the wr i st plate to the extre mes
. .
- -
of travel a d regulate the ir lengths that when the are down far
n so as
as they W ll go the steel bl cks on the valve arms wi bare clear t h
i o -
e
sho lders on the b k (If the rods are t long they w ill
u bent if oo s oo
too short the hooks W ll not engage and the val ves w ill not open ) :
i
,
H ook the connect ng rod to the wr ist pla t e loos n the eccentri c t rn
.
i -
e u
t over d ad j ust the e c n tr ic md that the wri st pla t e wil l have correc t
-
0 , ,
i an c e -
i s so -
I N E RTI A DIA G RA M S . 71
extremes of travel as shown b the mark hub Place the eng ine y s on on
e i ther dead c n t er turn t h eccentric enough more than fourth of a
.
.
e e o ne -
evolut ion i ad vance f the crank (i the d i rect ion f rotat ion t show
-
,
r n o n o o
an open ing f the steam val ve (at the p iston end f cyli nder ) f t t i
o - o o o h
accord ing to the speed th is be ing the lead The h gher the speed the
.
,
more the lead req i red Set the eccentric turn to the other dead center
.
,
u -
and obta in the same lead by adjust i ng the length f the rod con ect i ng
. ,
o n
to w ist plate T adjust the regulator connect ions to the cut ff cams
r - o -
o
t rn the wrist plate to extreme f travel and adjust the d connect ing
. ,
u -
on e o ro
t othe p p s it cam so that the cam w il l clear the steel i the tai l of hook
o o e n
by 1
i Turn to the other extreme f travel and adjust the
n o
other cam To equal i ze the cut ff bloc k up the reg lator about 1 } i
35 .
-
o u h
wh ich i i t average pos it ion when ru n ing Turn the engine slowly and
.
. , ,
s s n
note the i t i f cross head when the cut ff cams tr i p and the v al ves
.
os on s o o
close These pos it ions should be at equal d istances from the respect i ve
- -
extremes f travel f the cross he d and the rods shoul d be adjusted

.
o o -
a
unt il they are I nd icator cards shou d then be taken and such re d j st
,
l a u
ments made as are requi red f the equali zat ion f the d i agrams
.
or o
To Pl a c e a n E n g i n e o n a D ead ce te r Locate by a mark the
.
- n on
gu ides the pos i t ion f a mark the cross head when i t i at any poi nt
.
o on -
s
near the end f the outward stroke Denote th is pos i t ion o the fly on
wheel im b mark whi ch co inc ides w i th a fi xed reference poi nter Turn
.
r a
the engi ne yond the dead center and the return stroke unt i l the
.
-
on
mark the cross head co i nc ides wi th that on the gui des Not thi s
on e
pos it ion fly wheel by ma k i ng a mark at the referen e pointer F i nd
-
.
on -
c
the po int m idway between the t w ma ks the fl y wheel i m and t urn
.
o r on -
r
the engi ne unt i l th is mid po i nt co i nc ides wi th reference po inter and the
eng ine wi ll be a dead center To avo id the errors whi ch m ight ari se
on
from looseness f beari ngs the engi e shoul d be turned a l ittle b y d
-
.
o n e on
the origi nal pos i t ion the return stroke and the mot ion then reversed
,
on
up to the or igin l posi t ion that the same brasses wi ll press the crank
a so on
pi i both observat ions

n n
A c c el er t i o n I n ert i a n d C ra n k e ff o r t D i a g r m s The e ffect f
.
a a, - a o
the rec iprocat ing parts f an engi ne i shown i Fig 1 6 A vert ic l
, .
o s, n a
engine i chosen f i ll strat ion as both the i nert i a for e and the dead
. .
s or u c
we ight of the movi ng ma s are present the e ff ect f the latter be ing absent s o
in a hor i zontal eng i ne D raw the crank c i rcle J KL Jl I w i th rad i us 0 4 =
,
and the co nect i ng d 3 D raw the polar veloc i ty curves

-
.
21 i n i n -
ro n
K U and AI U and also the veloc i ty curve A X E These curves are
. .
con
tructed as fo l lows I n (I I ) if W moves un iformly A W represents the
.
s :
crank veloc i ty Project the connect i ng d P W to C and A C wi ll then
, ,
-
ro
be the correspond ing p iston veloc i ty f the point P R evol ve A C to
.
o
the l ne A W and E will be a poi nt i the polar veloc i ty curve Trans
.
AE
’
on i n
fer A C to P F and F will be a point i the veloc i ty c rve J KH The
.
n u
rema n ng poi nts f each curve are s im ilarly determ i ned The cr n k 0 4
.
.
i i o a
makes 88 rev pe r mi and the crank consequently has a veloc i ty
.
pi n -
n
of ft per sec and C X ( = ord in te X shoul d be d i vi ded i nto parts
.
a
to serve as a scale f mea urement T e accelerat ion curve Q T R must
. .
o s
then b drawn b the method shown i (I I I ) Let A E B (I I I ) be the
.
,
e n
veloc ty curv e fi w a tangent at an y poi nt E a normal E D and let
.
.
i ra
fall a perpend cu l ar E C t A B Set ff C F = C D by revolvi ng C D through
.
, ,
i o o
90 and F w l l be a p i nt i the accelerat ion curve GKH Q T and T R
.
°
i o n
show respect vely the i ncrease and decrease f veloc i ty for the downward
.
i o
stroke and R T and T Q the accelerat ion and retardat i on for the up stroke
The force m mg the rec iprocat ing p t s aro nd the dead centers J
.
ov ar u -
m 2
and L § The nert a force Z
whence f the accelerat i on
2
;
l
— t
g
= .
= — i i ,
-
, , ,
X = 1 4 8 ft
1 75
-
per sec A Q therefore should be d i vi ded i nto 1 4 8
. .
, ,
parts for a scale of accelerat ion i ft per sec The movi ng parts f the n . . o
engi ne we igh lbs and the i nert ia force at any moment F = E£. = , 0
E h6
{
—
X l ti or
acce e ra at A Q ( = 1 4 8 ft per on , lbs D raw
, . .
N S P below Q T R each ordi nate of d istance between the two curves be i n

e q al to Q N
u w ch lbs by sc le where A Q = 36 9 1 1 lbs N S
, 13 . a , .
72 H EA T AN D T m; S T EA M E NG I N E .
i h of i nert
e u r ve i a pressure The pressure per q i on pi t t s n s pn a
i sq D raw the nd cator

t
. .
s e .
40 1 49 1 ( - + f i n rea olb st o n n s i i
p
cards to th i s sc ale v i z fi Q X H B for t h top of pi t and F P GA for
.
.
e s nn
.
the b t t m W hen Q X I I B i be ing d rawn by the i nd icator

o sthe top on
A F R i be i ng drawn on the bot t om s ide and deduct ing
o
s ide t pi
.
at n n . s
the ord nates at F f m t h at H the net fl t i pressure w ill be rep e
o
~
, .
'
i ro n se e ec ve t
e ted by the s l d l ine WR S im ilarly by deduct ing E din t from

, .
s n oi .
.
or a es
2 1 f l fi Bfi A
'
I
mesmes , 73
G the curve of net pressure i shown along V N The actual tot l pres s a
s ure t ransm itted t o the an b pm d ri ng t h fi rst h alf f t h s t r k w il l cr u e o e o e
be le s t h n that shown the i nd icator d iag am by the amount requi red
.
s a on r
t o t the rec i procat i ng mas es i

se mot ion and du i ng the l atter h al f f s n r o
t he st k the i d i t d p w i ll b i d by the back wa d pull
, ,
'
'
ro e n ca e re ssu re e n cre ase r
sures transmi tted along A B O M nl t i pl y a h t pressure di t l g » e c ne - or n a e a on

A B by i t v irtual crank m a d set ff the resul t ing tangen t i l cra k
. . .
s -
ar n o a n
pressu es rad i al ly Wi t h t h crank c i rcle J KL M as a b ase l ine and the
.
r e -
c rves of crank ef fort J ghj b and L k i J w il l be obtai ned The e urves

, ,
'
u -
nz ; s c
m y be set (mt n a s t ra i ght b ase b y t pp ing J K
,
d KL
'
t CO ou
'
a o s e on -
an
and v t ie l pos i t ions
’
h 0D o di at
'
t
"
o r n es o er a
al ong t h fine C D when t h cu rv es C D In l oc omot i ves
0
e n
e mpl oyed and i mari ne engines three crank
e
w c r nks at ri ght an gles
_
a
o a a re n s,
2 0 a mi n s comb n t i on diag r
°
may ; be t ffld b y su perpo si g the ‘ ‘
‘
e
i a a rn r e n
d i agrams df t h fi di vid al ranks and addi g t h radi l o rd in at s (The
-
e n u c n ~
e
'
a e L '
di scu si on i tak en fr om Li eh m Text Book

. .
f
’
o re g in o s s n a s
-
t i on gf Fl y W h eel On the b ase line lay t a

-
C l
; mk ing E A F
-
‘
a cu a s. ou
eries ams
.
.
f
f r nk fi o t di nd
'
s o c a e r a a
-
a
The m of
~
of
r
a nd C n D ‘
F g 1 '
6 E = 1 i
3 = l l “ft i di
'
t
‘
:
vi
-
3 -
e an i o r n a es
t i v l y and m
. . r.
ZEA F d FC D a 29 500 lb 7 n d 2 fOOO l

b hd f
“
an
‘
p re 0
s s r es ec e
~
t hei r mean e ffort f or t he cont inuou d i agram

. .
,
_
m su th or e s
D raw J K t t hi pres e abo are as A
'
.
, -
’
‘
ve a Ph 0 t s bo v eh sur i
e - .
, e c: a eu e
—l
.
,
n fl . g -O l .
‘
r i g -n .
"
h
‘
hex “ . i . - I I .
Fig 1 7 . .
l mef J K
‘
sho elow the l ne show de fi c ts

w su rpl us work g wlnl e B D
l
et e
I
b i i
The Wheel must absorb t he work f (A 0 t and gi ve i t t g i
.
, , .
,
fl y ‘
o a a n
‘
-
e c ou
at etc thus tend ing to equali ze the crank e ff ort The m ea p e
, ,
B D -
n r s
sures and d istances are measured at A B C d D and shown by
, , .
, .
-
an
‘
ar e
the Work rectangles and g eat st
, , ,
ft lb Th r a sc e r e
rectangle i D m i energ y the fly
, .
i th
'
s t s eNa oun o
wheel must be a ble t d h v thereb y decrease i t ve loc it ; =The
,
heav er the W h l @ he mall wll g it fluctuat ion f veloc ity y t =

o e er an s
' ‘
i ee ,
s er ,
i e s o . v
mean veloc i ty i n ft per ahd let the total fl t

‘
D
t i f l it y se c uc on o y e oc
u fiy
. . a
g a
.
Where k varies from 2 0 t g_300 accord ing to the ste d i ess qn i n i L t a n re e e

v and be the max i m umM mi mm gf v é at the
, :
1 122
ggitj me ag fi di ur e es us.
74 H EA T A N D T HE S T E AM E NG I NE .
”
Then M “ 2
E - t be energy are (i n th i ca e ft
7
2
a s s .
1
1
wher w - we i ght of wheel i n l b N w v + - 2 v and s o v1 v2
60 where R —d i
e .
. l ,
9 - 2 RN ,
-
o- of gyrat i on of wheel i n feet Subst i tut i ng
,
ra ur .
El
an d reduc i ng we i ght of wheel l b w — .
f V alues f k l
(k in s .
2
. o
centage of fl uctuat i on from the mean speed -)

For h mm i and crush ing m hi y / S ; for pump ng and she r
.
a er n ac ne r c i a
i ng ma h i ne ry c to 30 ; for ord nary d v mg en g nes for mach i ne h p i ri i -
s O s,
30 to 35 ; for m ill i n mach i ne ry and gear transmi ss ion 50 ; for sp i n n g
.
n i
ma hi nery 50 to l for e lectri c l ight ing 1 50 to 300
,
c
If the d i ameter of the wheel be large and the i m heavy ( compar d
.
. ,
r as e
w i th the arms and hub R may be taken as t h rad i u to cent r of im e s e r
sect i on If the hub an arms are of consi derable we ight assume a sect ion
of fly wheel replac ing the arms by a th n d is of equal w i gt and tre t
. .
i c a
the whole cross sect ion of the wheel th ough the shaft a gam sect i on
-
, e
- r as
fi nd i ng i t modulus S mul t ipl yi ng t h same by y the outer rad i us f
s e o
wheel and thus obtai n ing I wh ch d vi ded by the total a ea of cro s
. . ,
i i r s
ect i on w ill gi ve R must be measured at R and great care taken to
. , .
2 0
s
avo i d the conf s ion i nc i dental to calc lat ing i both feet and inche
.
,
u u n s .
Cd
”N
where d and D are d iam of cyl i n i n stro ke i n i n
h
T
nd , a, . .
a
d i am of 6 wheel i n feet respect i vely J B Stanwood ) V alues of C

- :
ord ina y id l eng ne for ordi nary duty
.
. , . .
r g s l e - v a ve en i n es , or i ss i
and sli de valve eng nes for electr c l ght ng
- automat i c hi gh i i i i
peed and Corl i ss engines for electr c l ght ng
.
s i i i
f S t ea m -E Pa t I n the foll owi ng table t h
,
P o r tl n r ln o s o u e r s. e
f m
or attri buted to Prof J n H B arr are mean resul ts obtai ned by
u as o
h i m from some 1 60 en (from 1 2 A mer can bui lders ) rangi ng from 20
. .
.
ne s i
to 750 H P Those of B Stanwood are the conclus ions f an extend d o e
and those f W m Kent are the best probable mean express ion
.
. .
pm t i ce o s
of a l rge n um ber of formulas cons dered and d iscussed by hi m i n The
.
a i
Me hani cal E ngi neer s Pocket B ook The fol ow n g notat i on i em loyed
’
c l i '
s
p
of p iston l = l gt h of stroke d== d m of p iston d = d m of
.
a n
area en ia ia
fl y wheel = d i am of of
, , .
, 1 .
-
YI d a t d t t hi k l =l gt h C ID er 8 U S. c n e ss , en con
t i g rod ch measure
. l
A ll
. .
nec n t
-
p O in in
s t am { =- in l b p veloc i ty i n ft per min H P
.
V =p t s en s ih i s on
and I I {P rated and
e i essure
t d hor e power respect i vely (S al o
. .
, . . .
- in i ca e s -
ee s
lated matt r in Strength of M at als nt )
. . . .
,
re e e ri , a e .
B arr Kent S t anwood

Cyli nder
. . .
:
Thi ckness of wall 0 05d + 0 5 i n s, 0 0004dp + 0 3 i n
flanges l 2 X b v
. . . . . .
a o e
heads
,
0 0003 6dp + 0 3 1 in
Studs No of (b)
, . . .
,
0 7d .
,
.
0 000 2d2 p -i -3 2
.
8233 3 5
i 1 0 5 i n
I e ngt hdoam
. f p ston i ,
. s .
2d
Piston rod di am -
l speed
g
l
i 00 1 3p
.
o l 4d t o
.
Con ect ing rod

n -
s:
H i gh speed t n rec a
8 u l a r ect i on
,
s ,
th i ckn ss z e so ws/71 + in
Mean he ight Crank end
. .
(
he ad
,
end.
gra
e-
Low peed c i rc l r
s u a
z
e c t o n m an
.
s i , e
0 092 V Id
. 0 02 l dV p
.
H EAT AN D T H E ST E A M EN G PN E '
.
T EM PE R AT UR E -E NT R O P Y D I A G R AM S .
inan i nd icator d i agram the o rd inate are pressure and volu me and co - s
the a repre nts work done per st roke in f t l b
a re se - s
In a t p t p y d i agram the Vert c l ord i nates are ab o lute
. . .
'
e nit e ra u re e i i ro i a s
temperatures the horizontal ord inates or absc i ssa are q t i t i t rm d
~
s, uan
entro y d the area represents ener y mea ured in he t un its fli n tmpy
. , e e
an s a -
t he re ore i le ngth i am w o area represents energy heat

, .
,
s di n a se in
un i t an d Who e he i gh t a l ut e te mper t u e
s s
.
is a r
i sothermals d—
iagram are hori zontal trai ght l ines — the— tem
.
th on '
is s
be n onstant d abat s rt i c l stra i ght li ne s tt e
,
i d i i
mg no change i n the qua t ity of heat 33iv
t n c
‘
g a u re
g a a 1 a l
e
C
g a change of tempe ra i
s
n ur e
C a r n o t C y l e ( Fig H e at s pp li d 9 n )
.
A ppl i a t l n t c o o c u e “
and heat re j ected a =

. .
H ] , r2
ar ea Ha“A B C D be ing iso

an d ale
an d Bd an d A D bein g adi ics
W ork done = H , — H 2, and
.
e ffi cie n cy =
absolute ) The e t ropy of wat er n

then at y oth r
.
,
At an e
absolut temperature t h nt ropy
,
e r e e
of water log 49 2 =
, ,
Fig 1 8 1 -
log
. . . e
dd t i n al
e r
h convers i on wate n o St am i
"
The e nt r b by d P t
Q
'
a i o
P o t e f i t o r e s
o r
eq ual t o t he la te nt heat (or heat ne essary to con vert the wat er int o st
c ea m)
TE HPI JBX
T
‘
sk fi r fib sr n dax fi s
fi ‘l
m 77
i11
di ded b tk corres m atu or
, '
I - -3 ‘
x
3
-
= The
n n r
. na
h?
i M
n
te . l te per l q
d1 3 r e; L +
¢3
fol lowi ng {ablegi t li
vi ei t
'
“‘ l
ve s e
ml “ m nfl
"
‘
l n n i s ix out i fli fl
'
f i l rt : 1 ! . I an : wi fl : '
o r
to é
v p a o r a te
o ne - q
0
t i-O D of r
t he t otal
o —s
78 H EA T AND T HE ST E A M E N GI N E .
li the team i super ! t d to before ent ri ng the cyl i der the add i
s ea e r e n
l entro y C L ii ob t ai n from the formul a E t py C L

s ,
t io na i s : n ra
l
, ,
.
kln t o py D l g a m f o m t h D a ta i n a n I n di c to
0 r
t c r a r r e a r
m — l i 20 i t h ind i cator d i of h mg the fo llow
“
D la ra g s e an e n i ne av
ing t
a a: I ni t i pre ure 1 05 l b b pres re 1 7 lb ( both ab lut )
ss . s .
, ac - su , s . so e
Vol .
I
Fig 2L . .
r cyl i nder 1 4 x 36 ;
m n -QO : lb :
of cyl
s
; vol me of y cu f t ; volume f clearance
.
,
q i s n u c o
cu ft l b steam used per hour== 2 1 33 5
. . . . .
s
of enteri ng ste am per stroke 0 1 9 754 7
. . .
,
lb ps l H P
er lb s
The compre s ion steam i general ly a med to be d ry and at
. . . . . .
.
p mt 1 7
0
s s ssu o
where L cu ft and pre sure = 60 we ight w ill b ==
. .
VO it s s e
(or the we igh t of 1 cu ft at 60 lb Tot l
. .
1 66 8 7 X a
steam cyl lb and the vol of 1 lb
.
. . .
.
In
f team m lar to that i n the c l i nder = t l vol i
. . .
.
o s si i z ac u a n
The es and values of for t e vari ous po in t of Fig 20 m y w
, .
p
ressu r a no
o t ed
z s
For example t h pressu at i nt 7 on t h
.
b
nd
e
p t F g 2 1 on i e re e
d g ram 40 l b (absolu t e ) T h ont n ts
.
.
.
.
i t i ca or ia is yl t th s. . e c e c . a is
T EM P ER A TU RE-E N T RO PY DIA G R AM S . 79
poi n t are cu ft wh i ch di vi ded by gi ves the volume a

:
of 1 l b 8 cu i t d p nt 7 the entropy t hu
. .
, ,
or an 0i on s
loc ted by the in terse t on f the constant

. .
.
, .
a c i o
volume cur v e 8 and the hori ont al l e of z in
temperature 2 67 F (72 7 wh ch corre ° °

i
to a of 40 lbs absolute
.
d ressur e
L o e TE
on
e entropy d agram Just
s p s . .
ss s. i con
id d may be compared W th that

e re f the i o
R a ki ne cycle for an i deal eng ne where the

s
n i
expansion i ad i abat ic down to back pres u re 681 s
- s
and where there i no compress ion Th s is
latter d i agram i the area A B CD A B C
.
s
be ing drawn at 1 08 l b (a sum ng a drop
,
s s i
from the separator to cyli nder )
.
o f 3 lb s
The loss B E 4 GC B i that due to w i re
. .
s
drawing dur i ng t h entrance f the steam ; e o
l oss 4 GH 64 occurs d in g expansi on and i ur s
due to condensat i on l k g etc ; loss l aa a e,
due to i ncomplete exp nsi on ;
.
,
J K 1 2J i s a
lo s 1 3 A E 1 1 6 1 3 i due to c learance m
s s co
press ion etc All areas rep resen t heat un i ts
,
-
accord ing to scale The area 4 L M N 4

.
,
represents add i t i on al l quef ct on loss af t er

.
i a i
cut fl and 7 N KJ 7 the gai n due to
o te
evaporat i on Fig 2 1 shows onl y the work
-
,
art f d i agr m the full d iagram a

. .
in g o a on
m er sc ale be i ng shown by Fig 2 1
,
s a
E n t r p y D i ag r am A pp l i e d t I n te
. .
o s o r
n al Co m b t i o n E n g i e = H ; us n s. -z
-
r
dH = k d + (A P J ) V and v r
-
—k ) comb i n ing these

,
V v t -I- , or ,
ti
ua d on s,
- k )d V v
e q
—V wh ich i the general e quat on f chan ge
z s i or
entropy numerical= constant
,
o f (A F i 21
e i v l t = 7 7 8 P lb pressure g a
. ,
J =J
’
l ou e s u a en s
per q ft ) g between l m ts ¢ k log ( ) when the
, .
t g t
s n e ra i n i i v + r2
constant and ¢ —¢ = k log ( H ) when the pressu e i s con
. .
, 1 e r1
v l n t i -
sf i
u e 13 , i 2 p e 2 r
an
W hen P and V vary accord ing to the l w P V = t nt id in a
’
con s a con s er
that P V = R lett ng k k = r subst i tuti ng i the gener l equ t ion .
,
r , i p+ v , n a a
reduc i ng —¢ = k , the chan ge i n entropy when P V =

2 v
7 1
or .
‘
constan t
I n ad abat c expans i on r = hence 95
.
i 0 i x
I n the theoret i cal gas eng ine d i agram ( ig 2 2 I ) P b = P V
r 1
r , .
Vb
'
-
a +
and b = P b =(K — K ) whe e Vb = p ifi volume f explos i ve m ixture
.
,
. a ,
r + v r s ec c o
at b K and K p fi heats f m ixture i ft lbs = k and k mult ipli ed
p ,
v s eC i c o n v
b y 7 7 8 or the equ val ent f 1 heat un i t i f t lbs I n the follow i ng
-
, p . .
p
i l o - n ca cu
the l d value — 7 7 2 — has been employed ) If i s known b =
-
, . .
l t
.
a i on s o t o r
where = V Vb
, , .
,
=e Pb r + rc c+
The ncrease f t py dur ng the explos i on i s represented by the

a .
i o en r o i
l ogar th m c curve b (I I l g 2 2 ) and i ncrease f entrop from b to =
i i c
"
c
A d abat ic expans i on i s shown by the vert i cal
i o
log (
.
,
e Te i
i ne d there be ng no chan e i
c the a mount f entropy d = P d Vd
i g n o r +
and P d = P VJ V 7 = P c T V i —
. .
'
(X d +
From d to (exha st at const wh i ch
v . a .
¢ = k
¢ d a u v
negat ve The e haust and suct ion strokes do t enter i nto considera
.
.
a
is i x no
t on t he temperature be ing assumed constant
.
i as
The d agram complet d by draw i ng 0 X at the absolute zero of tem
, .
i is e
p t
e r a u re . when the work done per y l = bcd ; heat rece i ved per c c e are a a
c y l =c e Ob X ; thermal are a ffi i y
= b d 0c ; heat Crejected i nto e c en c a c +
ex h t = ausO dX a re a a
S nce (c and b i governed by the same l w d the
.
i e s a as a
rat o f the t w temperatures i constant and dependent only on the amoun t
,
i o o s
of mp m a hi gh at i o resul t ing in a correspond ingly incre ed
co re ss n, r as
fl
e i C i en c y
nd ca t or card f a Crossley O tto engi ne tested by P rof Cappe
.
Th e i i o . r
“NEW
-
" T
-
"
tile/Vi min mid
o
. . i . . i osr i m mm
isho w“ in I l l Fi d at a for 2 2t he
ma be found i ni n Theta
s . .
' “
i o li l in g s
m by t roke vol
w
( y l i db
n r. 1 8 i . d i it .
ii . s ,
L f t
mu f cu
S used
t a VO
.
cu
.
net
.
n .
fl - l 3 32 (i
m
''
i l as
i nu n
xplo i n cu at and
.
er
.
p ,
er e s o i t 6 1 5 F °
. 14 .
as p
. .
g y e i ia
'
0 l )
- I "1 ”
I I
l
l
i ,
l i ‘
( II H l it
l ute cu f t at t e mperat ure and pres ure =a s

Press res m lb pe q at b c d d
. .
u s r s in a, an c
re pec t ely V ol umes in it a me

. . .
,
s iv . cu . . t sa
for the com re s i on cu ve (both dotted ) The locat i on of

p s r . e is found by
MPERAI W ELEN T I i orY Di a éRAMS
’
‘
‘ '
TE .
u cin g curve unt t he a ct u al

il i t int t the V e rt i cal
‘
l
ex pa nsion
'
e rse c s a e.
o l gas (London ) u ed had the f ollowi ng percentages b y W ight
l
c a s
‘
e :
0 m and ( t ri H co N co g
1 cu lb The prod
g .
, , 2
o
‘
nets f combust exhau st ses had the follow i = ng compos it ion (by
. .
o on or a
N 8 1 8 k = 0 1 7 1 6 k 0 2 3 85 1
g0n
e Ht (20 5 1 0 1 7 ; 0
2 lg
‘
2 , , . . v .
, p .
, cu .
The cle ran e (f ll ed wi th exhaust gases ) h ld lb

.
a c i e
a t 4 92 d l 4 7 lbs lb
.
°
an or ,
at 605 and lbs pr ssure at t h b gi ing f su t ion stroke The
.
,
. . .
°
e e e nn o c
cu ft ) having a sp ec ifi c volume of cu ft p lb at
. .
, .
g as er
atmosphe c pres s re =and temperat re we i ghed lb = (V l t
. . . . .
ri u u o a
and cu per explos ion 0 83 77
. .
lb 0 08 2 2 Ai
'
r
cu f t w hi ch at 605 and lbs pressu e at
. . . .
°
r
we igh d lb cu ft per Total we ight f m ixt r ==
. .
, , _ .
a o u e
lb
. . .
heats m xt re
.
S p mfi K = l 4 1 4 3 ft K = 1 99 0 9 f t 1b
‘ ‘
'
e c 0 i u v s
From these
-
p
K —K = 5 7 6 6 f t
. . . .
. ,
v k i v
values and the previ ously gi ven tempe ature eq uat ions b = 84 Q F
p . .
°
r r
(absol ute ) Th i s i 25
, .
( °
re s
the value assumed b t t he d i fference need not be con
-
r
,
l v o tl an i
‘
’
s ere d i
er , u
81
0
Taki ng entr— py=at b zero the entro py ¢ — b = k log

¢ o as v e
k l og ( d
, c
¢ d 7¢
-
c p e r
¢ c ¢ d =ki ~
i: 1 l o ge(r d + )
~
re
— —
¢ § _ { 9gf
q cs 1 te a se ¢ b "
c a f
3 1
I
log ( b — ) = to Pos i t i ve entropy b
I I
e r i- r a
Negat i ve entropy e to b
,
“
The t w sums should exa tly bal ance t h sl ight di fler n b i g due
, ' ‘
o c e e ce e n
to“ i n ffi c iently extended calculat ions
,
su
The d iagram f the id eal cycle i rep esented by b d a (I V F g
.
“
or s r a c e i
= w k pe rformed by 1 lb f the mi
.
,
wh o se a r e a 5 th e, or o x
t u e The work p
.
r f 00 4 97 4 7 er o
The actual cycle i w t be cons idere T h cur ves b and d
. .
i t lb -
s s no o e e c
i t h entropy d iagram are correct but d ur ing expa s ion the ctual cu ve
s .
n e n a r
f pressures d iffers cons iderably from t h id l dotted curve d i t i
,
o e ea or an s
therefo e necessary t select several po i nts on the act al curve a d lcul te
.
r o u n ca a
t he te mperature and entropy t each The e val gi ve i the f l a
'
s ue s a r e n n o
l w i ng t able
.
o : a
V r
’
l
in Cu Ft
.
L nt r op y
‘
in D egs F
'
. . .
i
“
A t m j u st
'
relea se p 53 18 l h ; the pre sure at on i deal cur e
'
aft e r
'
¢ s v
abo ve m — t same
.
, , .
(y ert ical l y ms m (K , a r ,
1 4 4 ) X 0 74 9 X
The drop of nt py from to log—
.
e ro e
0 0099 1 whi h m st be subtract d from the entropy

.
J ‘
t c u e a
The ntropy at f i n excess of th t at

. 1 w
o
e a
conseq entl y t h e tropy t m= t py t d + addit i l t py t I

u e n
‘
a en ro
'
a on a i
en r o o
n e t r opy from I to
Gtf for p nt nm d are similarl y obtai ned t he resul ts be ng n luded
-
p ro i n
a ues oi sj n Q i i c
m above table - ,
i l .
‘
fl
82 B EA T AND T HE ST E A M E NGI N E .
tr n form d i nto work —

T he he a t area b dj l Thi s however doe n t
a s e a c oa s o
r pr ent t h total heat genera t ed d ri n the explos on The total ava l
.
, ,
i i
B gU (
e es e u
ble heat of each ex l i that of lb f
.
a os o n or o
who e calori fi c v B T U per To represent th i on
. . . . .
i s iie s s
3: d i ram prod uce b to p tha t -the area b-=
. . .
bpp e so
BT Li per lb of m i xture
a
the r se temperature
g |
b t ( rp r
--
r, f i in
from I due to complet combust ion )
. . . . r
) nd i e a t n
heat transformed i n t o w k = b dfl =y8 2

.
N t e or a c o
B T U p explo on or of the total ava lable heat H eat ven
er si i
to cyl i nder walls during compress ion eat
. .
. . . ,
B T U
ven to exh u t - ml l = The re ma nder (l l j d pm
. .
“ .
B T U a s a .a o i c s
i tran m itted through the cyl i nder wall and the tota
l . .
l
s l s s.
l t pass ing throu h wall
ie a B T U ==heat gi ven to s
k t water plus t at rad iated fro m t h exteri or urfa e of cylinder
. .
°
ac e e s c
d and p i ton
sa s
an i deal engine one w i th a non conduct i ng cyl nder complet e
.
I n - i
combust ion exhaust at cons t an t =volume ad iabat ic expans ion and com
,
pre ion ) the work pe r pl i and the max imum po s ible

. .
ss b ex os on a re a r s
work - 1 00 ( b ce nt of the total eat t 580 p er -
11405 of the B T U pe r explos ion e

net work actua lly obtai ned = 8 2 of the maxi mum The
. . . .
ame general method i mpl ed for o i l engi nes tempe ratures be n

. .
s s e o i
calculat d from P V = R etc n a Di esel engi ne where il i spra
,
e r o s
nto the cyl inde r under i pressure for 5 to 1 0 % of the combust i on tr ke
, .
i a r s o
k - O 2 64 (mean v lue ) d i f r i taken at
,
p . k = 0 1 875 a an s v . .
ST E AM T U R B IN E S .
Turb i ne are mach i nes i n wh i ch a rotary mot i on i obtai ned by me n

s s a s
of the gradual change of the momentum of a flu i d
In steam t urb ines the energy gi ven t by steam d uri ng it exp ans i o
.
ou s n
from adm iss ion to e xhaust pressure i transformed into mechan ical work s
e i ther b m of pressu e f the veloc i ty of the steam wh ile expandi n g
,
‘
e an s r or o
The B Lava] turb ine i one of pure impact n d con ists of a wh e l
.
e s a s e
carry ing a w of rad i ally attached vane or buckets The steam i
ro s s
del ivered t t h vanes from t t i i wh i ch i t i fu l ly ex anded
.
o l e se s a on ar n oz z e s . n s p
(th s atta in i ng the h ighest pract ica l veloc i ty ) and fter pass in g the
'
i e a
vanes i ex hausted e i ther mto the atmos here or i nto a condenser The
s
°
nozzl s i ncl ined to the plane of the w li l at an angle f the i nlet

.
e a re ee o
and outlet angles f the va es range from 3 2 to 3 6 odi to the n
° °
a cco r n
s i e of the turbine The best peripheral veloc ity i bout 4 7 % of t e steam
z s a
veloc ity Econom ical rea ons restrict i t to about ft per for
.
s sec
large wheels and 500 {t per for small ones R p m of wheels ra ge
. .
se c n
from to and are reduced to these values by hel ical gear
a . . . . .
s
In the Parsons tur bine a drum w ith rows of rad ial vanes revolves in a
.
stat iona y ca e B etween each row of movi ng vanes there i a ri ng of

r s s
vane fi xed to the case whi ch deflects the d irect ion of the ste m fl w to the
.
s a o
next rotat ing w of vanes The d iameters of drum and cas i g i ncrea e
ro n s
i ste s from i nlet to exhaust end the steam flow i ng through the vanes
.
n p
i n the annular space betwee n the drum and case The expans ion i p
.
s rac
t ically ad iabat ic
.
h R ateau m f t i l l l turb i ne i n fl t cons ists of a number of wh eels '
e u ce u ar e ec
of e De Laval t ype mounted s ide by s ide the same sh aft each wheel on
rotat ing i a compartment of i t w and the exhaust of each wheel be i ng
,
n s o n
l d thro h nozzles or open ings i the part i t i on walls to the next succeed
e n
" g w Step b y step expans ion and moderate speeds are thereby
oLt a n h
-
ee -
d i
In the Curti s turb i ne the nozzles del i ver steam at a veloc i ty of about
f t per and th is veloc i ty i absorbed by a se ries of movi g vane
sec s n
wheels on a vert ical shaft wi th alte rnat ing fixed ri ngs of stat ionary gui de
. . ,
bl l ar s im ilar to Parsons arrangement

es .
’
W hen t h i ni t ial veloc i ty h been absorbed the steam i i expanded

.
e as s a n
through another t of nozzles to a further series of whee and on se s. so
B y th i com ound i n g the eri heral speed i kept down around 400 ft
.
s p p p s
I the follo w i ng t able the pressur s ga ge pre re
.
pe r sec . n e are u ssu s .

84 n ew A ND m a s mau m c mn .
ividc l d ro f mu by ( l t W
t a i ne f m or v a ue ob
M la --
M CE
fi g
a J
u r a
.
‘F o c deg , F O f s pe he t
e te u rb
. 7 .
l a w-P re ss u r tE x ha u s t S a m) T
1 lb o f sa t u ra d am w rk g e we n
t e s te o in b t e 1
ab
.
t 1 1 -
l b a nd be t w
a
g g e It! o u s ; ee
a va u um bo t
3
.
corm n‘ mdm t o Z S Q-i n c a u

g
fr m ord nary eng ne a m x t u e f
.
o an i i is i r o s
I t ti
ns to boutu rc f i lb Tb a - s.
l in the l w pressure
n
n vn il a i e g i t h h gh o -
ra n e as n e i
t il i z i ng t h ener m
.
li iiie u f th h t t an 3 e O e ex aus s e r ro
engi ne w il l pm t i l ly uh l t h po outp t on t h e me fuel
,
o r zi i o e e i ve r u sa
t i n and w i thout odd t o
‘
l b l
o
o , p i z na ox e r ca uc
n o 0,
L O C O M O T IVE S .
W
0
T ra i n R es i t a n ce 12 - 3 s . ,
10
Pocket B o k ) ; R = 3 + — g ( B ld w i n Loco
o ; a .
( ell ngton ) ; R
W i = 4 + —V a
,
2
(We ll mgt o n p
v
l on tan y
‘
s
i
w
» "
l
in g . R,
u"
the fo mul s R == e i t per t n t l ba lbel
it
In se i r lb a E r s s a n ce n s. au
or fi t in m i les per hour N = in t rain
l , , “
rs mb fw i nu er O ears
‘
=we ght of tra n ton of d w = wt of n

,
ms
,
‘
i lb a n in s o e c
‘
i s an r i
R es istance du to grade i n l b per t (2 000 l b ) R = 0 3 7880 W re
.
, . . .
e s on s e
G a d in f t per m ile
.
, , , z .
u
ra e es
t
Curve wh re A m n i of i rm
.
tM i lb p t
re S i s ce , n s r on . e a z a gc i
'
de re s (The n l of a il w c rv is the angle t t h

.
e
in g e
t r sub
a g e
ra v u a e 06 P
‘
i e
f 1 00 ft r adi us of a curv e of 4
.
;
b I h d T h l c or gre o
‘
(a e
S f:
‘ e
.
' _ .
A
A c e le rat ion resis t ance ( du toch ange
c W): e
W r V i t h hi gher d s e
R g
e s ee
0 1 re i t a ce
1 .
0 1 s s n :
Ho e
.
rs
T a ct i v e P o we r man t exceed t h adhe si on which f m ?f
H
x f
’
f th w ig ht on th e drp
v n es ro
vers when ra il s e wet or fr sty a
r o e , i ,
’
o e e ar o 0 e )
At start n g be atta i ned by t h f sand
. ,
d r m use o
y t p w =d m
i a e
:
where d and 1 a respect i vely t he d am s
.
'
-
ra n i v e o er s s ( 1 re i
of c yl i nder and dr i vers in i p the m an f t i p ess r i lb p r
.
t’ '
n e ec ve r u e n s e
i l
. .
,
k M P bbile p ssu e W ”
” i t e ii inan t JEL a s ro
‘
1 i
V3
‘
x
l t re r e
"
of c
. .
ues :
i i a wa t a m t I ' m n n -
The ver ge m e p decre ases the p iston speed i ncreases

a a as as shown
i n the fol l w ing from B ullet i No I A m R y E n g of
. . .
,
o M mt n a en an ce
W y A ssn
. .
.
. . :
a
P is ton l (ft per 2 50 3 00

s i ie e t4 00 500 600 800 l 200
'
m
.
,
.
54 26
For mp engi nes of t he V l i 4 yl t ype T t i

co ou n a uc a n
'
-c
rac
Where p b il press u e n d D =d
.
,
W(Q
“ 4d
p res u e y ] i a o ei : r a
31 n cros ompound om i t d from
.
,
s0! a 2 r C 4 3 e is-c 2
T he t ract ve p wer dec ease
; .
.
-
th i o r s -a s e
f ll wmg table W here di m f d i ve
.
o o t k r ~ s ro e +
take n un ity
. a . o r r .
p erh r. 18 as .
.
N r
f
l fll ' '
i C
i IP QN Q T W
W m
’ M i ii (855
W ei gh t Tra in i n tons fp average fre ight wor k (i nclu ing en gi ne

of
fl
r - d
an ender) we h
,
e ight t i ve p
ifli gy Tb t aken
w r l 6
( W fi h fi ?l oc o) t 2
+ 2 0 X (g p n t T
=
h
e e g
Pract ve
A
t o e
+
ra e 4 n: e r ce . i
o f h ca rr g a e as r
‘ ’
. .
_
. i
p w
'
o X V g87 5 ?
er -
f
Gra te A rea i sq? f t = d C (d d i
z 5
mt
.
F p n fi ?s -
an s n or ex re ss oc o o i ves ,
i mfl C compou d For
.
1 9t 2 88 1 aV
‘ ‘ -
n C
o = 1 18 e ra
'
s e, g e
fre ig h t l ofm t iv s s imple C = 250 t 290 ve y h avy
.
,
oc o f e o or r e
g od ac ce comp und
, ,
mp = 3 2 t o 1 97 : (F o
co d; C g lo un
f o p t
- i ) or r or
~
locos d = diam t =p y l ? f
.
' _
c f
t n passenger ocomot ves
. . . .
H i S u fa G t a X C F l C = or
ge r ce ra e re a i
For 1 00 ( best
. ,
47 g o = 70 f g d p t i ) f ig ht i C = or65 t oo ra c ce : re ocos o
pra t i e h y l C = 78 to
.
,
c c on a o co s .
,
wher e w; we i gh t on
.
g
5 42 5/d w — p 3- ar
-
mp imd e ngine re
.
1 ,
'
yl i
‘
p c n a co o
D i am i f
g .
t 1 2) X . ‘ o .
Under favo able ondi t ion r -

c s bne 4
N
ase of an i nsi d c yl take t heweigh t

c
w
'
e .
r =?adi us b f! f nk i '
c c a
be t w ee n center f wheels c
m
s o
w
T -
.
of eri t 1 1 as
‘
‘
ce ri t e rr
g
‘
33
Wr i i n
f
2
'
; be ween r d g
d
- _
:R
v
t
“
. j to a i us .
{ f bal an c ew eight f ro m whee l nt er d t héc nte r l i n e h i t h near cr ank

“ ‘ ’ '
-
"
o an e
W
-
-
e
cy s both ba nc t
,
l w t T ll w m m
’
u d F f i i
ced r la e e i g h or i h i n t
ns h q d t e -
s a ua n
n ied by the produ ed ce nt er l ines of t h cranks F outs ide 351
.
u (5
J wt
c e or 8
egat ve and t h bal anc w i ghts
. .
idfl
h
a i s-n t id ft h d g t — a re o u s e o
- v
ua n
i -
e e -
e e sa r
h t h U S t h e b al ance w ight are fi nall y di f i d d b tween the w ls
.
“
i e - s e e
o p led tog t her i E gl t h ey e c n ent rated the dr iv rs he
.
;
-
c u e h n an ar o c on e
me thod educes t he h ammer Si ms 0 1 t r il s n?) t til l j
”
.
U ~
r -
: ? a a o s ei
Eles se Zt h i ; so me bu l der bala ce l y 75 % i th f p t i g w i t
.
, , ,
' '' ' "
J '
s i s n on o e ec r r oca n e
fol l ws O t h w ighl equal
, .
A ot h l i
'
n en n i e s as - o - n- e a e
t o h lf rod
- -
—
.
: e t h ne w i g h t -
f t hafb k d f t h e g e; t i g pl t
e o e ac en o onn ec n i s on e
half he we igh t; ET the front end f d pi ton pi t Q
-
n t in g d o con ec q o s s n - ro
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; , , ‘ ,
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.
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'
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-
r
,
f th
-
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3t Q b Oppos ite t h crank at the

.
, ,
e
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.
S T EA M -
BOI L E RS . 87
ST E A M B O I L E R S - .
H o s P ow e
r e-T h capac i ty f a bo i ler i s full y exp ress d by stat ing
r. e o e
the quant i ty f water it i capable f evaporat ng i a g ven t me under
o s o i n i i
gi ven cond i t i ons and the H P f the steam so generated depends ent rely o i
the economy f the engine i whi ch it i used There i however
. .
,
on o n s s,
a commerc ial de ma d f rat ing bo il ers i n terms f H P and the
.
,
n or o
comm ittee has recommended the fol lowi ng The un i t f commerc i al H P
. .
: o
developed by a boiler shall be lbs f water e vaporated per hour from
. .
o
a feed water temperat re f 2 1 2 F i nto dry steam f the same tempera
.
°
u o o
ture hi ch i equ i valent to B T U per ho r and also pract i call y
- .
-
s u
equi valent to an evaporat ion of 3 0 lbs f water from 1 00 F nto steam
. . .
,
°
o i
at 70 lbs gauge pressu e
. .
r
H eat i n g S rf a c e i s ll that surface wh ch surrounded
. .
u a i is on on e
s ide by water to be heated and the other by flame heated gases on or
H eat i ng su face i n sq f t H where Q = q f water evap
.
A = Q r t it y c + u an o
orated per hou H = t t l heat f the steam at bo=iler pressure and=c f
. .
, , _
r o a o or
locomot i ve boilers = 90 f Scotch mar ine bo ilers 1 80 f Corni sh = 2 2 0
, ,
or or
for plai n cyli nder = 2 80 for ret rn tub lar and water tube bo ilers 4 00
, , ,
u - u -
R el at i v e V a l e o f H ea t i n g S f a c e per sq ft compared wi th flat

.
,
u s ur s
plates Flat plate above fi 1 ; cylin drical surf e above and concave
. .
re , ac
to fi re , same but convex flat surface at ri ght angles to the
c urrent f hot gases water tube su face same as last slop i ng
, ,
o - r
s urface at s ide f and inc li ned to the fi vert ical s urf ace at s ide
, , ,
o re,
o f fi re , locomot i ve boil er tubes not more than 3 ft from fi b — re - ox

tube plate H ori zontal su faces underneath the fi and the lower
, .
r re
hal f f i ntern lly heated tubes are t cons idered as e ffect i ve
,
o a no
R a ti o f H ea t i g S fa c e t G r t e S r f ce Plai n cyli nder 1 0
.
o n ur o a u a
to 1 5 Scotch mar ine and Corn ish 2 5 to— 40 ; Lancash ire 2 6 to 33 ; hori
. ,
°
t i return tubul a 30 to 50 ; water tube 35 to 65 ; locomot i ve 60

, ,
z on a - r,
to 90
, ,
Ar ea f T b e an d G P a g e A rea near bridge w 11 = l grate

.
s o u s as ssa s. a
area T be a ea u to Xg t r surface f anthrac i te and ra e or
to 0 1 7 X g t area f b itum i nous coal both at moderate rates f
.
ra e or o
combust i on (B arrus )
.
,
H l di n g P ow e f T be E xpanded only to
.
o r lb ; O u s. s
expanded and flared to lbs
, .
B o i l e E ffi c i e n c i e the pu pose f compar i son i t i s customary

.
,
r F s. or r o
to express the evaporat i on in lbs f dry ste am per lb f pure combust ible o o
and order to e l i mi nate the fi t f vari at i on i n the t mperature of
. .
,
in e ec s o e
the feed water the resul ts are redu ed to what i termed the equ i valent
- c s
“
f m and at 2 1 2 F (See page The complete combu t ion

,
” °
e va p ti
or a on ro . s
o f 1 lb f p re carbon wi ll evaporate
. o u lbs f wa t er from . o
and at 1 92 A mer i can bo il er tests summ ar i zed by H H Suplee

gi ve per lb f fuel whi ch may be cons idered as g od pract ice
. .
lb s o o
ordin ary aver be ing from 6 t 8 lbs p l b f fuel lbs evaporat ion
. .
, ,
3 o er o
generall y t e best obtai nable from hi gh grade fuels l ike Pocahontas
. . . .
is -
and Cum berland coal s O ne test however i recorded showi ng an evapora s

t ion f lbs per lb f C mberland coal
.
, ,
o o u
P e f o m n c e f B o i l e (D K Clark ) w = A + B where w = l b
. . .
r r a O rs r2 c, s.
water e vaporated from and at 2 1 2 =F per sq ft f grate per hour = t i
. . .
°
o r ra o
f heat ng to grate surface and fuel per sq ft of grate per hour
. . .
,
o i lb c s
A nd B are respect i vely a fo l lows Stat ionary bo il ers and 9 56
, . . . .
a s :
°
mm and portable and locomot i ve an d

,
c. . ,
9 ?
M a t e i al a n d T e t r (From Am B o il er Mf rs A ssn Un i f orm Spec i
s s s. . . .
fi ti
ca )
on s
Ca t I on Should be soft gray and h i ghl y duct ile ; used only f
.
s r or
hand hole lat es m n heads and yokes
. , ,
-
a -
S t eel open hearth or cruc i ble

, , .
m g o o e n eo u s -
S h el l P l a t e n ot ex po e d t o d i e c t h e t Tens ile Strength (T S

. .
lbs per q in ; elongat ion > 2 4 % i 8 in Phosphorus (P ;

s s r a
to
.
s n
and S lph r
. . . .
u u
S h e l l P l a t e e po ed t o di e c t h e t s x to lb s r a s
el ongat on > 27 % i n 8 ia P < 0 03 % and
. .
,
i .
, .
88 ne w A ND r an S T EA M E NG I N E .
re B Pl ate (expos d t d i ect heat )

Fi - ox s to lb e o r . . s .
,
l
e o ng a t im > 30 % i 8 i i P < 0 03 % d n n an
Test M e c c be 8 i n l ng W th a cross W dth
.
, .
>0 5 q == se ct i n n s in
tand bendi ng dou l d being hammered do wn flt p n =tself Awe

a to ; u i -
i
ed m hi ned Up to i n th i ckness pl a e
. . .
> tmk
.
t
0r
s
c n ess . s
t
e an
ac . .
a
’
u n i
i n i t m t stand bend ng 1 80 around a mand rel of d i am B e nd
.
‘
°
us 1 5L i
i g te t p ieces must not be less th n 1 6! in length edges must be m ach i ned
. .
.
n - s a
and pi eces must be cut both lengthw i se and ww from late
,
cross e
R i v ets must be of good charcoal i ron or f of t m i ld steel same
.
vi o s n
pro pert i es fi b iates They must be tes t ed hot and ld b y l in ox co r v
down an anv il W l the head i a di by ni k in n d be nd n g and bg
as re - .
i
‘
on n c a i
be nd i ng bac k on t he mselves cold ll Wi th ut devei ping cracks flw
l . e.
a o or a s
T bes to be of charcoal ron mi ld t eel made for thi s p rpose lap
.
.
'
u i or s u
we lded drawn Tube must be round stra ight free from bli ste s
,
or s r
scal es and other defect an d d nder an i t m i h y d sm es ur
.
, , ,
ti
Stan dif thi ck esses o s
u a r
g 13 p
s n e i c e
of 500 l b per q to
.
s s in n o r
1 } i n tubes No 1 2 for 2 to 2 & in 1 1 for 2 } to 3 i No 1 0 fo S f
. . . .
N o n r
and 4 i No 9 for 4 } and 5 in
. . .
,
.
. . ,
n
Tu be Tes t A sect i on cut fro m one t be se lected at rand om f rom a
. .
s. u
lot of 1 50 or le must stand hammering down vert icall y when co ld wi t h J
ss
out racki ng or S pl tt ng Tu bes mu t also stand expan d ng fl an ge o ver
c i i s i
on tube pla t e
.
,
F o tubes 1 to I } 2 to 2 s at to 3 } seto 4 44 t 5 in i n dia m

'
r o . .
Len gt h of t es t piece =
= i 1 I } 1} l i in .
S ta y B ol t of iron or mil d steel must show on an 8 i test p iece

lbs ela t ic l imi t > 26 000 l b l on g t i > 22 g
s n
foll ows Iron
.
: s s e a on
sect io s under 1 q i and > 2 0 % for la ger sect ions fi
, , .
,
f
or n s n r
For ste l the e values are respect i vely
. .
,
lb > 3 o l b s ; > 2s%;

s pp
-
a s s .
, , .
b i ng allowed any p late w h i ch i not d by d l ig t t t h po i t work d

p n a i d at least 4 i beyond it R oll in g t o i g
e on s re a a e n
al in c m
“
u o r n e u re en
from t h flat plate to a true cyl indrical s rface in c u g t h l p h
. .
5
h ul d q al t h a t ga
"
‘ ‘
e u n e a e
th i ckness of bum ed or sph eri cally d ished he
.
‘ ‘ '
8 s o
'
p e7 u
cyl nd r al sh ell of sol id pl t whose d iam i e qua to t h rad i us of uvaf
.
‘
ture of the d shed head an i ncrease of t b ing l k en t o allowf r i

i ic a e . s e c r
i , e a o P
S T EA M -
BOI L E RS
w i th round nose tools cal ki ng edges to be pl n ed sheared or ch i p d

-
a
to a be vel F n ish ng may be done wi th a square nose tool if care i ta en
, , ,
i i -
s
to avoid n i c k i ng the lower plate Safe work i ng per sq on
.
i re ssu re n
flat s rfa= es where t ==t hi k plate i 1 6 t h of an
. . .
u c : c ne ss 0 n s
i nch p f stays and C l l 2 f plates i and less wi th
” 1
pit c o in in or n
r i veted screw stays 1 20 for pl t > € i wi th ri veted sc w stays and
,
.
, 1; .
,
a es n re
1 40 for all plates where the screw stays have i addi t i on a nut ins ide and
, g .
,
n
outs ide the plate T hi s latter i imperat ive when the feed water contai ns s -
salt ac ids al kal i

.
or
T be holes sho ld be punched i i less than tube d i am and reamed
.
, ,
u u n
drilled holes be ing sl ight ] coun tersu k both s ides F i ni shed holes
. .
or n on
to be from to in larger t an tube accord i ng to s i ze If copper ferul es
, .
1 ‘
3: T;
are used the ferules shoul d b a neat fi t in the holes The tube sheet
.
, .
should be annealed after punc hi ng and before dri ll i ng d the tube ends
, .
an
before sett ng Tubes t pro j ect ¥ i b d sheet for each inch
,
i f o n on
d iam T bes to be expanded only u t il t igyt E nds whi ch are exposed
.
1 c . e o
u n
to di rect flame must be flanged be aded over and sl ight ] expanded
. .
re -
Copper ferules (No 1 8 to N 1 4 wi re gauge ) t be used i tube bo il rs
,
o o n re - e
ends exposed t di rect heat Stay bolts to be carefully threaded and
. .
on o
holes tapped W th a tap extend ng through both plates B olts to pr ject i
.
i o
i d i am f ri vet ng over T ickness f nut f screw stays > 0 5 di am
.
or i h o s or
f stay If weldi ng i necessary in braces and
. . . .
o Pi t h f t y < iO i c o s a s n s
stays take strengt h f welded of soli d bar B race
. .
o
r ivets subject to obli que pull are all owed to bear only half the st ess
.
on e - r
o f seam r i vets M anholes to be flanged i wa ds a di > 3t and n r on ra us
are to be re inforced by W I steel ri ngs wh ich are shrunk on D omes
.
or
when unavoidable to be flanged down to shell and the shell t be fl anged
. .
, .
o
up ins ide the dome or else re in forced by a coll ar flanged at the joint flan ges
,
be i ng double ri veted D rums to be put wi th steel coll a fl g > i i

,
-
on r an es 1 n
th ick double r i veted to shell and drum and s ingl e ri veted to neck leg
. .
- -
or
the flanges may be formed the legs
, ,
or , on
Safety factors ri vet seams flat surfac s bumped heads stay
.
e
bolt braces and stays 5 H ydrostat ic test pressure shoul d not exceed
, , ,
s,
the worki ng s t e am pressure by more than i of i tse l f and thi s excess should
, .
not be greater tha 1 00 lbs per sq i The temperatu e f test ing water
,
n n r o
should t be less than 1 2 5 F
. . .
°
no
Bo d of T a d e ( B T ) nd U S S t a t t e P op r t i o n n d R l e
.
ar r a u r o s a u s.
M a te i al Shell s ; T S from 2 7 to 3 2 tons elongat i on i 1 0 i
. . . .
r s. 1 8% n n
(if an ealed stri ps to stand bend i ng unt il s i des are parall el
. .
, .
n 2 i n
and not > 3 t apart Wh en t = < 0 5 i n contr ct i on must b =
.
,
or a e
> 5o% from to > 4 5 % and above
. .
or i n
St ay Same T S as shells elongat ion i 1 0 Steel
,
s n
stays welded worked i fi not to be used A llowable load
. .
,
or lb n re s
per sq in net sect ion R duct ion f area must b > 40 % i f
. .
on e o e
test bar i > 0 75 i n i d am A llowable load = 6 000 lbs per sq
. . .
s in n i
No t a t i o n =for the foll owi ng B oiler= P oport i ons D = b il d i am t =

. .
.
, . . .
= r o er
th ic kness t t hi k= i n 1 6 ths p g t t p i tch between stays L c n ess r e a es
p i tch f fl nges d =t id di am f tubes= W = wid t h f flame b l =
, 1 , ,
o a ou s e o o ox
lengt h f gi rders p pit h f bolts between cen t ers
, . .
, , l
o D di t f c o s an ce o
gi rders d éd pt h f gi rders t = m f gi rder t hi ckn esses D = l
, , , 2
e t o su o e as
hori zont l d stance between centers f tubes d = i ide tube d i am W
, l , 2 , 3
a i o ns
w idth f combust ion b from tube plate to back f fi b : l l i
, 2 1
o ox - o re- ox a n
i nches P and T are work i ng pressure and tens le stren gth i n l b pe r i s
sq i S = f supported i sq i D ==outs ide flue d am ft= l =
. .
h sur a ce n n i in
length of f rnace (up to 1 0 ft ) i feet safety per
. . .
. .
, ,
u E n
centage of strength f joi nt =compared to soli d plat
.
,
o e
B o i l e r S h ell s ngle
.
P 2B T t DF s 3D f + -z
-
or i
ri vet i ng A dd 20 % f double r i vet ing

.
or -
Fl= t Pl a t e
. .
a s
C 1 25 f plates not exposed to heat flame stays fi tted W th nut
or or i s
and washers the latter at least 3 X di m f stay and h v mg a t h ck
,
a o a i
= § t of plate
.
,
n e ss
same but wi th d i am f washers = § p itch f stays and of
.
o o
thi ckness not less than that of the pl te
, . ,
a
200 same but w ith doubl ing plates i pla e of washers whose
.
n c
of stays and t hi k f plate
, , ,
= th t c n e ss a o
same but stays fi tted wi th nuts onl y
.
,
.
,
90 n ear A N D T m: ST EA M E NG I N E .
O ~ 7S for plate p d to heat or flame steam be i ng i n con t act wi th s ex ose

the pl t stays fi tted where C - 12 5 above
.
a e s, as
same cond it ion but stays fi tted wi th nu t s only
.
,
- 100 for plate exposed to heat or flame water be ing i con t t wi th

.
.
s n ac
the plates stays screwed into plates and fi tted W th nut
,
i s
00 same cond it ion but stays w i th ri veted head s
.
,
( Above l m for steel plate ; for i ron plates take 80 % of ame )

.
,
S ) P—
va u s s .
C—
( fh é p -- ’
i l 2 for plates { i n and under wit h w stay bolts and nut

. . .
w ith pla i n bolt 1t t d wi th s i ngle n ut d k t or wi th r i vet e d

’
.
, scre s
e an soc e
head and socket
,
1 2 0 for plates th icker than for same fasten ings

.
i 1 n
1 4 0 for flat surfaces stays fi tted w i th i ns ide d ou t s i de nut
1; . .
an s
200 same for C = 1 40 but w ith the add i t ion of wa her ri veted
, .
as s
to plate whose th i cknes i at L a t 0 5t of plate and whose di am
. ,
s s s
= 0 4 X p it h of stays
. .
,
c
B Plates fi tted w i th double angle i rons and ri veted t wi th
. .
l t o a e
leaf at least i t of plate and depth at least { X pit h are to be r
-
lowed the
.
c a
same that determ ined for plate wi th washer ri vet d
ressu r e as e on
No race or stay bolt i n a mar i e bo iler to have a p i tch great than
.
n er
i fi
n boxes and back connect ions
. on re - .
3 o t L
i
12
Pl ate fo r Fl a n g i n g s P= q ( 6; t
5 — Th i s formul a i
'
s
for the stren t h of furnaces t ifl d wi th flanged se ams where L < 1 20t 1 2 s

'
en e
the flanges c ing properly des i g ed and formed at =one heat
,
n
F r n —a c e Fl es Lo n g f n a ces where
.
P Ct 2 -i
u u ur
C = 88 00 0 for s ingle strap butt joints i l ri vet d
.
l > (l l 5t l ) - -
s n o- e
for welded joints butts w ith s ingle s t aps d l ri vet d
.
.
, ,
or r ou e- e
and also for double strap butt joints s ingle ri veted
,
- -
P from above form ula shoul d not exceed the value gi ven by the foll owi ng
.
formula for short and pate nt furna es c
S h o rt F r n a ce Pl a i n n d Pa t e n t where
.
u P= t D s, == a c + c
for plain furnaces ; for Fox (max and min t = i and fi in
l ,
and pla=i n part < 6 i long for M orison same cond it io s

. .
g .
n n as
Fox ; l 4 000 for Purves rown (max and mi t = i and i p lai n
.
,
1
n n
part < 9 i long )
, . .
1 ; .
,
n
Lo n g F r n a c e exceed 8
.
P = 89 600fl ZD
.
u (I t t s -
no o
S h o rt F r n a=ces where = 1 4 000 for Fox (D ,
,
u c
mean l 4 00 0 for Purves B ro wn ( D = fl f
,
-
ue or
pla in flues > 1 6 i d iam and < 40 i d iam when t over 3 t lengths
, ,
n n no
Stay G I d where C = 6 600 for
. . . . .
r ers
1 bolt for 2 3 bolts and for 4 bolts
,
or
T u be Pl ate —W D Crushi ng stress on
, .
P = 20 000 t (D s
tube plates caus d by pressure on top f fl m be lbs
, 3 3 .
t e o a e ox o
per sq
.
in
A i Passa g e through grate bars should be from 3 0 to 50 % f grate
. .
r s o
a ea t he larger the better i order to avoid stoppage of i supply by
r
n a r
cl inker but w ith li k l coal much s mall er areas may be used
. ,
, c n e r ess .
C O M B U ST I O N .
Combust ion or burn i ng i rap id chem ical comb inat ion accompani d s e
by heat and somet i mes l i ght dur ing w hi ch heat i evolved equ l to th t s a a
requ ired t separate the elements
.
o
h burn i ng of a s i mple hydrocarbon marsh gas ) the omb
.
i n t e c us
t ion be ing com lete
,
p
Marsh G + 0 = Carbon D i (Steam ) ;
,
id + W t x en ox
gg
as e a er
CH 1 C0 2H 0
4
“ “
2 2 2
or tak i ng the atom i c we ights of C H and O 1 2 1 and 1 6 respect i vely

, , , as , , , ,
i 1 6 lb 64 1b e 44 1b 36 lb
or 1 lb 4 lb y ields lb lb
.
. .
, . . .
. . . .
A lso 1 lb 0 burnt to 0 0 yi elds B T U and 1 lb H burnt to

yi elds d as 1 lb lb c + i lb H then
.
, . . . .
B T U an
lb n + o yi elds x 0 7 5 = 1 0 9 50 B T U
. .
. . . .
,
. .
. .
= H +O x 0 25 . 1 5 , 500
T ot al
92 c T A ND T m: ST EA M E N GI N E .
marked are generally selected for bo i ler tests on account of a vail

( h o ls
ab il ity excellence f qual i ty and adaptabil i ty to various k nds of furnac s o i e
grat s bo i lers nd methods of fi ring
. , ,
e a
The number of B T U per lb of co l i calculated by means of
.
, .
’
G t l s a s ou a
formul B T U r lb of where C - pe rcentage of
. . . .
a
fi xed carbon i t e coal V - pe rcentage of volat ile matte i the c al
. . . .
-
n n o
and var iable depend in g on the rat io V of t he volat le matter t
, ,
o
(n u t i o
the amount of combust i ble the coal
;
in
V alues of
.
'
l ,
Th is formul a i fa i rly accurate where the perc ntage of fi xed carbon s e

i above 60 ; whenever exact res l ts are requ i red a c alori metri c dete rm i na
s u
t ion of the heat ing= value of the part icular fuel should be m de a
W ood l 2 8 cu i t about 75 ft of whi ch are soli d wood
.
1 d co r
of dry wood are about e ual t 1 lb of soft coal i heat ing e ffect
. , . .
lb s o n
A verage wood ( perfectly dry ) a cal rifi c value of about
. . .
B T U as o
per ih ; i f ord i ary i dried (2 5 % moisture ) about B T U per lb
. . .
n a r-
Petrol e m A verage Sp
. . .
. , , .
u H + O O2 2 O
B T U per ( Beaumont Tex cr de il
. . . .
. . . , .
, u o ,
D i st i ll a t e fro m Petrol e m (O H to H m) vary

s from to u
7 77% C and from to 0 628 to
O ?
H ” =
B T J per lb from
g r
B o il ing po int varies from 8 6 to 4 95 F to
. . . .
.
-
° °
. . .
G Fu el s
as per cu ft Natu al gas coal gas r -
to — water gas 2 90 to gasoli e gas

. .
, ,
-
n -
producer gas ant hrac i te bitum inous

. , ,
M i s cel la n eo s F el per Spent t anbark

~
, , ,
30 9
(sugar c ane re ( )
u u s
water ) to (dry ) ; straw to bagasse
, 3
-
use
when fi b = 4 5 % ; corn (ord in ary condi t i on ) to (dry )
, ,
re
D raft C hi mn e y
.
,
. s.
Gale M e i er I g Taschenbuch -
n .
'
0
Area A Di am d = 0 2 4 2 F
.
, . .
, .
e ght 1
O
H i , : .
W here F = t t l coal burnt per hour in lbs t = t mp f di scharge o a ses o a

fee t (A i n sq g
e
G = q ft of g ate area d = in t l di am i
.
.
,
in s t h r e rn a n
in The larger results obtai ed from the Taschenbuch formul as are
. . .
, . .
,
n
probably due to the inferi or evaporat i ve power f Ge rman coal o s .
°
I n t e n s i t y of D raf t (f)
7 4
1 i n i nches f w t = h
(T
— — 5
) m
w h . o a er
°
-
, e
T and T are respect i vely the absolute temperatures of the external i

2 1
a r
and the c im y gases at the ba e of ord inary chi mneys ranges from
2
ne s
to In locomot i ves the vacuum i nduced by the steam blast
.
i n
varie from 3 to 8 inches of water i n the smo k e box and i about i as much
. -
s - s
i n the fi re b The best v alue f T = 2 T
- ox about 585 F o or
°
rat r of C h i m n ey G ase To determ ine same approxi mately

.
1 2, .
T m e c u s s.
s us p str ps of the followin g metals i n the c hi mney and not those whi ch
en i e
,
m lt e
Metal Sn Pb Zn Sb
.
Bi
Melt ing po i nt F 4 56 518 630 7 93 8 10 -
,
V el oc i ty of C h i m n ey G ases .
tem p — i t e mp ) a r .
X him y temp c ne
(Temp i
.
n
D r ft P ress u res req i red fo r C o m b st i o n o f F u el (i n i nches
.
a u u s
of wat r ) W ood e to . sawdust to do wi th small coal
, , .
, ,
BO I LE R A CC E SO R Y A PPA R A TUS S .
to ste am coal to slack to d very smal l o

to semi anthrac i te to anthrac i te to
, , .
-
d o
sla k to
, . .
,
c
R te f C om b t i o n (lbs Of fuel per hour per sq ft f grat e area )
,
a o us o
A nthrac i t e 5 to 1 5 ; bi t mi nous 4 t O rd i nary combust i on may b
. . . .
26 u o : e
i ncrea ed 50 % by means f art fi c al draft I n locomot i ves the rate
. ,
0
s o i i
f combust i on ranges from 4 5 to 85 and e ven 1 2 0 l b L W grad e
.
O s O - or
refu e fuels may be ut il ed W th t fi m l draft the hi gh rate Of m
.
.
s iz i ar i a co
compensat i g for the l w e vaporat i ve power Of the fuel
,
b ti us on n o
M e c ha n i c l S t o k i n g I n the J ones unde rfeed stoker coal i fed
.
a s
i nto a h p r and pushed forward from the bottom thereof by a ste am
.
O
actuated p u ger i nto the retort fi box from beneath i be i ng i ntro
n or re- a r
d at the top f retort fresh coal approaches the fi from
,
d u ce A th O s e re
beneath it gases are l i berat d by the heat and pass upwards through the
.
s e
fi reand are consumed — idi g i the product i on Of heat — and the coal a n n
reaches the fi pract ic al ly k ed the product ion f smoke be i ng thus
, ,
re co o
avo i ded The manuf acturers ( Underfeed St oker C Ltd Toronto )
,
O
clai m that i ts use will e ffect a sa vi ng f from 1 8 t 2 5 % Of the fuel
. .
,
m O o as co
pared wi th hand fi i g -
r n .
C C E SS O R Y A PP AR A T US
B O IL E R A .
F eed W a t e H e a ti n g ob vi ate i n l arge me asure the strai ns that woul d

- r s
otherwi s be in duced by t od mg water nto the boiler at ordin ary
e in r uc i
t emperatures and also a fford cons iderable economy s
S v e n t b y h e t i n g feed w a t e w i t h ex h t t e
, .
i n g in p
a er c am a - r au s s
7 —
13 2
where 1
H = t t l heat Of 1 lb ste am at bo i ler pressure h = t t l
,
o a .
, 1 o a
eat Of 1 lb water before en t e ri ng heat er and h = m after leavin g

1
g
sa e
eater
.
, 2
For average cond i t ions there i s an approx i mate savi ng Of 1 % f eac h

.
or
i n cr e a f 1 1 in the temp Of feed water wh i ch may be heated as hi gh
o
°
as 2 i§ I g
-
.
,
1
G ee n E c n mi e i s a feed wat er heater composed Of tubes s o

r
’
s o o z r -
s i tuated in the fi nes between boil er and chi mney as to i n t ercept some Of
the heat Of the waste gases A the temperature Of steam from 1 00 t s o
200 lbs press re ranges from 3 3 8 t 38 8 F ll heat i ch i mney gases
.
° °
u o a n
above these temperatures i wasted unless a port i on f i t c an be absorbed
.
s o
in some such manner A verage chi mney temps re ach 600 F °
Economi zers e ff ect a gai n i evaporat i ve power Of from 6 t fai r

. . .
n o
res 1 s i g set at 1 0 to w i th a coo l i ng f flue ga es Of from 1 50
to 558 g
°
1 e n o s
)
C on d e n e In condensi ng the exhaust ste m from an engi ne a

s r s.
pa t i al vacuum i s formed and the gai n i

r power may be based the n on
i ncrea e Of the mean eff ect i ve pressu e by about 1 2 l b per sq i
s r s n
J t C o n de n er in w hi ch the exhaust i met by a spray Of coo l i ng
. . .
e s s, s
water should have a capa i ty =Of from i to i that f t h l w pressure cyli nder c O e o -
Q uant ity of water requi red 2 5 to 3 0 t f ste am t be condense d

, .
O o
Temp Of hot well = 1 1 0 to 1 2 0 F
. .
° °
-
S f a c e C o n d e n e r should have vert i cal brass tubes f m ax i mum

. .
ur s s or
effi ci ency and the water shoul d fl w downward th ough them T bes o s r u
shoul d be as long as pract i cable and Of small d i am Cool ing
.
t 1 o
su f ace f tubes = 1 to 3 sq ft per I H P accord i ng to cli mate lbs
.
r O
st am condensed per sq ft per hour i go d pract i ce Q f c i rcul at i ng
. . . . . .
"
e s o o
f steam condensed
. . .
o .
H —
5
I
Q for jet condenser i n lbs = —
t
—t
Q f surface d =
t t
t
where . . or con e n se r
he at f 1 lb e xhaust ste am =t = t mp f hot well i n 1 2 1

H = 1 1 14 °
o e O -
temp Of cooli ng water a d t t mp f water whe

, .
, .
t = t in en e r n e O n
leavi ng the con e mser Area Of i nject i on i fi = l b water per mi 650
1 .
, 2 .
or ce s n +
to 7 50 or area f p i ston 2 50
. . .
+
o
E v p o r a ti v e C on d e n e I n these the exhaust i led through a
, , .
a s r s. s
la ge number f p i pes cooled exte rnal ly by t ri ckli ng streams of water
r O
Th s wat r evap ra t s thus condens i ng the exhaust s t eam i n the p i pes
.
i e o e
wh i ch i then pumpe d back i nto the b iler Used whe re economy i
, ,
s o n
wat r consumpt i on i imperat i ve In w Ud ig d condensers f t h i s
.
e s . e es ne o
94 H EA T AND T HE ST E A M E NGI N E .
class 1 lb of water will condense 1 lb of s t eam agai nst the 20 to 3 0 l b as s.

of water equ ired i n jet and surface condens rs
. . ,
r e
P mps i n all condensers abstrac t t h water of condensat ion and
.
Ai r- u e
the ai r it or gi nally conta ined when enter i ng the boi ler I jet con d n se rs
i n e
they l o pump out the condens ing water and i t content of i T h
.
a s s ar e
si e of an pump i calculated from these cond i t ions l l w
.
b in g
n
ai r- s a o a c s
fi
z , e
p
mad e f fii i y V olume of Ai Pump in cu ft
or e
'
c enc
r p m . r- . .
where number of useful strokes per m i n q === ft of water condensed

. . .
u n
cu
per m i n Q = ft of cool i ng wat r per m i n for si ngle ct i ng and
. .
, .
cu e c -
a
for double act i ng pumps (For jet condensers only ) = 0 4 1 for
. . . .
, , ,
- c,
l act i ng pump d jet condenser for S i ngle act i ng pump and
. . .
i
s n s- an -
ace condenser and for ouble act i ng hor i zontal p m p and

,
an d -
u
jet condenser V l of s ingle act i ng= i p mp = V l Of low p es cyl 23
,
o -
a r- u O - r +
C i rc u l at i n g P m ps C p it y Q D i am of cyl i nder i n i nche
. . . . . .
u . a ac + n . . s
( For Q and Ai Pump ) 11 see r- s

valves should be large enough
.
wat r to fl w at a veloc ity e o
ft per mi n .
F ib l e Pl g screwed i nto those port i ons f boil ers where the

.
us u s ar e O
heat ing s rface fi rs t becomes exposed from lack f water They have
u O
a core of fus i ble metal at le t d am tapered to wi thstand i nt rn al
.
.
as in i e
pressure The U S Gov t spec ifi es B anca t i wh ich melts at 4 4 5 F
. .
'
°
n
Bismuth melts at 3 3 4 F 3 T i + 1 B ismuth at 39 2
. . .
.
° °
(2 T i n n
Safe t y -V l v e A re (U S ) Lever valves area = 0 5 sq in per
.
,
a s, a :
sq ft of grate area Spr ng load ed valves ; sq per sq ft f grate

. . . .
i -
in O
area Spri ng load ed valves for water tube co il and sect i onal bo ilers
. . . .
. . .
- -
carryi ng over 1 7 5 lbs pressure must have area > sq i per sq ft

. , ,
an n
grate area Seats to be i ncl ined 4 5 t ax is Spri ng d d valves to be
. . . . .
°
o oa e
suppl ied wi th a lever whi ch shall ra se valve from seat t a he ight equal
. .
i o
to at least d i am Of O pen ng i
a m q area m sq pre
. .
s s
sure Ph iladelph a R ule A rea sq area i .
.
i : in . n
s q .f t ——
) ( gauge
. pressure z Ingen ieurs Tasc henbuch = 0 0644 a .
p
where = arca f valve u i sq i n per sq ft Of heat ing s rface p = m
O n u ax
gauge pressure V = ft f steam per lb at pressure p
. . . .
,
, ou . . O .
I nj e c t o rs (L ive Steam ) ater i njected i g l p hour

.
W = 1 SOD W I T -
n a s er
°
where D = di m f throat m and P = t m pressure in l b per sq i .

.
,
a . O in e .
, s ea s n.
f
.
cu ft feed water per

.
A rea of narrowest part f nozzle

0
q O in a . in .
One lb s t e am w ill i nject about 1 4 lbs wat er A exhaust steam i nj ctor n e

w l feed aga inst pressures < 80 lbs the feed be i ng at about 65 F A
-
. . .
0
il n
aux l ary l ive steam j et can be attached to feed agai nst 1 1 0 l b pressure
.
, .
i i -
s
by compo nd ing another l ve ste am i njector wi th it a bo il er may
.
.
an d u i -
be fed up to about 200 lbs pressu e the feed rea h i ng bo iler i thi s cas
;
. ,
r c n
at about 2 50 F
.
, e
°
I nj e cto r v P mp S mg f fuel over amount requi red when a

.
s. u av O
d i rect act ing pump fee ds at 60 F (W thout heat r boiler evaporat ing
.
°
i e
wate r at 2 1 2 F per lb Of fuel )
- .
,
°
10 l b s . . . .
Injector fe d ing at no heater e savi ng

through heater (from 1 50 to
, ,
°
D i rect a t i ng pump through heater (from 60 to

-
c
°
Geared 60
S t ea m P ipe d = i id d i am
- t = t hi k n both i n i nche
s ns e c e ss ,
pressure lb per q m o
s
p - in . s . .
Copper P ipes brazed t = 6%o+ fi i ; soli d —d rawn t .

+4 in ,
'
a .
, , .
pd
Lap welded Iron P pes t 6 000 C st ron P pes t = 3
-
pd
m i ,
~ m
' a -i
i , ‘
Pro vi si on should be mad e for expansion i n long lines wh i ch amount

.
to about 1 i n 50 ft f the ran ge f t mperatures l l y employed

, s
. in . or o e usua .
96 HE AT AN D T HE S TE A M EN G N E I .
ln tw o 'cle e gi s t he c h arg i c omp ressed i n a se p r at c l i n d e

-c n ne s a e r,
i g i t i on d p i t ak i n g place on t he l or o u t w ar d st roke en gi ne
e
n an ex an s o n at 0
an d e x ha us on t he ret u rn st roke t t he re be i n g one m p ulse for e ac h -

i
re vol u t i on f fl y wheel Lar ge e n gi nes are also c onst ruc te d so as t g ve
o - o i
an i m p ulse on eac h st roke
.
Fuel s t he r m al e ffi c i ency of an i nte rnal c om b ust i on en g e i s

.
Th e -
in
i nc rea e d by h i gh com p s i on h on ly li mi t be i ng t hat t h tem pe rat ure
.
s re s t e e
at t he en d of t he com p ress i on m ust n ot approac h ne ar t ha t of i gn ti on
.
to i
m rat u re of i gn i t i on vari es i n ve rsely as t he n um be r f B T U
.
The te o
i n t he charge an d ri c h g ses the refore sho ul d n ot b h i ghl y
. . .
c o nt i
a ne a e
com p re s d sa ve i we ll d i lu ted c ha rges The li mi ts of com press i on m y
. .
,
s e n a
b exte nde d b y c oo li ng t he gases u d e rgo i ng c om p re s i on as i n the B an k
.
e n s i
motor w he re w at r i spra yed i nt o t he c yli n de r t a bso r b t he hea t gi ven
.
‘
e s o
d ri ng c om p ress i on and also as i n t he D i esel en gi ne w he re t he a i r
.
o ut u
i s com p re ssed t o i ts fi n al p re ss ure befo e t he fuel i in jec t e d
. .
r s
R i c h G a s e s (con t i n i n g o er 3 50 B T U pe r Coal c oke oven
.
a v cu -
an d natu al gases
. . . . . .
r
R i ch Mi xt ure Le an M ix t u re
.
. .
R i at o o f g t i as 1 6 to l 7
o a r 1 10 t l 15 : z : o :
Tem pe rat u re of i gn i t i on to F abs to F a bs
Com p ress i on l b pe r q i
. . . . .
, 55 s . 75 1 15 s . n . , u)
ME
i
70 85 65 78
Ex plos i on p ress ure pe r sq i n
.
2 10 2 85 2 85 3 55 . .
L e a n G a s e s (con t ai i n g less t han 3 50 B T U pe r c u Do wson n

prod ucer an d b last fu rn ace gases
. . .
,
.
-
. .
l : 1 to l :2
Tem pe rat re o f i gn i t i on u F a s b
Co mpre ss i on b in
. .
1 15 1 7 0 l s pe r sq
M ean e ffec t i ve p ressure
. .
65 78
Ex plos i on pressure . 2 55 3 55
The gas and ai r should e t horoughly m i xed efore i gn i t i on h i ch b b w

for ri c h m i xt es i s e i t he r y a hot t u e a val ve go ve rn ed flame o r y
ur b b b
, ,
an elect i c spark r For lean m i xt ures t he elect r i c spark i s used

, , .
u
. .
q uld F el s .
Gas ol i ne Ke rose ne Napht h a

Ben z i ne lcohol .
.
A .
.
.
I gn i t i on tem pe rat u re F a s 93 0 t o 985 t o b

C ompress i on l b s pe r sq i n
, .
40 70 55 i i5
( B an k i m otor ) (Di esel ) 4 5 0
. . .
1 70 2 10 5 00
Explos i on p ess ure l bs pe r sq i n r 1 70 2 85 1 40 285
( B an k i )
. . . .
565
l b s pe r sq i n
.
.
57 78 .
Li q ui d fuels are vapo i z ed efore mix i n Li ht o il s (ga sol i ne e tc ) r b

a e vapo ri zed y t he he at of t he a i r d ra n t roug o r ove r the m or they
r b w . .
may he at omi zed Heav i e r o i ls req u i re heat i n g i n orde r t o vapo ri ze

.
; a so l i n gas i s usuall y i gn i ted y an elect r i c s park — heav i er o i ls y t he b b

.
.
{ fe
-
.
w t i n'
A r g u
ve a e Va l e s f o Co p essi o (Luc ke ) Ke rose ne an d c i t y as r m r n
gasol i ne 8 5 l s ; n at ural g as 1 1 5 l s ; prod ucer gas 1 3 5 li s b b
.
.
80
b b b
. .
last fu maco ga s 1 55 l s
. .
,
-
( A l l p ressures are a solute )
u n m n r ur a
. . .
F e l C o s u pti o (C h ) p e B H P Ho an d act u al t herm l

e ffi c i enc i es ( Ow)
, . . .
Coal gas cu
Pr r
. .
od uce gas
A
( n t l v ac ite and coke \
,
B las t--fu na ce gas e f t

r . n . ,
Co k e o ven gas
G sol i n e
a b
.
l s
r
.
Ke o sene
A
.
l co hol 90 %
r r
.
Pet ol eum c u de
m r
. .
(D i ese l o t o s )
I N TE R N A L—C O M B U S T I O N ENG N ES I .
P ro p e rties o f F els u .
C Ft u i r Re A
u
. .
q i red for Com

BTU L b s pe r Cu Ft b u st i on of 1 Cu Ft
u b
. . . . . .
. .
pe r C Ft Cu Ft L Gas
A P
. . . . .
(H ) ( t m os pe
r er
. . ssu re .
Theore t ct ual A .
Co al gas aver 035 to 9 to 10

ity
- .
.
N Y ‘
7 10 to 720
Pr
. . .
od uce r gas :
A
n th rac i te
-
062 16
L i gn i te
.
to to
C
oke . . 075
W ate r gas (c oke )
-
. . 04 4
Blas t fu rn ace gas 08
C
-
. .
o ke oven gas
-
. 04 2 24
Nat u ral gas to 0 4 58 2 1 83
i tts urgh
P b
. . .
do 4 95 t o 585
A
.
cet ylene 18 t o 20
B T U pe r L b C U Ft . . A i r pe r Lb .
Pet roleum 1 8 500 .

2 50 to 3 50
( Ke rose ne ) 2 2 000
B en i ne
,
z 1 8 000 —2 0 000 43 8 2 40 to 3 20
Alcohol .
i , , .
gra n 1 0 900 51 9 96 125 to 1 90

,
w
. .
ood
On e poun d of c alc u m c ar i b i de l i be rates c u ft
. . of acet ylene gas .
C o ol i n g W a t e r ( °w hen en te ri n g c yl i nder j ac ke t at a b ou t an 60 F °
d
leav i n g at a o ut 1 50 F ) should b b e suppl i ed at t he rate of b
.
. l s 4 0 to 4 5 .
p e r hou r pe r I H P (o r 5 t o S uppl y t an ks sh ould h ave a c apac

i t y of 20 t o 30 gal pe r I H P
. . .
ct ual t he rm al e f c i enc y m A fi M ec han i c al

. . . .
E ffi c i e n c i e s o = 2 54 5
ef c i enc y Vi m B H P
fi nd i c ated t herm al e f c i e ncy I fi
. . ,
I H P 0: aw 0m
Theoret i c al t he rm al e fii cien cy
. .
. . . .
.
to 2 )m
,
’
A rag u
.
,
ve e Va l e s o f 11 m (Luc ke ) .
I H P o En g i ne Four —c ycle . . . f . .
500 an d l arger 8 1 t o 86 . . . .
2 5 t 0 500 . . 79 . 81
4 25 . . 74 . 80
B rak e r
H o s e - o w e = as pm rs P r ( E x 65 X ( 1 2 X 3 3 000 ) nd s
?
w i i
.
c yl n der n sq in here n = a re a o f
i i b
. .
0 7 85 4 d2 s = st r ok e i n nches p m = mean e ffect ve pressure (ave rage = 65 l s

pe r sq i n i
.
, . .
nm 85 , z
E = n u mbe r of e xplos ons pe r f or a
four c ycle en gi ne
. . .
P ve rage p rac t i ce i n i t pe r m i n = 60 0
n A
.
i sto S p e ed s X H P
Va l v e S e t t i n he n engi ne i s o n cen te r ;
g w
. . . . .
The ex h aust shoul d close

t he i n let should ope n a out 5 afte r cen te r i s p asse d and c on t i n ue a out b b
.
°
10
°
b
e yon d cente r afte r c om press on has e gun i b .
i
R a t o o f C l ea ra n c e t o St ok e r w here c = v ol u me of clearan ce
space i n c u . in .
—are a of c yl . i n sq i n . .
c 3 . Co m press i on .
N at ural ga s 1 00 l pe r sq b in
R i c h gas i c h m i x tu re r
. . .
, to 65 t o 40
le an 0 26 1 15 80
1 70 1 15
56 28
( Ban k ) i 2 10 1 70
A l c ohol
.
Pe t role um
u . 70
500 4 50
42
H u
98 HE AT AN D T HE S TE AM E NG N E I .
x n
E p a s i o a n d o p e s s i o L ws n
P V~ = P For e xp ans i on n C m r n a
o m l 2 to d fr
.
m m f rom to an fo r c om ressio n For e x pa n

s i on u is gene ral l y t ake n a t for c ompress i on I
. .
am at f n is t ake n
a t l 83 th e follo i ng form ula s may e sed : w b u
.
.
Pr ur m r ur Ab u ur
. .
e ss e s a n d T e pe a t e s ( sol te Le t P = su ct ion p ress e

i n lbs pe sq ih I -- c ompre ss on pressu e e - e pl os i on pressu e P
r i r x r
.
e haust p e ss re T i n i t i al t em pe a tu e o c h arge i n egs F a solu te

x r u r r f d b
. . .
, . . , .
T .. - tem p at end of c om pre ss i on T e - ex plos i on te m pe rat ure

. . .
.
tem pe at u re s at rok e i n i n an d c = cle aran ce ex p essed as i nc hes o

r r f
. . .
n .
. ,
for n on T
—T €/
+ 46 1 ;
sc aven ng ; f n ot T o Tet l R
--
if gi i
is the ri se of te mpe ratu re d ue t o e xpl osi on
w r R
,
e e
an d is o t a i ned
b f rom a t a le h i c h foll o s Pa =P T e + Tb P, w w .
¢ b .
0
w here s, = i nche s of st roke c om ple ted at poi n t of rele ase .
R a t i o o f A ir t o G a s 1 fo r best econ o my
a - (C -i- GO) : l for max mu m poss i i b le load C = cal ori fi c val ue of gas m
.
BTU
.
pe r c u ft
C a i o ri flc V l e o f E p l o s i ve M i t au x x u re
. . . . .
P rope rti es o f t h e C o s tit e t E l e e t s n u n m n of G ses a .
(3 2 F at m osphe ri c p re ss ure )
°
. .
,
Ox y
i B T U pe r l b
qu red iu
. . . .
gen o f Const t e n t
L s b .
pe r l b .
by l
c u ft
G as .
pe r G as
. .
of Gas
cu ft f or
for
. .
a: if
(
”
t i on H i gh
‘
us Lo W
t i on
.
.
Hy rogend H 0055 9 8
M arsh g ( 11
. .
.
-
as . 2 4 . . 4 70 593
. . 04 4 5 4
Et hylene 3 32 40 4 07 78
Car b on m on ox i de CO
. .
, .
- 1 76 2 48 0 7 77 57 1 4 392
Car bon d i ox i de CO
.
. . . .
1 54 2 17 1 22 1
N i t roge n N
-
. } . . .
. . . 1 73 . 244 . 0 7 78
O xy gen O 156 2 18
A ir
. .
. .
1 69 2 37 7 0 80 1 ]
G as en g i ne e haust x
. .
(c oal gas ) 1 89 . 2 58
954
1 663 68 1 55 7 2 4 . .
( We i gh t s in a b o ve
have ee n c alc ulated from t he latest val ue s ta b le b
gi ven t o at om c e ig hts
i w The B T val ues h ave ee n t aken fro m Des U b
.
I r b The values for s pec i fi c heat a e t aken from a r

. . . .
n ni c a a Tas chen uch

llen i n Fo ler s oc ket - B oo k )
Pu w P
.
t le b y W W ’
a ua n au
. . . .
C l c l t i o o f t h e C al o r i flc V l e o f a G a s ( 1 c u ft at 3 2°
T he ta le on pa ge 99 i ves t he c alculat i o n s for a h i gh
b g
. .
ad s c oal
T he d i ff e e n ce et ee n t he h i h an d lo
r b w val ues 0 t he th e w
b u
t a les is d e t o t he heat of c on e nsa t ion o f t hat am o n t of ste am hi c h u w
r u
es lt s from i ng t he hyd ro en n one c i c foot of gas
burn he l ow g i ub T
u d b u in bi g ib ra d
.
val e shoul e sed i n c alculat o s t hi s e n t he on l y heat l e te

in dr
.
t he c y li n e .
100 H EA T AND THE STE A M E N G I NE .
No of c yl i nd e r head stud - s
x t n l d am of s u ds l 2 (average )
.
E ier a
- d t +
L n gt h f t k l
.
.
o - l 5ds ro e
connect i ng d c
e .
- 2 5l -ro
We i ght of p i st o n w i n l b are a f cyl

. .
- l 8
( - q s a a o in s
connec t in g rod w
. .
. . .
rec i proca t i ng part ( n i -w ; w av e rage

,
s u ga ,
L ngth of p i ston t runk 1 5d average )
Be ri ng pre ure on p i ston due to we i gh t b pe r q m
e . .
a ss s
Th i ckness of rear wall of p i ston
. . .
W ri t p i n d i am
s - =
d
0 2
lo
2d ; l en gth —1 75 X d n
.
+ .
uu
D i am at m i d e ct i on f co nn ect i ng
Crank p i n l gt h = 0 39d=; d i am —
. . .
.
. d = 0 23 d -s o - ro . .
- O4ld en
( W n k th ows
. . . .
a t hi k - 0 26d ; r c ne ss
D i am of crank shaft - - O 3 75d
.
- a
M ai n be ar i ng length O 85 d ( be ar i ng pressure av e rage s 1 25 lb pe r sq
. .
.
.
Fly wheel out i de d i am

. .
.
.
= 1 2 3 OO N (N =
'
s
+
we i ght i n l b
- . .
X H P N s . .
+
.
for 4—c yc le
.
Re vs per m i n N -i -2 1
i ncre se for 2 yc le ]
. . . . .
-
a c .
Pi ston speed ft pe r
E xhaust p i pe d i am
.
.
.
0 6
‘ al
0 0 ,
e
Y
A irpi 0 2 5d
M ax EH P [ For gasol i n e d i vi de by c yc le ) or
. .
= dl lN -z
(4-
by
. . .
,
(2
to 85 lbs per sq i ; average 70 lbs . . n .
, .
Spee d of exha st ga es = 5 2 00 ft per m i n (average ) u s

i nlet charge
.
,
(i 900
D Lucke (i n Gas E ngi ne D es i gn D Van Nostran d C ) state s that

r -
“
o
e n gi nes should be des i gned to w i thstand max p essures of 4 50 l b pe r
. .
. ,
r s
in The follow i ng add i t i onal formulas are ta k e n from hi work
. .
s q s :
Th i ckness of cyl inder wal l to Wr i st p i n
.
i . n .
-
:
l gt h = 0 6d en
Pi ston r i ngs numbe r = 3 to 1 0 W i dth = 0 25 to in e ate st rad ial
. .
'
i n (G il l d § ent Val ve
, .
) in ner or ,
d i am = (0 3 to 0 4 5 )d ; valve stem to 0 3) ; v
. .
.
v h f t == -
v ve
t o 0 ) = flat valves 50 % greater for 4 5 con i cal valves ; val ve
. . .
1 f — v or
°
sea t s w i dth (0 05 to 0 1 ) ; valve to 1 5 ) X wi dt h of seat

.
,
v
for con i cal valves
. .
, .
.
The f l l wi add i t i onal data are taken from E W R obe rts Gas Engin e
.
’
o o n -
H andbook l ( or t w cycle ) = d to l 2 5d ; d i am f wate r

. .
o- o
d i am of fl y wheel hub = 2 ; hub lengt h = 1 7 5 t me an W i dth
. .
-
- s 8 o
of ov l spoke or arm = 0 8 to = mean th i ckness f arm = (0 4 t 0 5 ) X
. .
a s o o
mean wi dth n um ber f spokes 6 (generall y )
. . .
: o
E n g i n e F oun da t i o n s I n order to absorb the vi brat i ons of an e gi n
.
. n e
i t should be bo l ted to a foundat i on whose we i ght F i s not less than

where E = wt of engi ne i n lbs B ri ck foundat i ons we i gh about 1 1 2 l b s
cu f t and those of concrete about 1 3 7 lbs an aver e be i n about
. . .
p er
1 2 5 l b pe r c u i t Number f t i n f d t i ==F 1 25 h i in ti
. .
s cu oun a on + e nc a on
or batter of the fou dat i on walls from top to bottom sho uld be fro m
. . . . . .
" "
n
3 to 4 m pe r foot of he i ght ( E W R ob ts )
;
. . er .
o f D y A i m B y we i gh t 23 1 % O + 7 5 55 % N
P o m po sl t l o n r -
:
on ) B ) volume
. .
.
A r (A A
pure at 3 2 F d at a barometr i c pre s ure (B ) of
. . : r.
I cu ft 0 8 11
' °
an
in ches of1 me rcury per ) we i ghs
s
. . .
lb and the vol

.
lb q i
ume of
s s n
lb = 1 2 38 7 c u ft A t an y oth e r t e mpe rat u re and press u re
. . .
. . . .
.
AI R . 1 01
we ght pe r cu ft w 4 6 1 + t 4 6 1 + t where B — he i ght f mercury

i . ' o
in barometer i n i t = t mp t i n degs F 1 3 302 = we i ght i n lbs

n e e r a u re
f 4 6 1 cu f t f ai r at 0 F and 1 i n barometr i c pressu e Ai expands
. . .
,
°
o o r r
5 f i ts volume f each i ncre ase of 1 F and the volume va i es i versely

. . . . .
°
3 o or r n
as the pressure —
;
at 22 0 F (i ts cr—i t i c l temperature ) under a pressure

.
A i l iq fi
r ue es f °
a o
5 73 lbs pe r sq m and b i l at F Spec c grav ty at —3 12 F
°
i fi i °
.
3 1 2 o s
L atent heat = 1 2 3 to 1 4 4 B T U per lb L i qui d a i r occup i es
. . . .
— 0 94
about 5 f the volume f the same we i ght f free ai r at normal tem
. .
3 5 o o o
p t
e ra u re s
B a r o me t r i c D e te r m i n a t i o n o f A l ti tu de Pressure f the atmos
.
s. o
ph at sea level (3 2 F
e re 7 lb -
pe r sq i n D i ff erence f levels (at °
. s . . . o
3 2 F ) i n feet = 60 4 6 3 4 l g
°
.
2 where B and B are the ba ometri c

, . o , r
re ad i ngs of the t w leve ls If B taken at sea level i t i s equal t in

1
o . 13 o .
29 92
and He i ght above sea l g
8
o
For any other temperatures 1 (f B ) and t (f B ) formulas ( 1 ) and

1
or or
must be mul t i pli ed by a cor ect i on factor
, , i .
r
A pprox i mately the pressure decreases lb per sq i n f e ach thou
,
or
sand feet f ascent
. . .
,
o .
Fl o w o f A i i n P i p e Q i 1 ft per m i n r where p = di fl s. , n 01 . .
'
er
en= e be tween the enteri ng =and leavi ng gau ge pressures i n lbs

c p e r sq in
d i m of p i pe i i L l gt h of p i pe i n feet and —dens i ty f the
. .
.
,
d a n h en 10 :
o
enteri g ai r (lbs per cu ft
. .
, ,
n . . .
When d = 1 in 2 in 3 in 4 in 9 in . . . . .
= c 45 3 . 58 61
chards formul a i s Q 1 00
Ri
’
When d = l in 2 in . . 3 in . 4 in . 8 in . 12 in .
= a 0 35 .
Fl o w o f A ir th ro u g h
Theoret i cal veloc i ty i n feet per se c O ri fi c e s. .
1 3 3 7 7 V1
2 9
p
where p i s the press u e the , . . r 111
rese rvo i r out of wh i ch the ai r flows d p the pressure f the rece i vi ng an o

re ervo i r F the ac t ual ffl the value f must be mult i pli ed by
, 1
s or e ux o 1)
the proper of the follow i g coe ffi c i ents
.
on e n
Press re (i atmospheres )
u n 1 5 10 1 00
O ri fi ce in thm plate
.
‘
short tube ,
Loss of pressure p 0 1 07 wL d where at ord i nary temps = v2 c2 10
p (at entrance absolute ) and p both i n lbs per sq i n

. .
, .
O o3(p.
l + l . . . .
C O M P R E SS E D A I R .
Free a i r i s th t at atmospher i c pressure and at =ord i nary tempe ratures

a
lb per sq i 6 2 A bsolute p g g pressure + 14 7n
°
res su r e au e
l A bsolute temperature = 4 6 1 di g of thermometer i degs F
. .
.
,
.
°
F + re a n n
R l t i n b e tw ee n T em p e rat u r e V o l u me d P re s u re
. .
.
e a o s , , an s .
V’ V
( (
p =
5; },
P V = Rt ; the forego i ng p V
R = 53 3 5 4 and p V P = ap In r
are the respe ct i ve i n i t i al nal absolu t e pressures volumes and

. .
, , , r. 1 .
1 1 an d fi
absolu t e temperatures
, ,
W o k f C o m p r e ss i on F t lbs f work requ i red to compress 1 cu

.
r o . .
-
. o .
ft of free ai r t any des i red pressu e 1

. o r , 31 ,
102 H E AT AN D T HE S T EA M E N GI NE .
li p lb work i n H P l g
lz r
when compressed i n l min . . o c
'
.
Ft l b of work requ i red to comp es 1 lb of free -a i r ad i abat i cally at

- s r s
the ab olute t empera t ur

.
. .
s
-( 184 7( ) ft lb e 7 ,
t ; . r1
-
r .
- s.
h e re r i th e te mp correspond i ng to t h , s . e
volume t o wh i ch the a i r i compre ss e d For work to compress 1 cu ft s

d i vid e abo ve val ue b y the number of cu ft in 1 lb at
. .
.
i n pra t i ce t he ac t ualc work — work of i soth e rmal mp + b nt

. . . r.
co re ssi o n a o
00 ?o of t he d i ff erence be t ween i sothermal and ad i abat i c work

T b e O u t p u t f a C o m p e o r a t a ny Al t i t u de e xpre ssed i n pe r
.
o r ss
ce nt 100 —0 00 28 X h ight i n feet (a ) e u n it
L o s b y C oo l i n g var i es from 70 under bad cond i t i ons to 20 % W i t h

.
s a
re h ti
ea an d a i r i n j ect i on
n
L o ss y P i pe F r i ct i on pe r m le = 5 %
.
i .
R he e at n
i g Ga i n by reh e at i ng i n per .cent = 1 00
(l — i
) wh e e , r r
and are th e absol ute t m t before and after heat i ng e r a u res

Tests m d e at C rne ll l pi i t y show that from 2 8 t 3 8 %
e
in
r, .
0
o
3 20 $ th e
a o n v e rs 11]
thermal economy can be made by reheat i ng from t ai r o
°
effi c i ency of t he reheater be i ng There no add i t i onal ga in made is

by hea t i ng above 450 an d i f 300 i much exceeded th e re dange r of ° °
s is
charri ng the lubr i ca t n
P n e u m at i c T o ol s (cu ft of free a i r requ i re d pe r m i n 80 l b press u e )
.
0
s r
Chi pp i ng and calki ng tools 1 1 (l i ght ) to 1 7 (heavy ) ; ri vet i ng tools 1 5
. . . .
. ,
( 4 i n r i vet ) to 2 2 ( 1 1 in r i vet ) ; dril l ( me tal ) 1 5 ( 1 in ) to 3 5 (3

, ,
o
s
w ood bori ng 1 2 ( 1 in ) to 1 8 (2 )
. .
. ,
- .
,
NS A N D B L O WE R S FA .
Le t h = p generated =i n i nches of wate r (=1 i n wate r = 0 57 7 oz

ressu re
pe r sq i n 1 per sq= i i 73 i n water ) ; v p i ph l veloc i ty f
. . .
07 n er e ra o
wheel i n ft per l it y of a i r enter i ng the wheel t h rough the
. . . . . .
: sec v1 ve o c
suc t i on open i ngs i n s i de f case (2 5 to 33 ft per f suct i on
. .
d = di m o . a . o
open i ngs i n i n (for ope n i ngs on bo t h s i des of wh ee l .

,
for ope n i ng one s i de only D = i nn e r d i am of w h l = d

-
.
ee
to 1 5d ; D = outer di m for suct i on fans ( = BD for blowe rs ) ;
. 1 .
= 2D
.
a -
b = widt h of vanes at D = 0 2 5d to 0 4d for suct i on

. .
, 1
o n i ng on one s i de ( = 0 5d to 0 8d for Ope=n i ngs b th= s i des ) ; b = wi dth

1 . .
on o
o vanes= at D No of ft f ai r per
. .
o 3 75D ; q v a n cs cu o
to for l arge fans to smal l fa s ) ;
. . .
, .
se c : q ffi i e c en c f or n
= 1 2 to for arge fans to for smal l fans ) ; = gl wh i ch the
.
c a an e
extre me outer element of a vane makes wi th the rad i us at t h at point
.
Then tan i (4 tan i s pos i t i ve when th e va e

a
-- V a n s
are curved i nc lined backward from the di rect i on f rotat i on ( ‘ t i e
,
or o ac v
when forward ) For radi al vanes = = o and = 46 4 b = 4 6 4 v h —y a v cV

'
i-
A rea of d i scharge p i in q i 1 44 q — where l it y of a i r
.
, . . .
= o en n n -
z v2 , vz ve oc
lg
-
s
i n p i pe i n ft pe r O ute r di am f di sc
. .
l P
o
. se c . . . . o
fan i n i n - 3 q ; ; = 0 2 to .
V r .
C AL R E F R I G E R A T I O N M E C H A NI .
M echan i cal refr i ge rat i on i s produced by p n di a heat med i um ex a n

from a normal temperature to one w hi ch i below t e usual l imi ts for s
the cl i mate and zone where the expans i on takes place M ed i a are chose n
w i t h regard to the i r wi ll i ngness to surrender the i r h e at energy to s u round
.
r
in obj ects and va pors therefore best em p loyed a re
chos n i s compressed and then rel i eved of it he t i n orde r
. .
e e s a
to d i m i n i sh t volume I t i s then expand ed so t o do m echa i cal work
.
i s as n
and it te mpe rature i lowered The absorpt i on of he at at th i s stage by
. .
s s
apor in e u min g i t orig inal condi t i on const i tut e th e r efr ige at in g
.
i; wv
t r s s s r
0
1 04 H A E T AND T HE S T EA M EN G I NE .
t e, - of fue l used p hour -s pec i fi c heat of the c i rculat i ng flui d

lb s er ir z
d t - ran g of t empera t u e exper i enced by the c i rcul t i ng flu i d i n d eg s F

.
, ,
an o r a
D es i g n o f a C o m p r e s i o n M a c h i n e The we i ght of th e medi um
. .
s
requ i r d is de t erm i ne d by t he cond i t i on that each und mu t W thdr w
.
e c s i a
from i h bri ne t h hea t neces ary to cha ge the
c iq d m ed i um i n the
e s n ui
condenser at I ( wi t h a hea t of l i qu i d i n each ib = h ) i nto saturat=ed r
.
a t l i n t he vapori zer where the to t al heat—of evaporat i on pe r ib H he

. .
hea t wi thdrawn pe r lb pe r m i n L H h and i n i ce made pe r hour

.
. . .
.
t he we i ght f t i i e med i um w of i ce made r —

. , . ,
= 1 4 2 2 x ib o h 60 ( H h) s ou r +
A ssum i ng the compress i on to be ad i abat i c the a solute tem pera t ure

. . .
,
of the supe rheated vapor leav i ng the cyl i nder where T , 2
i the absolute t empe rature (degs F ) of the vapor i n the expans i on or

s
vapori ze r co i ls i n the bri ne and p p are the press ure s before and afte r
. .
ex
, l , g
a i i si o n
he cool i ng water req ui red i n the condenser —
.
h] l b s
where k = p ifi heat of the supe rheated vapor at constant pre s re
,
s ec c s u
t and l - tempe ratures ( F ) of the mp e m c l i nd e r and cond e n e r

p ,
co r ss n s
and ) he t of vapori zat i o n at t e pre su e p of con
o l
—
.
res e c
p t i l y (H k = ve , s s r ,
l
( e nse r
The H P of the steam cyl i nd e r d i vi ng the compressor
.
. . r
77 8 w —H 2]
10 + H 1
where H and H are the tot l heats f va p ori zat i on t t h press ure s and a o a e
tempe ra t ure s i n the condenser and vapori zer respe ct i vely Th i s val ue
, :
m st be i ncre ase d to allow for heat and fr i ct i on losse s

, .
u
1 lb of vapor
.
The vol me of the compressor y u c
S pe c i fi c H e at a t C on s t a n t P r e s u e (k ) A mmon i a cars s r
ac i d s lphur d i ox i de
p .
,
b i
on c u
T em p e rat u e f o Col d S t o a g e Fr i ts vegetables eggs brewery
. .
r s r r u
work 3 4 F ; bu t t e r cheese shell oysters 33 dri ed fi h cann ed goods
. , , ,
° °
s
flour The followi ng should be froze n at the fi rst te mpe ature
, .
, , . , ,
r
and then mainta i n ed at the second B utter po ul tr y
,
:
fresh fi h tub oys t e rs fresh me t
, ,
s , , a ,
T I N G A N D V E NTI L A TI O N H EA .
Ve n t i l at i on Impu i t i es i n a i r are due to carbon i c ac i d and organi c r

part i cles e haled from the lu gs water vapor from pe rsp i rat i on dust
.
x n
smoke nox i ous gases etc The me asure f i mpuri ty however i s take n
, , ,
o
the content of carboni c ac i d whi ch should not exceed 6 to 8 parts i n
. . .
, ,
as
Fresh ai r contai ns 4 parts (country ai r 3 to The
,
in
hourly y i eld f CO pe r pe rson i s cu f t ; consequently each cu
,
o
ft of fresh ai r can take up at least cu ft of 0 0 and n ot e xceed the
.
? . . .
l i m i t of 6 parts i n h e nce cu ft f fresh i r pe rson if

. . .
2
o a r
un i forml y d i ff used wi l l keep th e resp i ratory CO2 down to t at l i m i t It
.
.
,
i further found that the atmospheri c cont e nts f a ro o m may be change d

.
,
s o
t hree t i mes pe r hour wi thout caus in g inconven i ent draft hence
cu ft of a i r spac e i a prope r provi s i on r person From to
,
s
cu ft pe r pe rson pe r hour i suffi c ient or aud i tori ums used but for two
. . .
s
or three hours at a t i me School rooms sho ul d have at least cu ft
. .
pe r scholar pe r hour an d i n h pi t l from to cu ft pe r pat ient

. . .
os a s
pe hour should be suppl i ed on acco un t f th e va i ous u healthy
, . .
r o r n e x cre
t i ons
A ccord i ng to Ri t h l ( Ing Taschenbuch the ho rly supply of ai r r
.
e sc e u
cap i ta i n cub i c feet sho ul d be follows osp i tals —ad ults —
.
'
l as : c
dren schools pup i ls u der 1 0 yrs 400 to 600 pup i ls over 1 0 y
, ,
n rs
600 to aud i tori ums 600 to work rooms 600 to l i vi ng
, , .
, . .
,
rooms 1 to 2 t i m s cub i c conte nts ; ki tchens and close t 3 to 5 t i mes

, .
e s,
cub i c contents
,
Ca nter states that the numb e r of changes f a i r pe r hour sho uld be

.
o
as f i w o Re s i dences —h ll s 3 ; l i vi ng rooms 2 ; sleep i ng rooms 1
o s a
S t o e and offi ces 1 st floo r 2 to 3 ; uppe r floors to 2 Assembly
.
, , , ,
r s
ooms 2 to , .
, ,
r ,
HE AT I N G A N D V E N TI L A T I O N .
H e at i n g o f B u i l d i n g s L t W = ft f tra sm i t t i ng surface 1 = e sq o n
ns de temp e ratu e t empera t ure both n degs F
1
. . .
,
i i = id i t = t r tg ou t s e tl -
coeffi c i ent represen t i ng f vari ous bui ld i ng m t i l the heat loss

, . . .
2,
k = a or a er a s
by transm i ss i on pe r sq ft f surface i n B T U pe r hour for eac h degree o
of tempe rature on the i des of the mate ri al and 1 1
. . . . .
i di fl tw
'
o e re n ce o S
the total heat tra smi ss i on = Wk
,
n t
Val u e o f k (l g Taschenbuch )
.
s n . .
Thi ck ess of wal l i n n

i nches 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 4 8
k for 38 30 25 22 19 17 15 13 12
sandstone
. . . . . . . . .
,
D o . 39 35 32 29 26
. 24 22 19 . . . . . . . .
For l i mestone add 1 0 % to values f sandstone or

S ol i d plaster part i t i ons i n th i ck to
.
t i : o n
Floors jo i sts w i th double floors stone tioor arches plan k s
. .
,
on
lai d on eart h pla ks asphalt arch wi th i sp ce
. , ,
n on a r- a
stones lai d on earth
, , ,
Ce il i ngs jo i sts w i th s i gl e floors arches w i t h ai r space

,
: n -
Wi ndows s i ngle double

, ,
:
Skyl i ghts s i ngle double
, ,
:
D oors
, ,
The ab ve val ues shoul d be i ncreased accord i ng to cond i t i ons as follows

,
o :
For rooms u usuall y expose d add for N N E n N W and W
expos res and where he i ght f ce i l i ng (h) exceeds 1 8 f t add
.
. , .
u f o or
add add
.
,
h = 1 3 ft f h = 15 ft or
rooms heated da il y but t at n i ght add A
.
, .
,
F or (N no
and f room t heat d every day add —Z where N =
, ,
or s no e
No f hou s betwe n cessat i on of heat i ng and restart in g f fi and Z =
, ,
o r e o re ,
No f hou s from start i ng f fi unt i l rooms attai n requ i red tempe rature
.
o r o re
In heat i ng sembly rooms account mu t be taken f the heat gi ven
. .
as s o
out b y aud i ences and il lum i nants A pe rson gi ves t about 400 B T U
- ou
pe r hour an ord inary gas bu ner about B T U pe r hour d an
. . . .
-
r an
i ncandescent el ctr i c lam p ( 1 6 c p ) B T U pe r hour A gas burner
. . .
, ,
e -
vi t i ates the a i r as much as 5} persons

. . . . . .
B T U p H ou e q ui e d t H e a t a R oo m (Carpe nt r ) N o of
.
. . er r r r o . e . .
w here = N f changes f a i r per hour C = n o . o o ,
cu ft i n room G == q ft f glass 1V = q ft f wal l su face exposed s o

7
s o r
out i de a i r and t difi be tween i ns i de and outs i de temperat res i n
. . . . .
, , .
'
to e ren ce
d g s
, u
c s
R ad i at i o n O d i nary bron ed cast i ron d i rect rad i ators gi ve
.
t r z -
ou
about 2 50 B T U pe r hour pe r sq ft f rad i at i ng surface wi th steam
.
o
5 lbs pressu e Unpa i nte d rad i at i ng surfaces f the ord i nary i
. . . . .
,
o f 3 t o r o n
di rect type gi ve out about 4 00 B T U pe r sq ft pe r hour F hot wate r
. .
or -
heat ing 60 % f these values may be taken

. . . . . .
o
H t ai r furna e wal l s transm i t about 500 B T U per sq ft per hour if
.
o -
c
the wal ls are much extend d and about 800 B T U i f t he su faces are
. . . . .
e r
smooth ai r tempe ratures at regi sters be i ng from 1 00 to 1 50 F B o i lers
, . . .
° °
when coal fi red wil l transm i t to B T U pe r sq ft f heat i ng

, .
-
o
surface pe r hou and from to B T U when coke fi d
. . . . .
r H t -
re o
ai r syste ms provi ded W i th blowers yi eld transm i ss i on values up to
, . . . .
B T U per sq ft pe r hour
A p p ro x i m at e H e at i n g Va l e o f R ad i at i n g S u rfa c e s squ re
. . . . . .
O u s ne a
foot of d i t i surface Wi ll heat by di rect steam rad i at i on D welli gs
.
ra a n n
:
sch ol rooms ces 60 to 80 cu f t ; halls lofts stores factori es 75 t

,
o -
o o
1 00 cu f t ; churches large aud i tori ums 1 50 to 2 00 cu f t For d i rect
, , . .
, , , ,
h i gh tempe ratu e h t water heat i ng take 3 f above values —f l w

. . .
, , .
-
r o -
o or o
temp h t wate r heat i ng take } f same F i nd i rect rad i at i on take Q
, ,
o - 4 o or
f the value for di rect rad i at i on
.
, . ,
o
S i e of P i p e f o r S t e a m H e at i g Al low q in
.
z s s - n s
sect i on l area pe r 1 00 sq ft f rad i at i ng s rface for exhau t s t eam fieat

. .
a o u s -
sq i n pe r 1 00 sq ft when l i ve steam i s used and sq i n

. .
mg
pe r 1 00 sq ft for returns E ach horse power f bo i ler capac i ty wi ll p
, . . . . . . .
o su
ply from 80 t 1 20 sq ft of rad i at ing surface I n good hot
.
-
. .
o
the rat i o between grate are a bo il er heat in g s rfac e and
. . .
w t n b il
a e o e rs , u
rad i at ing surface i 1 40 200
, ,
s .
H Y D R AU LI CS A ND H Y D R AU LI C
MA CH I N ER Y .
VVa t c r ( 1 part H +8 parts

egs Lbs pe r R elat i ve e gs Lbs r R elat i ve
cu f t D F
cu t Vol
’
D I
. .
Vol
. . . '
. . . . . .
For sea wat er mult i ply above we i ghts by

-
P r e ss u re E q u i val e n ts
,
1 ft water t 3 9 l F (max dens i ty ) = 6 2 4 2 5 lbs on th e q ft

°
a s
lbs on th e sq i n
. . . . . . .
atmos heres on the sq in

. . .
p
1 lb on the sq ft at F = 0 0 1 602 ft of water ; 1 lb per q in = 2 3 o7
. .
s
ft of water
. . . . . . . . . . .
1 atmosphere i n mercury ) = 3 3 9 ft of water

. .
1 ft of water at 6 2 F (normal lbs pe r q ft

. . . .
°
s
lbs pe r sq i n
. . . . .
1 i nch of water at 6 2 F (norma l lbs per sq i n

. . .
H y d r o stat i c P r e ss u r e The pressure f a l i qui d aga i nst an y poin t of

. . . . .
o
any surfa e upon wh i h i t acts is lways perpend i cular to the surface at
.
c
c a
that po i nt and at any g i ven depth i s equ l i n all d i rect i ons and due to a
the we i gh t of a un i fo m vert i cal column of l i qu i d whose hori zontal cross
. , ,
s ct i on i s eq al to t h area pressed u on and whose he i ght i s the vert i cal

e u e p
d i stan e from the center of grav i ty f the surfa e presse d to the surface
c o c
of t he l i qu i d
W hen a l i qu i d pressure i s exerte d on one s i de f a plane are a the esul t
.
o r
ant force ex ri enced by the area i s pe rpend i cul ar to the area equal t
,
pe o
the m of all the pre sures d acts at a de fi n i te po i nt called the cente r
,
su s an
of essure
pr
C e n te rs f P r e ss u r e h( = t i l depth from surface l i qu i d )
.
o ve r c
. a of
R ectangle upper s i de parall el to l i qu i d surface and d i s t ance l from same
.
: .
, ,
3 h | + 2a
(5
fl
+ h] If hl — O h
me
, ,
2 h1 + a
e base iy i n
: in
=
surface of l i qu i d ,
h= a —
z 2 — ; verte x i n li q i d u
a h ori z o n t a h 3a + 4 .
a?
Ci rcl 01
“
E ll pse
i : if h = 5a + 4 .
1 08 H Y D R A U LI CS AN D HY D R A U LI C M A C H I NE R Y .
Av e a g e V al u e
r s of C o e ffi c i e n t s.
O ri fi ces .
Cyl i nder e ll mo ut h ed
S ha rp e dged
é
Re -e i t ra nt B -
y
. . .
M eas
u eme n t o f W a t e r Fl o w o ve r W e i
r L t a stre am be pa tl y
s - rs. e r
dammed d t he water allowed to flow through a rectangular notch or
an
we i r wh i ch i be veled to sharp ed ge s on the i ntake s i de To fi d the
,
s n
d i scharge d i v i de the head H ( d istanc from edge of notch to s rf ce of
. .
or e u a
water ) i nto small port i ons h and cons i der each small rectangl e (h X l gt h
. ,
. , ,, ; en
f notch L ) a se parate ori fi ce A t an y = 8 02 H an d

‘
o as v V
. . .
,
the d isch arge thro ugh the smal l R p ti th e rese n n e

vari ous d i scharge s by hor i zontal li nes of proport i onate len gth the ,
bound i ng these l i nes w i ll be found to be a parabola of b = 8 02 L H ase .

V ,
and he igh t head H ( h li nes varyi ng i n length as V 71 3 The total t e

theoret i cal d i scharge w i ll then be equal to the area of the parabo la or
:
, ,
q 3 X 8 02 L H ; 5 3 4 7L H 3 Th e actu l di sc harge i s ma ller bei ng a s

accord i ng to the follow i ng authori t i es
.
,
. .
,
B oth end contract i ons O ne suppre s e d Full contrac ti on s

suppre sse d
. .
Fran c i s .
(L H3 3 33 (L .
H H 3
S mi th q . . a
( l O)
3 29 L H H3 3 2 9L H 3
. .
—
(L should not be less than

For flow over a sharp cre st d we i r w i thout late ral contract i ons -
e ai r
b i ng freely adm i tted be h i nd the fall i ng sheet of water
’
,
e ,
where H = he i ght i n fee t from bottom of chan n e l f approach to the cres t o

of we i r ( B az i n ) .
L
I n tr i ang lar notches i i at any depth i constant and there fo e C i
u s r s
regu lar and may be taken as
For a 90 notch L = 2 H and q = 2 s4 H 8: °
for a 00 notch L = l 1 55H and

, .
°
, .
Th H o rs e P o w e o f a S tr e a m =
e
q XGX
— H-( avai lab le he i g
r
h t f f ") ° O a
Fr i ct i o n l n P i p e s i i ndepe ndent of the press u but i s proport i on l

s re a
to t h wet t ed su face F A = A at moderate veloc i t i es and
.
e r . noc v2 p v2 , , . as
2
- 20 , F n
If a cyl i ndri cal bod y f water (le ngth L d i am D ) move at a l

,
o , . v e oe i t Y
v. th gh the p i pe F
ro u pe r q f t of sect i onal are a 1 03 ! GO 2 5 D
,
BL
n s .
”
2
f
O 7: 20
l 2
n 4 l 2 p— He ad L ost i n -
50
.
D
H Y D RA U L I CS AN D H Y D RA UL I C M A CH I N E R Y . 1 09
for clean varn i shed surfaces 0 0075 to 0 0 1 f p i pes and

004 or
for surfac s f the roughness f sand p per
, .
,
e o o -
a
Wm Cox s formula Fr i ct i on H ead = L (4 + 5 — 2 ) l 000d where d =
.
’
u2 v A
d i am i n i n (Pelton W ater W heel Co
.
, ,
. . .
Fl o w f W at e t h r ou g h P i p e CR s z ( Tutton )
= t ’
o R (h y d
r li s. v ra u c
rad i us ) = sect i onal area wetted pe ri meter = D 4=for rou d p i pe s when
.
: : n
full or half full ; S (slope ) = H d l gt h f p i pe s i e f a gle f i li
,
ea
A
en o n o n o nc
nat i on of p i pe Values f C for var i ous materi als W I p i pe 1 60 ; w o ne
C I p i pe 1 30 ; used C I p i pe 1 04 ; lap ri veted p i pe 1 1 5 ; W I asphal t ed
. .
. .
,
1 70 ; w ood stave p pe 1 2 5 ; rough p i tted p i pe 3 0 to 80 ; bri ck condu i ts

. .
. . , . .
, , ,
i , , , ,
1 10 .
Fl o w o f W a t e i n O pe n C h nn el (Kutter ) r a s .
where fa l
S = l of water surface i n any id di t = m f di st a n ce
A
sa s an ce s e o
sl ow ; C = coe ffi cien t depe nd ng
i they character f the channel surfa e on o c
hav ng the follow ng values pla ed boards 0 009 ; neat cement 0 0 1 ;
,
an d i i : n
pla t r ce ment rough boards ashlar bri ck work
.
, , .
s e (75 % ) 0 01 1 ; or
rubble m sonry canals fi m gravel 0 02 canals d ri vers
, .
, ,
0 017 ;
°
a r an
good cond t on fa rly un form sect i on free from stones and weeds
.
.
, ,
in i i , i i
same but w th occas onal stones and weeds 0 03 : same i bad
, ,
0 02 5 ; i i n
cond i t i on many stones and weeds torrents encum be red w i th
, , .
,
detr i tus
, ,
formula f p i pe s may also be used as herew i th mod i fi e d where

,
T tt
’
u on s or ,
C has the values g i ven for Kutter s formula v = C l S ’

:
- A
H y d ra ul i c G rad i e n t W ater be ing di scharged from a reservo i r

through a p i pe f un if orm d i ameter the net head at an y po i nt may be
.
o
found by applyi ng a p ressure gauge wh i ch wi ll show a loss from total
,
head due to veloc i ty 5— + l oss due to fri ct i on The fr i ct i on loss vary i ng , .
g
d i rectly the d istance f m re servo i r a strai ght l i ne bounds the he i ghts
as ro
of the var i ou wate r colum s i n the gauges and i s called the l i ne f v i rt al
,
s n o u
slope or hydraul i c grad i ent N part f a p i pe should be above thi s o o
l i ne as the pre sure woul d t hen be less than that f the atmosphere and
.
,
s o
the water would tend t s parate
,
o e
L o s b y E dd i e a n d S h o c k B ends elbows valves and cocks pro
.
s s
duce fri ct i onal res i stances t fl w i n systems f p i p i ng wh i ch are com
. , , ,
o o o
p t d i n terms f the head and are t be added t the res i st ance f the
,
u e o o o o
p i pe i n order to obta i n the fi nal d i scharge
W ater d i scharged i nto a ba i n del i vers all f i ts energy as shock but
.
s o
whenever a sudden change f veloc i ty takes pl ce edd i es are formed wh i ch
,
o a
absorb energy When abrupt contract i on takes place as from a large an
p i pe to a smaller one the loss of head 2 g and f a sudden enlarge
.
,
=0 3 c2
2 A
or
ment of sect i onal area loss f h d = ( v ) 2 g where v and are
.
, ,
o v1 2 A
ea v2
re s pect i vely the veloc i t ies i n the fi rst and second p i pe s
, 2 , 1
A ngl e s n d E lb o w s L oss of head =

.
a 2g L t B= mb f 2
cv A e nu er o
degrees of the angle through wh i ch the d i rect i on of fl w i s de vi ated ; then
. .
o ,
f or fl= 20 40 60 80 90 1 00 1 20 1 40
c=
B v2
B e n ds . L oss of head 1 80 2 9
=depends oncthe rat
. io
—
_—_
. . 0 of the radi us
of the p i pe (0 5 D ). to the rad i us f curvat u e of the bend (R ) o r .
0 5D
.
—
z R =
c=
G at e V al ves Loss f head due to part i al

- . o o pe n i n g = cv- A 2
g
'’
.
O pe n i ng = t t i i f i i i
= 98 17 c
C o c k s Loss of h d = v 2g
. ea c 2A .
O pen i ng = t t i i t i i
c= 2 22
l i t) AND HY D RA U LI C M A C H I N ER Y .
ATE R WH E E LS .
w
P e u re
r n ss l orc e ca u o i ng momentum Vane
= I a ti a l v H s.
'
s n s u -
7
, , ,
'
l : u v -z
p X t i ( i e i mpuls e exerted ) = mom e
re s s u re n t um g e n r In e e e
a t ed i f I 1
g
d w =w ig l t of water pass i ng pe r sec wv g - n g
. .
, .
i -
e- c an
se c an e e
of m t on vane
.
. . ,
In o I =p en
°
ui
’
ress u re
Va e veloc ty be ng
r
n
~
. .
F l t Pl t a fl d
a ( iet i or i P - wv g , x c s --
z a
(GA ) a I '+
F l at Plate M ovi n g i n t h e D i r e ct i o n o f J t ( Vel of pl t vel f

II
o
.
v e a e z
a t er pass i ng — of momen
g,
. .
= di fl
.
'
je
‘ = W v p v ) P er e re n ce
m before and after i mpac t
g .
t u - lG 4 ( , . vl
G i( )
r, g v3 ? -
M o vi n g l l m l p h i l S u rfa c e o r C p R lat i ve veloc i ty of jet and

. .
e s e r ca u e
cup when meet i ng (forward ) and when leav ing ( back
.
— :
vg
ward ) C m q the absolu t e d i scharge l t y = p l t
A
, ,
ly t se ue n t v e oc i cu v e oci
rela t i ve backward vel e wh e nce
. ,
p ,
( v. G A G” .
A
v2 ) (2
0
lute veloc i ty of rej ect i on = 0 and all of the jet energ y i exerted th s on e
cup
,
W h eel w i t h R ad i al Va n e a vane be i ng constantly be fore the t

.
s,
fi
e :
m b f i mpac t g ; af t er
gz e )
-i-
ni nt u e o re , ,
”1 ”I ‘
ve
0
W h ee l W i t h Di n C u v e d Va n e momentum b e for e i mpa t = a r s: c
GA after = G (2
vl 2 -t- g ; or tw i ce v1 vg
tha t of flat rad i al van e In th i s case and that f t e hem ispheri cal c u p
.
s o
the d i rec t i on of h jet wate r i s returned upon i tself
.
t e
U n d e rs h o t W h e el are su i t able for falls less th an 6 feet D i ameter
.
s
may b 4 X f l l E ffi c i ency w i th rad i al floa t s=or vanes w i th curv ed
.
e a
floats about Ci rcumferent i al veloc i y 5 5 % f the veloc i ty due t
. .
,
t o o
head ( ap ro ) A t he floats are never fi lled w i th wat e r the act i on
.
p x s
i s d to pure i mpulse and i f the floa t s are properly curved the water
.
,
ue
enters w i thout shock and leaves w i thout hori zontal veloc i ty C onst ru ct i on
.
of H at curve ( F=i g From the center f wheel draw 0 A vert i cal ly

.
e o
and make A O B 1 5 L t the jet ( of th i ckness C = i X h d ) have a
.
°
e ea
sl o pe of l =i n 1 0 From the m i ddle of jet D draw D E that OD E = 23
.
,
°
so
Take D E O 5 t 0 7 X h d and from E stri ke th e arc D F whi ch i s th e
.
, , .
o ea
c u ve for th e Ponce l e t form f un d e rshot wheel
. .
, ,
r o .
Fig 24 . .
Br e as t W h ee l s are used for falls from 6 to 1 2 feet E ffi c i ency from

to Vanes curved s i m i larly to those of Poncelet whee l
.
60 .
1 12 HY D RA U LI C S AN D I n nn i u u c
'
M A C H I N ER Y .
fo ll ows t h curves i n the figure D raw A B i ncl i ned to the plane

e of wh eel
by and i m il ar ly D C at D raw B F pe rp t o A B Fro m F a ce n
.
°
a , s . . . as
Fig 25 . .
Fig 26 . ~
te r str i ke the arc B E D raw D G p to D C make angles GB A = D A G = r

and from i ntersect i on a center draw arc D A The lower
, . . ,
as
parts of gu i de and float (A B and C D ) are strai ght l i nes
.
,
I m p ul s e T u rb i n e s ( G i rard t ype ) are parall el fl w wheel Wi th the

.
-
o s
wheel passages so enlarged toward the outlet and vent i lated t hat they
are never ent i rely fi lled wi th water the energy be i ng pu ely due to vel c i ty r o
They are regul ate d by ent i rely clos i n a numbe r f the g i pas ages
.
,
o
be i ng there g
s
the effi c i ency (60 to ore un mpa red by t u de l ope n
,
.
ti i i r ac on a
In
i l od n P ra ct i c e (From art i cles by J W Thurso i n E N D
er ec
For heads less than 20 ft use rad i al i fl w react i on ( Franc is ) turb i nes w i th
. . . . .
, .
,
-
n o
vert i cal shafts ; for head s of 2 0 to 300 f t the same but wi th hor i zontal
sh fts ; for heads i di g 3 00 f t use rad i al outward fl w free dev i a
.
, ,
a e ccee n -
o -
t i on turb i es w i th hori zontal shafts or Pel t on wheels

.
, , ,
n
Parallel fl w turb i nes are w large ly abandoned on account f the i
.
,
-
o no o r
poor regulat i ng qual i t i es Free devi at i on may be obtai ned w i t h n ffi a e
y of 70 % at gate and 80 7 at full gate ; react i on turb i nes wi th
.
i
c e nc
(50 % effi c i ency at gate and 78 at full gate (H i ghest
,
80 %
.
between and gate )

0 .
React i on whee l s are e i ther re l t d by mak i ng the i d vanes mov

.
u a e u
th t the ope n i ngs may g reduced accord i ng to oad and Wi t hout
e-
able so a e
materi al] alter i ng the d i re ct i on of fl w t he gu i de and wheel vanes are
.
o or,
d i v ided y crowns i nto three or more supe rposed tu b i nes any numbe r
,
r
of wh i ch may be shut ff by a cyl i ndri cal ga t e accord i ng to load allowi g
.
o n
those i n Ope rat i on to work at ful l gate and at the correspond i ngly h igher
.
effi c i en
Free c yvi t i turb i nes to atta i n h i gh effi c i enc i es must work i n the free
.
e a on
a i r and i n order to obta i n the advantages f draft t ubes t hey must be o -
pl i ed w i th ai r valves wh i ch wi ll automat i call y keep the wat r level

, . ,
an -
e -
be w and clear of the wheel

o
f t T u bes The use f draf t tube s pe rm i ts turbi nes to be mounted
.
D ra - o -
on hori zontal shafts and al so to be se t above the t il w t w i thout l ss

.
a a er o
of a part of h head The hang i ng water colu mn i the draft tube i s bal
o
t e - -
d b y a t mospher i c pressure and could theore t i c l y a t t a i n a he i gh t of

.
an ce
3 4 ft i f t he water were at re t — but wi t h the wa t er i n mo t i on i t cannot
.
. s
, , ,
e x ceed (Il 322 l —

) ft where v= l it y of water i n ft
.
, p e r sec When ve oc . .
P U M PS .
leavi ng the d f t tube should not be less than 2 ft p

ra when start i ng
-
1) e r se e
at f l l capac i t not less than 3 f t per se c for var i able load s over hal f
.
u
capac i ty and ymm 4 t 6 ft p sec for w i dely fluctuat i ng loads at t i mes
. .
o e
r
of smal l capac i ty The absolute veloc i ty f the water i ssu i ng from whee l
.
,
. o
in ft per sec where c= 0 2 85 for large turb i nes and l w leads o

med i um turb i nes and =heads ( 100 and for smal l
. .
,
( 10 f or
tu b i nes and h i gh heads
r ( 500 ft H t t l head i n feet o a
When H = 1 0 f t v = 7 2 3 ft pe r sec The head h (due t veloc i ty )
.
o v1
2 g = 0 8 1 2 ft Le t be the veloc i ty at wh i ch water leaves
.
, 1 . . ,
2 A
7 23 th 1) e
draft tube = 3 f t ; the velo ty hea 0 1 4 ft
. . .
-
p d i i d h = 3 2 g
= co rr e s on n c 2 A
the gai n i n head by s i ng draft tu = h —h = 0 8 1 2

.
. .
ft
u -
or
of H 75 % of th i s gai n should be real i zed i n pract i ce
1 . .
,
Under average cond i t i ons the greate st draft head= H pe rm i=ss i ble f
. .
or
va i ou d i ameters D f draft tubes i s as follows D O 5 f t H 3 2 5 ft
.
,
r s o -
D = 1 3 ft H = I O ft From
. .
, .
D = 8 ft H = 1 4 5 ft ; D = 9 ft
.
,
H = l 3 ft . . .
, . ; .
2
these heads shoul d be deducted h (= 23 due to veloc i ty v f water leav '
, . o
0
i ng tube Short draft tube s f small d i am should extend from 6 to 1 2 i n -
o
be low surface of tai l water long tube s f large d i am from 20 to 2 4 i n
. . .
-
-
o
below Tubes should have a gradual tape r enlargi ng towards the ta i l
.
, .
“ ate i n order to reduce the veloc i ty f the d i scha ge and to thus avo i d
.
,
o r
s g ; 00
Th H e P o f a W a t e W h l = Ga 550 where n= fl i i y f r ee A e c en c o
wheel A the water has no forward momentum leav i ng the t rb i ne
. . ,
s on u
( or enter i ng a centri fugal pump ) each lb undergoe s a change f momen

.
on o
g where v i s the forward component f the enteri ng veloc i ty

.
,
t m=u vA o
leav ng vel centr fugal pump it y f wh ee l r i m ; then
,
( i f i ) L t
or = v l e v1 e oc o -
useful work pe r lb w t = (v g) ft lbs pe r sec = H

. . ,
a er v1 A - 71
H i g h E ffi i n y T u r b i n e Samson ( L fl l ) and M C mi k (S
. . . . .
'
- c e c s. e e c or c
an Sm i th C ) turb i nes tested at the H olyoke flume under heads
.
M or o
f a t 1 5 ft show effi c i enc i es f over 8 0 % at ful l and i gate and a
.
o ou o
ma i m m f about 85 % at
.
.
Sfi ace fr i ct i on and eddy i ng 1 0 t

x u o t a e
L o s e i n T u bi n e energy
.
s s r s. o
ej e cte d i nt o ta il race 3 to shaft fr i ct i on 2 to
,
r -
, ,
P U M PS .
1 14 HY D RA U L I C S AN D HY D RA U L I C M A C H I N ER Y .
d V out r
2 hd iam — D = 2 d g enera
m: ll y W i d t h o f b l a de ate o u t le t s
l i lg t re p - q/ d and a/ D If t h water mov radi ally t ward

.
. .
zr ui e es o
b lade t i nle t t h i ncl i nat i on H of blade t tangent at i nlet =i rc umfere n e
an i n s . ir u| .
o C c
s a
where
e
hat no hock hall o cur uch that —
,
i B / v l ty f v e oc i
t t an ai u. 0
-
f s s
If e x ter i or gu i de blades are u ed th e
c
i nner c i rcumference of wheel
s s 0
s in
of t p of bl e w th d i rect i on of found f m
. .
c l in t i i on d i o ta a vi is r n
“hen the blade curved from the i nlet ou twa rd a d i rect i on Oppos i t
y a
' in
s a re e
to that of ro tat i o n (at co s tant s peed ) t he capac i ty i nc re ases the head n as
decrea es (and vi c v r ) ; when the blades are curved the sam e d
s e e so In rrec
t i on a that o f otat i on at co s t speed ) the ca t y var i es d i rect ly th e
s r n a ci as
head : and when the bla rad i al a var i able p t y c be
.
es a re ca ac i an
del i vered aga i nst a constant head ( d m co s tan t ) Peri phe al ai ni n r
? f b l d 6 t 12 or
3 cc re
veloc i t i e (v ) ran e from 50 t 2 00 t p
.
o e r se c 0 O a es . o
even more T h i n f blades cas t i ron to c t
s i . . .
O
,
; b
.
ia ro nz e or as
'
c ess o
tee l
.
. , ,
to 0 2 in
ft q = 1 0 cu ft per = 64 ft p s e c
s . .
E mpl x a e
= 0 8; se c e vi er s
and = 6 ft pe r Then (by fi rs t ft nd
. . . .
d=
.
ui sec a: a
ft = 3 2 ft p e r whence tan
.
. .
D v sec
and tan and
. .
,
gH ( 550n
i n w i ch n= t l effi c i ency f the pump rang i ng from to i n th
,
ac u a O e
fo re i ng example S pee d at
,
O
wh i pump beg i n t lif t i obta i ned from (
o D — d ) = 8aH wh i ch =
s o s 0 2
2 z in in
angular veloc i t y i n rad i ans er whence (i and

,
se c a» n
r X 6 0/ 2 = 66 5 w i ch i co ns i derably h i gher t han that requ i re d 1r s
when once del i very h — begun ( 5 94
. .
as
E mpi ri c l F m l From a study f the propo rt i ons f a large n mb er
a or u as . o o u
f pumps of var i o us makes the a u thor fi nds that = K / H i n wh i ch K

__
O 1 3 v1
for h igh head h igh effi c i ency p m ps for med i um heads ) ; D (
,
, u In
ft ) .
P L UN G E R P U M PS A N D P U NI P I N G E NG I N E S .
Q u a n t i t y f W at e r P u m p e d Q ( i n cu ft p e
O r m i n ) = 0 00 54 5 Vd 2
gals m n where d f plung r i n ft per min

. . . .
Q ( i ) Vd pe r V = p
2 s ee O e
and d = d i m f plunger i n i n V ranges from 1 00 to 2 00 ft pe r mi
, . .
, . .
a o n
d i n well des i gned eng i nes may rea h 2 50 ft i f the waterways are ample
. . .
-
an c
and H wa t er i s not abru tly deflected L oss by leakage and sli p
.
e p
ran s from 5 % for w we l l packed pumps to 4 0 % f worn and badly

.
ge ne -
or
cared for apparatus
,
H P R eq u i e d t R a i s e W at e r a G ive H i h t H r (Theoret i cal ) o n e

or as 1 ft lb press u re
. . , .
p
H P =Qp — Th eoret i cal l ift for normal tempe rature s
. .
, , ,
ft W hen the tempe rature f the water i ncreases the ressure f th e

. .
O p o
wate va or decrea es the theoret i cal l i ft wh i h at 1 50 F = 2 5 7 ft at
.
.
°
c
r s
p
and at 2 00 F = 7 2 ft H t wate r shoul d there fore

. .
, .
F = 1 8 5 ft
° °
1 75 o
pum by grav i ty
. . .
,
flw
. . .
o th to e p
C h a m be rs E v fl w and smooth runn i ng are Obtai ned by th e
.
Ai r- en o
of a i chambers where the i mpact of the water i s re e i ved and gi ven
.
u se c
'
-
out as ss e O n the del i very s i de t h should be from 3 to 6 t i me s

,
p re ur e se
the w it v of ump and on t h suct i on s ide from 2 to 3 t i mes the capac i ty
. .
”
no p e
H i g h D t y P u mpi g E n g i e s Small pumps are e i ther dri ven from
. .
- u n n
a crank f t or are d i rec t act i ng -s na hav i ng a steam cyli der i n wh i ch -
i e n
the f l l l of the steam i s u ed throughout the st ok e I n l arge
, .
u "'8 8 3 t l l'e s r
h i g h duty en gi nes the steam i s used expans i vely
.
,
-
the W orth i ngton h i gh dut y engi nes com ensat i ng cyl i nders are em
.
i n — p
ployed i n order to equal i ze the dr i vi ng force These cyl in ders rock on trun
n i ons are connected to an a cumulator under a water pre ss ure of about
.
c
sq i n and have the i r pl g p i voted to th e p mp rod
.
200 l b s oe r i in e rs u -
Th i s arrang m nt o ffers a res i stance to the steam pre ssure duri ng the
. . .
e e
early p of the stroke rece i vi n g energy duri ng the pe r i od f ful l steam

an O
pre sure and gi i ng i t t later when the pre sure fall s through e xp ans i on
.
s v ou s
thus ma i n t ai n i n g a fa i rly ev n eff ect i ve pressure throughout th e stroke
.
,
i
D uty The old me sure of um p i ng engi ne pe rformance w th e n mbe a p -
as u r
of work done pe r 1 00 lbs f coal consume d I n 1 89 1 the A S M E
.
of f t l b .
- s . . O . . . .
1 16 HY D RA U LI C S AND H Y D RA U LI C M A C H I N ER Y .
H yd u l i c ra t er flow i ng i n a p i pe under a l w h ead escapes

Ra m
"
Wa o
through an o en i ng the e nd unt i l i t acqu i res a ve loc i ty s uffi c ient to move
.
p at
valve cl i ng h outle t Th i s sud den os pi of flow creates an ex
t st o p n
pres ure i n the p i pe and a val ve near h end i ope ned wh i ch
e .
cess ve i s t e s
leads ai r chambe r i nto wh i ch the water rushes and from there in to
.
t o an -
a d li y i Equ i l i br i um be i ng restored the a i r cham be r val ve closes

,
e ve r p pe -
outle t v lve opens and t h e cyc le i s repeat e d W ate r may be rai sed 1 0
o
.
,
u
t i mes h i gh as t he head of t he s t ream i n f t Effi c i ency 50 to
.
as
P u lso m e te r i th i devi ce wa t er i s ra i se d by suc t i on i nto the pump
.
,
n s
chamber b y a vacuum resul t i ng from h condensat i on of steam wi thin
.
t e
i t i t i then forced i nto th e del i ver y p i pe by the pres ure of a fresh
: s p ly s
of steam T w chambers are employed one ra i s i ng wh ile the other fi
su
o ( s
to pe r of s t eam
.
.
o h a r gcs D f lb
iit v lb t -
s s
T h e A i H i t P u m p A ve rt i cal p i pe wi t h i lower end subme rged
. . . . . .
r- ts
i n a well or tank i s suppl i ed w i th a smaller p i pe from whi ch compr s e d
.
es
a ri en t ers i nto bo tom of the larger p i pe t he t
The column of l i u i d i n the p i pe cons is t i ng to a certa i n ext e nt of i
.
a r
bubbles i l i gh t er t an an equally hi gh column of l i qu i d not
,
s
and therefore r i ses The effi c i ency ranges from 25 to whe re
.
a t io of submerged length t leng t h ab o ve surface var i es from

.
r t 2 o o
re spec t i vely A here are no mov i ng parts th is dev i ce i valuab le i s t s n
,
t h ca e of l ift i ng ac i ds chem i cal sol u t i ons ewag e etc

.
.
e s , , s , .
H Y D R A U L I C P O W E R T R A N S DI I S SI O N .
W at e r u nder h i gh pressures (600 to lbs per q i n ) i d s s a v an

wh e re power d i stri but i on i s des i red over small areas i
. . .
v z
bo i ler an d br i dge shops for presses cranes r i vet i ng fl gi g and forgi ng
, .
,
an n
mach i nery T system cons i sts of p mps to develop the des i red pr s
, , , ,
ne u e
sure from wh i ch the water flows through p i p i ng to an accum u l ator wh i ch
~
.
i a vert i cal cyl i nder prov i ded w i th a heav i ly we i ghted plu g e r P i pe s

. ,
s n
lead from the accum ul a t or t the mach i nes to be ope rated The work
.
o
stored i n an accumulator i s equal to the we i ght pl n g t t i n it
.
i on u e e
lun ge r i ra i sed or wH ft lbs A ccum u lator effi c i ency may
.
s -
y of a d i rect plunger or ram i n a hydraul i c crane i s around

. .
.
ffi i c en c
d e creas i ng i n r port i on to the number of mult i p l i cat i ons of moveme nt
(g
e
b y pulleys used i n bo i ler shops range from to
ressu re s lbs
pe r sq i n ) E ff ect i ve p essure (lbs pe r q p e ss u e
. .
r
s r r
(lbs per sq i n ) m) where m = t i f mult i ply in g power

. . . .
ra o o
(H A dams )
. . .
,
M ax i mum ho ist i ng speeds i n ft per sec warehouse cr nes 6 ; p lat

. .
a
form c nes 4 passenger and wagon ho i sts heavy load s 2 plu ge r
. . ,
s : : n
pa senger elevators d i rect s t roke 1 0
i . ,
,
s
Cast i ro should not be used for hydraul i c cyl i nders when pre ssure s
, . .
n
over lbs per sq i n are used W I or steel be i g subst i tute d The n
test pressure should be about t hree t i mes the work i ng pressure
. . . .
. . .
D e s i g n of H y d ra u l i c C y l i n d e rs ( Kle i nha s ) L d on ram i n

.
n ea
= 0 00039 2 7 pd ; t h i ckness of wal ls of cyli nder i n i = p D —2 (f p )
. .
.
t o ns 2 -
z -
. n .
:
th i ckness of bottom end of cyl inder at —I ; th i c k nes . z
-
s
(at a rad i us D 3 ) between center and wall i ; where

-
+ p +
p j water pre ure i n lbs per sq i d = di m f ram ss plunge r D = i nte rnal n a o or

d i am of y l i d = d + l to 2 i accord i ng t s i ze i = s i e fi be r st e ss ==
. . .
, .
,
c n er n o s r
for cas t s t eel The bo tt om f cyl i nder i s spher i cal (of rad i us 1 ) an d
. .
, .
o (
rounded to wall f cyl i nder by a di = 0 2 d
.
o ra us
Fr i ct i o n o f C u p L e at h e s F = f i t i l res i stance f =a leather
. .
r r c on a o
i n lbs per sq i=n of wa t er d ) where d d i m of
.
-
a
p l nger n lbs p e r n and 1 00 for l
. . . .
,
w i i = th k
.
u in ia at er ressu r e c ea ers
p q s
n g ood cond i t i on i n bad con di t i on (Go odman )
. .
,
.
i 2 50 , .
S H OP D AT A .
F O UN D R Y THE .
Sa n d Good w sand conta i ns from 93 to 95 % f s i l i ca 5 % of alu ne o

m i na and traces f magnes i a and ox i de f i ron Sand conta i n i ng l i me
. , ,
o o
should not be used Floor sand old sand 1 2 ; w sand 4 ; coal dust 1
.
,
: ne
Fac i ng sand old sand 6 ; w sand 4 ; coal dust 1 (The num be rs refer
. , , , .
: ne
p t by we i ght )
. , , .
t
l am i s a m i xture
o r s
f clay r ck sand powdered charco l w ha i r
.
‘ a o o a co
man ure etc (for b i nd i ng power and poros i ty ) grou d together
l , , .
h fl h
,
'
c a rse n
i n a m le , .
,
i
C o r e requ i re a m i xt ure f rock sand and sea sand wi th a b i d i ng sub
s o n
stance and are black washed after bak i ng w i th a m i xture f powdered -
o
cha coal and clay water
,
r
Pa rt i n g Sa n d Powdered blast furnace slag br i ck dust fi ne dust
.
-
or
from cast i ngs may be u ed f th i s purpose Plumbago powdered char
. ,
s or
coal soa pstone and French chalk are used for fac i ng moulds i n order
.
,
that smooth cast i ngs may be obta i ned

, ,
C on s i s t e n c y o f S a n d If too much burnt l d sand i s used i t w i ll

.
or o
cake i n the mould Sand should be mo i sten ed that i f the hand i s closed
. ,
so
a bal l of s me and then opened the s nd wi ll ju t reta i n the shape

.
on a a s
g i ven to i t
,
Sh r i n k a g e o f C a t i n g s Patterns hav i ng hori zontal d i mens i on

.
s o ne
under 3 i n should be made i n smaller to al low f r pp i ng Und e r
.
1
or a
ord i nary cond i t i ons t he sh i nkage f cast i ngs per foot i s as follows cast and
.
37 . .
r o :
mall eable i ron i ; brass alum i num and steel i n z i nc i t i n n 7;
3 5
n
°
in wh i te metal i ; gun metal i i n The edges f patterns s hould

”
, .
, , , , 1 1; . ,
‘ 1
1 s h - f o
be rounded all corners d angles be i ng fi l l t d i n order t avoi d t he
, 37 .
, .
an e e o
weaken i ng due to crystall i zat i on i n cool i n
,
We i g h t o f C a t i n gs sM ul t i ply w igi t f pattern by s or e i o

respect i vely i f the pattern i s f red yellow or wh i te p i ne and the
.
o
cast i ng i s f i ron If the cast i ng i s f yellow brass mult i ply s i m i larly
, , ,
o o
by 1 6 or 1 9
. ,
T o Cl e a a n d B r i g h t e n B ra s C ast i n g I n a glazed vesse l m i x

, .
n s s.
3 parts of sulphur i c ac i d w i th 2 parts f n i tr i c ac i d and add a handful o
table salt to each quart of the m i xt re D i p the cast i ngs i n the m i xtu e u r
and then thoroughly r i nse i n water
.
T h e C u p o l a Speed f melt i ng W = 2 d / p A i r requ i red Q = O 5M

-
2\ '
. o : . . .
H P to o pe rate In these formul s d = i id d i am a ns e

of cupola l i n i ng i n i n W ==l b of i ron per hour p = a i r pressure at upola
. . .
.
s C
i n ounces pe r sq i n and Q ft f a i r per m i n ( B N 7 2 1
.
,
on
-
. . . o . .
T H E B L A C K S M IT H S H O P .
W e ld i n g Wrought i ron welds at a wh i te spark i ng hea t to

sand be i ng used as a flux and t prevent scale Steel w l d
. ,
o e s
at lower heats borax be i ng t he flux employed
.
E l e ct ri c W e l d i n g E xtra sound welds can be made by b t t i the

, .
a u n
surfaces f the parts t be welded allow i ng an electr i c current f arge
.
o o o
volume t fl w and by forc i ng the part s together When the local i zed
,
o o
heat at the joi nt (due to the curre nt ) has atta i ned the weld i ng tempera
,
ture Al ternat i ng currents f l w potent i a l are used I n general from o o

2 5 to 3 0 H P appl i ed t the genera t or are requ i red per q i n of sect i on
.
.
,
o s
to be welded F i ron and s t eel thi s power must be appl i ed for [ (area in
. . . .
. or
117
1 18 sno r DA T A .
sq in X 1 9 ) + 10 ]
se onds Co o pe r re q u i c s 8 2 pe r sq i n of sec t i on
c '
a nd i t mus t e a p l i ed [(area i n s
b p q
. . . .
,
Ill 7 ] e c o n ds ~
nn a t
e l To ol S e e l , heat t o a n e ven red a n d c ool sl o ly i n a ox w b
. . .
.
To A
s u ound i ng t he st eel y gra vel a nd charcoal
rr b ,
a ar n n
C se -H d e i g R i se t he p i e c es ( W 1 o r m ild st ee l ) t o a a
.
red hea t
n q Q ue nc h W h i le t he i
. . .
a d a ppl y e ual pa rts of pruss at e of potash a nd sa lt

mix t u re s fl i w n
o i ng a i t i ng u n t i l i t ur s o ff w b n I
.
ot f e x t reme ha rdness
i s des i red u se cya n i de of otass i um ( A da nger o s p oi son ) p u
.
, .
rn t
T a m p e i g o f S e e l H arden b y heat i n g t o a dark re d (a ou t b
.
. .
R )
q ? w
c ool i ng u i c k y i n a t e r t he a t i cle e i ng k e t i n mot i on r b p
.
,
To te m e r
b ri ghte n t he s rface of t he
u t cle a nd hea t s o ly ( n ot i c ont ac t it h ar i w n w
. .
,
t he fl ame ) u nt i l t he des ed color (as e l o ) a ppea rs d t he ue c h ir b w an nq n

i n ate r or oil
w ,
w b a
.
(4 30
°
Ve ry pale st ra for rass sc r pe rs ha mmer faces la t he and
n
pla er t ools for st ee l and vory a nd one - ork i ng t ools i b w . ,
rw for d lls m i ll ng c tte rs lat he a d pla er ools ri i u n n t

. .
°
Light st a ( 4 50
i
, .
for ron
Med i um st ra (4 70 F
w b i
.
°
for or n g c u tte rs
y w for ta ps dice lea ther—c utt i ng t ools
.
.
°
V er da rk st ra ( 4°90
w w f or rea me rs p unc hes a nd d i es gouges st on e
. . .
B ro n yell o (500 -
c tt i ng t ools
u
, , ,
w p for fl rass t i st d ri lls pla nes i b w

.
°
Y ell o pur le (52 0 - a t dr l ls for
Li ght pu rple (5 30 for a ers. denta l a nd s urg i cal i ns t ruments
, , .
°
Da rk purple (5 50 °
for 0 9 1 c h sels axes -
i .
Da rk l ue (570 b i w i i aw
. .
°
f o r s pr n gs . sc re dr vers C rcula r s s f or metal -
w ood -c h i se ls ood sa s planer k n ves a nd m o u ld i ng c ut te rs

w w i
.
,
-
. . .
Fo rg i n g s. A l l ow an ce f or M ac h i ni n g .
Di am t o 5 in 6 t o 8 i 9 t o 10 i n 12 i d la rger up n n an
w in 0 5 in l i n
. . . . . . .
.
Al lo ance 1 1
1 . . . . . .
TH M A C H I IVE S H O P E .
P unc
h es an
d D i e s Di am : of hole i n die = diam of p u c h + (0 1 6 o n t
X t hic k ness of plate t o be pu nched acc ord i n g t o var i ous a ut ho i t i es r
.
A
. .
fa i r a vera ge val ue for t he e xcess 18 0 2 X t hic k ness

.
u tt n e s , a n d S h p e s i i t per mi n at an r a r n
.
.
C i g S p e e d s f or L h e s, Pl
Or n
( d i a ry t ool steel )
. .
G n
.
e rma
I
.
( ng Tasc he n
b
.
uc h ) .
6 t o 10
12 12
15 t o 20 1 8 t o 30
18 35 18 30
23 38 16 24
B ron z e 60 1 20 40 90
Coppe r 1 50 3 50 40 90
C i cum ferent i al speed ft pe r m i n
r X di am of p i e ce i n i n
n
Ma x m um Feeds a nd Dept h i i
.
, .
.
.
Pla ner speeds ra ge from 1 8 t o 2 2 ft pe r m n

Tasc he n uc h ) : ma x fee d pe r e v = 0 06 i n for rough ng
I b r i
. .
of Cuts ( n
i F n
or fi n i s h i ng ; greatest de p t h p f c ut = i n for C 1 in
.
. . .
,
a nd
i n for steel i b
.
for W I
. .
, .
n for ron z e Ma x pla ner feed

i i n for fi n i sh in g ;
. .
.
. . . . .
pe r st roke = 0 08 t o n for r o u g hi a nd to
i n for W I in i
. .
ren te t e nt h of pla ner c ut = 0 8 n f o r

.
s
' I
i n fo r ron ze b
t . . .
, . . .
, .
or steel
M illi g C n u tt r
( r di nary t oo l st ee l ) O
.
. .
e s A ngle of t oot h : Fron t

face rad i al t oot h a ngle a ngle a t c ut t i ng ed ge 85 (5 % c lea ra n c
~
. .
'
= °
e)
N o of t ee t b= 2 8 (d ia m i n i n r b
. .
. Ta ke nea es t e ve n n um r
. . . e .
S peed e pt h . D
ft pe r of cu t
i i
. .
m n n
.
. .
21 1
31
40 l
30
80
26
120 SH O P D AT A .
S cr e w r a
Th e ds .
U 8 St
. . a n dard . W hi t w o r t h .
Ta p dr i l ls . N ut s
— rough .
H ex q
S ua re
r
.
s ho t l ong
i
d am d i am .
1fi
r
1fl
1i
1i
1f
1fi
m
" $0 8 mo t
.
p a
a
9 N
o
“
o 8
c a o 0
k s
i E z3 a
: .
o e 0
2 sa w .
.
Es fi
: 3
X 5
c
a e$ o
E "o 5
a s
n x A
2fi e :
s :
3S
»
n
Q 8 n e
«
a
E
a
: d w ms c 3
a 8s
a
w d 6 E
.
e ? w oi 2 5 - .
m
r
S5 a fi
.
. e a u !
a s .
5
n
v m
g v
. o E3 M e a «
5 7
x
fi w S 1 os 0
.
D 5
.
o »
2 s m a af 0
o e .
m fio
w Q a s
5
7
.
n m
e D o
x
ws . a
o
x c g
o
e
5 fi
a o v a E x s
s a c1 fi o
2
t A
w s s c
$ 8
s e fi o m mf
e
Q
t 2 d 5n m s
fi a o 3
fl
o
8S 8
a
: d 3 n 6 e n a ? ?
S t ub s S t e e l
’
W i re Gau g e ti
(c on n ued f rom t a le on p ge b a
WI R E AN D SH EE T —M E T A L G A U G E S .
t
The U S S an dard a n d m pe r i al gauges are respect i vel y t he leg l sta nd
I a
a t
rds i n he U S a nd rea t B ri ta n G i re ga uge is sed i n i b w u
. .
'
St u s steel
meas u i ng steel i re a n d dr i l l r ods
r w
. . .
.
W ire an d Sh ee t -M e t a l Ga u ge s .
B ir mi n g Wash
ha m St u s b bu
n r Trent on U S
S and
b I
'
St u s (steel ) M oe n ron Co
( i ro n ) R oe l i ng b a rd
. .
000000 0
0000 00
0000 0
0000 0 4 6 0000
000 4 096 4 0
00 3 6 4 8 00
0 3 2 4 95 0 !
1 2 893 00
2 2 5 7 6 30
3 2 2 94 2 0
4 2 0 43 1 0
5 1 8 1 9 40
6 1 6 2 02 0
7 1 4 4 2 80
8 1 28 4 90
9 1 1 4 4 30
10 1 0 1 890
11 09 07 4 2
12 080808
13 0 7 1 96 1
14 064 08 4
15 05 7 06 8
16 0 5 082 0
17 0 4 5 2 57
18 0 40303.
19 03 53 90
20 03 1 9 6 1
21 02 84 6 2
22 02 53 4 7
23 02 2 57 1
24 02 0 1 00
25 0 1 7 90 0
26 0 1 5 940
27 0 1 4 1 95
28 0 1 2 64 1
29 0 1 1 2 57
30 0 1 002 5
31 00892 8
32 0 0 7 95 0
33 007 080
34 0063 04
35 005 6 1 4
36 00500 0
37 004 4 5 3
38 0 0 3 9 65
39 00353 1
40 003 1 45
Im p e r i a l W i re Gau g e i
(c on t n ued from ta le ) b .
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
. 004 4 . 00 4 . 00 36 . 00 3 2 . 002 8 . 00 2 4 . 00 2 . 00 1 6 . 00 1 2 . 00 1
1 22 sa o p D AT A .
oc ur i cn a n at ura l st ate w h i le t he latte r are prod uct s of t he el c t r ic f urnac e e,

r ry m uc h ha rde r a nd ha ve greater c utt i ng w d du rab li t y
.
a e ve po er ai: i
d m ( S iC ) i c om posed of 3 0 % Ca rb on S i l i on
.
_
( b
Ta r o ru n u A l u d um s c n
i s o bta i ned pri nc i pally f rom ba ux i t e a n a m orphous hyd r t e of
.
a
l spee ds of w heels vary t
.
Sp d cc l i h s.
’
cr p to c ra ft r oi n
usuall y from C y l i n d r i ca l w ork gr i nd i ng
.
pe r mi n to in
m li should ha ve a per i phe ral speed of from 2 5
ii c i nc s f t per mi to n
t he slo wer s p eeds f del i cat w ork
. .
,
The t ra ve r e s peed of wh l = f or e s
ee ace
re v of pi ece be i ng grou nd Pol i s h i ng w hee ls sho ul d
.
f wl c O 7 5 p
ic er
ha ve a pe r i ph ra l speed of a b out pe r m i n
o . . .
e it
G ra d e o f W h e e l s f V ar i o u U A b r i ves class i fied (acc ord
. . .
or -
s se s. a e
r
s a
i n g t o h i e of t e i r gra i ns ) b y n um be rs w h i c i nd i cat e t he mes hes
t e s z h h
pe r l i i nc h of l
ri ca r t hrough w hi c h h c rus hed su b sta n ce h t ic sc ee n
~
t e as
passe l
The c ut t i ng ca pac i t y of t he va ri ous s i es c om pa red w i t h fil es i s fo ll ws
i
z as o
1 6 t o 30 m h fi les 3 0 t o 4 0 basta rd 4 6 t o se o nd c ut 70 t 80 ; ; c -
; o
a nd u wa rds
, , ,
sm oot h c ut -
;fi t o dead m ot h p st i i c r
'
ne -s o
The N ort on E mery Wheel Co g i ves t he foll w i ng t a b le w h i c h i

, .
i o s a r ox
di m soft w hee p
p
m at ely c orrec t for o rd i na ry c on d t i o s
.
(l = i n rn e u
med i um Q = m di m ha d i nd i cate c orres po n d i ng i nt e r
.
,
ot her l e u r ; e zt e rs
med i at e grad es ) :
,
La rge C 1 a d steel c as t i n (Q R ) n
mallea le a nd hi lle r i ron cast i ngs (Q R )
b c
. . ,
La r c
i n
S na l cast i gs ( C 1 steel a nd m allea le i ron ) drop fo g i ngs . b
.
,
-
r
(P Q ) 20 t o 30
ron z e c ast i ngs pl o po i nts (
b Q ) br a ss cast i n gs ( 0 P ) w
.
.
W I ’
1 6 t o 30
Pla ne r nd p pe r c utte r k n i ves (J K ) lat he a nd p la ne r t o e l s (N 0 ) 30 t o 40
a a , . . ,
G in w , ,
.
enera l mac h e ork (0 P ) 3 0 t o 40

Wood o k i ng t ool s sa s t i st - dr i lls h d groun d ( M N )
wr w ,
w an
.
-
36 t o 60 -
Mac h i ne gr in di ng t i st d ril ls (K M ) rea me rs t ps mil li n g w a ,
ér
, , , .
, , , ,
c u t t e rs ( H ’ 40 t o 60
H a nd gri nd ng : rea me s ta s m i ll i ng c utters (N
i p
.
46 t o 1 00
.
n
For gr i d i ng ma c h i nes t he La n d i s Tool Co gi ves t he foll o wi g :
,
,
,
n .
,
Mate r al i . N of gra i n
o . G rade of w hee l . .
Soft st eel ord in ary s hafts 24 60 M ed i um or on e gr ade h a rde r

to
bi i 60 O n e or t w o grades sof te r t h an
, .
,
t u ng or l ght s haft s 24
m ed i um
.
H a rd I 60 M ed i um or one gr ade softer

.
steel and C 24
In ri i grad es
. .
te rn al g nd n g . 30 60 t o se veral
softe r .
c n o my i F i n i s hi n g C yl i n d r i ca l W o r k i s o b ta i n ed b y red uc i n
E o n
s t oc k b y m ea ns of rough hea vy t w i t h i n 0 1 t o 02 5 i n f t he fi i h cu t s o o n s e
d i amet er a nd t hen gr i n d i ng t o c om p et i on I t i s p oss i b le t o forc e w hee ls
, . . .
l
t o rem ove 1 c u i n p er m i n
.
E m e r y W l v F i l i n g a n d C h i pp i n g The fi gu res i n t he foll o w

. . .
i ec s s.
i n g ta b le e x p ress a p prox i mat el y t he n um b er of l b r em oved per hour
.
s
b y t he va ri ous processes The metal b a rs grou nd were i n held
.
aga i nst w heel b a pressu re f a b out 1 00 l b s pe r s q i n D unk i n Pa r et

.
o
J ou r Fra n kl i n 5—1 2
. . .
,
. nst .
,
B rass W I .
. .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
G r i n d s t 0n e o s for t ool -d ress i ng s hould ha ve a pe r i phe r l S peed et ee n a b w

600 a nd 90 ft pe r m i n R a p i d gri n d i n g s peeds sh ould ot e xceed n
min
. .
ft pe r
i t h e Be t hle he m St ee l Co e xh i i ed t In bt
.
H g h -S p e e d T o o l S e el . 1 900
t ool st eel at t he Pa r s xpo t on made a nd t reat ed a cc o d i ng t o t he Tayl or i E s
ii r .
W i u in
h te pat e nts Th s stee l as ca pa le of ta k i ng hea v cuts at a n o mal ] i w b y b r
hi gh c tt g speed s t he c h ps c om i g 0 6 at a red heat a nd t h e t ool st i n an
.
”
.
,
124 SH O P D A TA .
and em bod y the p t i l l i of an i n v est i gat ion b y M r F W

ra c ca co n c u s o n s
T I extend i ng over some twelve years
. . .
»
c Used round
or .
For blunt t l rad us of p mt W =dth
.
l o
’
: 11 0 88 o o s, i i
- i ; for sharp t ools rad ius wi d t h in
s .
gl f 6 3
0
Clea ran ce an e
g slope s de 1 4 for ard steel and C 1 2 2 for med um

n .
1 =
. .
.
° °
ha : i l |s s o 1c i
d soft steel
. .
an t.
(
’
ut Speed i n Feet per
t i nu Mi nute for a To l whi ch o is t o
la t 90 Mi nutes
.
s before R e g r mdi n g .
Soft Cast Iron . Soft S tee l .
Si zes of Standard Tools . S i zes of Standard Too ls .
l i in . l in .
i in .
§ in .
H im l l in .
l in .
i in .
f; 2 39 2 26 2 22 206 5 18 4 90 4 82 510
fi r 19 1 177 1 69 1 47 3 66 3 39 3 23 3 22
l
,, 1 42 1 30 1 20 2 57 2 35 2 17
l
,, 1 18 1 07 t 20 0 1 89 1 72
1 03
2 16 20 5 9 203 1 94 4 50 427 4 23 44 5
g, 1 72 1 60 1 56 1 38 3 17 296 28 4 28 1
1 “ 1 28 1 18 1 10 93 1 223 20 5 1 90 1 77
3;
1 1 07 1 82 165 1 51 135
1 57 1 42 1 28
1 1 87 1 81 1 81 1 82 3 70 3 58 3 58
3;
{g 1 49 1 42 137 1 28 260 2 47 24 0 25 5
3
1, 1“ 111 1 04 1 83 71 161 161
f, 1 49 1 38 1 27
1 29 1 18
1 05
ft 1 68 1 65 1 67 1 73 3 22 3 15 3 20 3 59
a,
t 1 34 1 29 1 26 1 22 227 215 2 26
1
3, 1 59 1 44
3 1 30 121
37
1 12 1 04
a. 1 44 1 43 1 50 264 2 63 27 6 330
x
,, 1 15 1 12 1 13 1 86 1 82 1 85
i f. 13 1 1 26
1
35 1 07
I 3
a, 131 132
1 05 1 04
A
f; 1 12
15 S peed fo r
f t: H ard Cast I
31, M die um X
H ard Steel = 0 23 X
1
1; Med i m u
.
(Co den ed from Tables

n s 1 4 3—1 54 , V ol . 28 , Pr oc . A . S . M E) . .
H IG H SP E E D -
TO O L STE E L .
ver e compos it i on of tool

A a V 1 8 % W 5 76 72 Cr 4
Forged at l ight yellow heat ,
.
0 09 7 M Si n
Stee Turned H ard steel (locomot ive= t ire ) C 0 77 M
0 . .
3 : n
0 0 44 7 P Tens ile strength lbs per sq i E last i c
. .
0
0 2 1 % Si n
1i m i t = 70 000 lbs per sq i Per cent stretch = 1 4 Med i um steel 0 3 4 7
.
, . . . .
n
C S P T S 0
. . . . .
M Si n 8 30
stretch = 3 0 % ; S oft steel 0 2 27 0C
. . .
E :
S P T S = 56 2 50 ; E L =
. .
0
M Si n . . .
, . .
P es u res o n C u tt i n g To ol s p i lbs per sq i

r s n n
Ca t Iro soft med ium hard
, , . . .
s n:
Steel soft m d i um ha d
, , ,
: e r
M e ta l R e m o v e d i n U n i t T i m e
, , ,
Cast Iron lbs per mi == 3 1 3 S ; lbs per hou == 1 87 8 S

.
: n a r a.
S t ee l lbs per mi 3 4 S ; lbs per hour 20 4 S
. . . . .
n a a
Po w e R eq u i ed by C tt i n g T oo l (l athes planers shapers bori ng
. . .
. . .
r r u s
mills ) H P = p S 3 3 = F mi ll ing mach i nes J J= Fl t h state
, , .
a + or a er s
that H P = w where remove d per hour and bron ze
. . . . .
1b c f u s c or
C I and for steel
. .
, .
, ,
f or
B est T o ol A n g l es D r N icholson i nd icates i n hi dynamometri c
. . .
s
experiments that the tool edge (i plan ) should be at an ngle f 4 5 to
. .
°
n a o
the center lin e of the work the clea ance from 5 to the tool a gle about
.
r n
65 for m d i um steel (7 5 f C I ) and the t p rake 2 0 f med i um steel
,
° ° °
e or o -
or
( A S M E Chi cago
.
°
(9 f or
A verage cutt i ng stress CI lbs per sq i ; steel
. . . .
, ,
lb : h s
H P =
. .
. .
. .
, .
tti t X XS cu n s re ss z
-
C tt i ng H ? for 1 lb per m
a
C I and 1 6 f steel
. .
u f )
in or or
H P logst i tool frict i on = 0 3 H P per lb per mi Gross H P =
. . . . .
n n
for C I and for steel
. . . . . . . . .
The s rfac ing force for best shop angle =(70 f steel ) = 6 7 000 lbs pe r
. . .
°
u or
sq i f cut ; s imil arly trav rs ng force 2 0 000 lbs per sq i The
.
,
n o e i n
s rfac ing force wi ll thrust the saddle aga inst the bed if the coeffi c ient of
. . .
, , .
u
fri ct i on eq al s or exceeds The total net force =t be overcome by
u o
the d ri vi ng mechan ism of the carriage f cutt ing steel
lbs per sq i of cut R ou d nose tools are p f 2
X 0 333
;l y
or .
n n re e r a
use
. . . .
H i g h -S p ee d T w i t D r il l Power requi red r m thrust feed per

rev Th rust ncreases more rap idly than the power consu m
s s. cc p cc
ed consequently
. . .
i
less p i requ i red to dr i ll a g i ven hole a gi ven t ime by increa i ng
. ,
s in s
the { ower 1 than by i ncreas i ng the ( p m The ngle f dri ll p oi nt may be r a o -
decreased to as l w as 90 (standard therebypreduc i g the

. . .
°
o n
thrust 25 72 and Wi thout fi t i g the durabil i ty f po nt (W W B ird a
'
ec n o i
6 11 P F i fi ld
, . .
5 D a r e ec
M e t l -C t t i n g C i rc ul a r S a w s C tt i ng cold met l di am 3 2 i ;
.
.
,
.
,
a u u a : n
th ic k ness ; Wi dth f teeth (cutt i ng edge ) ; teeth to
. .
i i n o h
apart ; c i rc mf erent i al veloc i ty 4 4 ft per m i ; feed to
. .
, ,
i n u n
per sec
. . .
, ,
i n
Cutt ing metal at red heat d iam 3 2 to 40 i ; th ic k ness
. .
t i ; : n o n
teeth to apart : depth f teeth mf vel
. . .
, ,
i t i i n o o n c r cu
to ft per m i (I ng Ta chenbuch )
. .
, .
,
n s
Taylor Newbold S w wi th i nse rted teeth f h i gh speed steel A 9 }
. . . .
-
a o :
i n cold w at 7 6 r p m w ill cut through 1 } i hex cold rolled steel i
-
, ,
sa 4
n -
n
2 6 seconds d at 96 r p m 2 2 secs A 36 i thi ck teeth
. . . . . .
wan i 1 11 n sa
7 n
thi ck runn i ng at a cutt ing speed of 8 5 ft per mi w ill
, . . . .
, 73 .
,
i 1
a v e ra g g n n n
cut 6 a bar f carbon steel 1 4 i X 84 i i 2 0 mi A bar f
1 6 .
, . .
”
0 o n n n n o
carbon steel 5 X 5 } can be cut i
. . .
mi n n
Fi t (R unn ing Force D ri ving Shr ink I n t he followi ng table
.
s
whi ch i de i ved from good pract ice the fi rst column g ives the nom i nal
, , , , ,
s r
d i ameter f hole The mean value f each cla s f fi t i gi ven and also
,
o or s o s
the perm iss ible vari at ion above below same F force shri nk and
.
or or
dri vi ng fi t the values gi ven are those by wh ich the d i ameter f the p iece
. , ,
s o
should exceed that f the hole wh ile f runn ing and p sh fi t they are o or u s
the values by wh ich the d iameter f the hole shoul d exceed that of the
,
o
piece Force and shri n k fi t are g ive the same value P sh fi t s n u s a re
t hose i n whi ch the p iece i forced to place by hand pressure R u ni ng
. .
s -
n
fi t are t h ree values A for easy fi t on heavy mach inery ; B for
.
average fiigh s peed shop pract i ce ;

s ve n : s
C for fi tool wor k

, ,
-
,
ne .
S HO P D A TA
D ri ve + Push R unn i ng “
ean ean ean

0
M Va r . M Va r M .
fi _ O _ _
M ean Va r M . ean Va r . M ean Va r .
. 75 . 25 . 37 . 12 . 5 . 5 1 . 25 . 6 . 12
1 . 25 . 87 . 12 . 75 2 . 75 . 5 1 . 25
2 5 . 25 . 87 . 62 . 4
3 . 75 2 . 5 . 8 . 5
4 7 1 2 5 5 . 6
5 9 1 3 5 9 62
ll
. .
6 1 5 5 1 2 . 75
The values above g iven are i n thousandths of an i nch ; thus for a d ri vi ng

fi t i a hole of 4 i n d i am
n the p iece should be d m (I t in in ia
m y be e ither or and st ill b W th n the pe rm i i ble
. . . .
,
i i
.
a n n e i i ss
var at ion of i n e ither w y ) For locomot i ve t res nd t h
. .
i l g a i a o er ar e
hrunk work All owance i tho andths f an h = ( H X d am
. .
o
s n o 1nc in
(s H Moore
us i .
ab o v e 6 In D i a m For sh ri nk fi t add to d i am of
. .
,
Sl z es i : s n
p iece for each i nch 1 d iam of hole where the part conta i n ing the hole i
. . . .
0 s
th ick and unyield ing Where the metal around the hole i th in and ela t ic
.
s s
add per i of d iam For force fi t mult iply d iam of hole by
.
,
i n n s
and add i ; vari at i on of i per mi ss i ble For d ri ve
. . .
.
i a n s
fi t allow one half of t h excess just g i ven for force fi t For ru n ing fi t
. . .
s -
e s. n s,
mult iply d iam of hole by dd i and subtract th is a n
m from d i am of hole thus g i v i ng d iam of p iece V ari at i on of
. .
su i
perm iss ible
.
. . . n .
Po we R e q i red by M a c h i n e y
.
r u r .
Mach ine M ateri al No of tools H P work i ng H P l ight . .
W he l lathe 8 4 i C l
. . . . . .
.
e 2 n
B ori ng mi lls 5 4 to 7 8 i C I
. . .
l n
Blott i n machi ne 3 6 x 1 2
. . . .
and g0 X 15
s,
W I
Planers
. .
:
Se llers 6 2 i n X 35 ft , . .
36
56 ft
d al dr ll
. .
Ra i i 42 i h
Shaper stroke
. .
, 1 9 1 11 .
( B aldwi n Loco W orks ; measurements by separate e l ectri c motors .
Mac hi ne H P of motor requi red to opera t e

under best cond i t i ons
. .
.
N iles planer 1 0 1 0 ft X 20 ft
.
30
Pond
, .
8 X 8 X 20 25
51 X 5 X 12 15
G ray X 6 ft 3
G h lt t urret lathe 28 i
1s o wi 4 n s ne
W F and J Barnes dri ll press 2 1 i
. . .
1 n
N les rad i al dr il l 60 i arm
. . .
.
i n
2
Emery Gri nder two 1 8— wheels i 950 r p m
. . .
i 5 n n use .
Pond Vert ical B ri ng Mill 1 0 ft table
, .
. . .
12 o -
B ment 6 Mile Slotter

. .
e : 7 s
J on 6 Lamson Turret Lathe 2 i n X 2 4 i
.
es 1: 1 5 n
G h l t Tool Gri nder
. . .
is o 4
H n d y Norton Lathe 1 6 n
.
e -
e 2 i
P t n am Lathe 1 8 i n
u
,
P on d , .
3 6 in 10
( F B D uncan En ginee r Soc i ety of W P a )
. .
,
’
s . .
S HO P D A TA .
P op r t i o n s o f Pa t s I n a Se r i e o f M a c h i n es W hen t w s i zes of a
r o r s o
mach ne have b en con tructed and i t i des i red to ext nd the seri es or
.
.
i e s s e
to i nt d uc intermed i ate s i es the fo llo wing method of D r Coleman
ro e z
S lle may be employed
.
,
e rs :
Let D be t h larger nom i nal d i mens ion y 30 (of a 30 i sw ing lathe ) e sa - n

smal ler
.
,
D , 12 ( l2 i
‘
-
a .
L t d i am of lead s
e w on D - C = 3 in and d iam f lead screw on c re o -
- l 5 in T1 0 - 3 0 — 12 = l 8
. .
,
D D dC 3 (C
1 11 an
a fa tor
. ,
AD —
. . , .
—
(U s - 0 0 833 - A c
l 5 —1 - 0 5 - l the ncrement
. .
C i
Let t be des i ed to fi nd C when 0 20 in Then
1 . . . .
i r 2 2
3
.
C ing .
H o l t l n g E n g i n es sTheoret ical H P q i d = w ig1 t i l b (of re u re e 1 n s

cage rope and ft per m A dd 2 5 to 50 %
. . . .
o
in in
for actual H P on f fr i ct i on and con t ingenc ies li mi t
. .
, ,
M
b
. . acco un o . ax . or
f
rop length i ft - fl
e — where I i the break i ng strength of rope in
n z
-
s
E
.
,
v
lb per
s q i w = l b per foot
s of rope D —
=ndead we i ght to be l if ted i s n
and 7 = factor of safety
. . .
, .
, ,
lb s
E le v a t o r Speeds l w 0 to 1 50 ft per mi med i um 1 50 to 3 50 ft
. , .
s. o n
h igh 3 50 to 800 ft Counterwe ights should be about 7 5 % f the we ight
.
, ,
o
of car and plunger Floor= area 20 to 40 sq ft Num ber f elevators
.
.
o
for a h i gh offi ce b il di g ( H ight of bu ildi ng i (speed in
. , . .
-
u n e n
ft per mi X i t v l between elevators n seconds ) (G W N i t l
n er a in s e,
A S M E M y
. . . .
a
Wi re ropes for elevators (6 strands ea h of 1 9 Wi res ) Safe w k i
. .
.
,
c or n
g , :
load i n l b = 1 1 600d — 720 000£ (f Swed ish i ron ) ; = 23 200d —7 60 0 —

I d 5
2 2
0 0
s .
, , or , ,
D
(for ca t steel ) Where d d i am of rope i i and D d i am f sheave i n
=s
—
= n n o in
(Capt H C Newcomer U
.
, . . .
N 1 15 -
C o=n v eyo r B el t s Lbs con eyed= per mi per

. . . .
, .
,
1 3 82 4 ; l b 1 n s
tons per h b w V 4 60 800 where b = Wi dth
. .
, .
h ou r b wV 2 -
z f ou r 2
o
belt i n i V = p d ft per mi w = lb i 1 cu ft f the substanc
.
. ,
n s ee in n s n o e
yed These values are for flat belts ; f trough belts m ult iply by 3
. .
, . . .
co n ve or
A verage V = =3OO : h i gher speeds may be used up to 4 50 f level and 650
. .
or
when elevat i ng at an angle A pprox H P requi red to operat e = —l b per
.
s
i ft
. . . . .
mi X l n ti e e va on n
E l ect ri c Cra n e An electri c trave l l ing crane cons i s t s of a bri dge or
. .
s.
gi rder a trolley run n i ng on the bri dge and a ho ist attached to the trol ley
,
ach part be ing operated by it w motor The followi ng data are from
, ,
e s o n
a paper by S S W ales read before the Bu e Soc iet f W Pa
.
’
s rs o
g g
i ee
L - work ing load crane tons we i ght br i dge i tons
. . . .
,
i ;
= ; on n 0 n
w = w ig h t of trolley i tons ; S = p d in feet per m i n ; P and P
, ,
e n s ee
tract i ve force i lbs per ton 1
, .
n . .
Trolley .
L . w .
1 to 25 tons 0 3L .
25 75 4L
75 1 50 5L
H P for bridge 3 3 000 (Use motor t i mes as large

for
. . .
,
HPfor ho i t -LS 33 000 1 25 -
1 H P per ton l i ft d 1 0 ft in one m i nute )

. .
-1 -
. s t
.
e
.
Speeds i n Feet per Mi nute (Ing Taschenbuch ) . .
5 tons 25 tons 5 0 tons . .
H o i st 1 4 to 28 1 0 to 1 2 6 to 7 5 .
1 80 3 00 1 40 2 10 1 30 200
80 120 50 75 35 55
M ISC E LL A N EO US . 12 9
P ai n t a n d Pa i n t i n g .
O ne gal lon of li seed il plus 40 lbs of wh i te lead w i ll cover 2 50 to

n o
3 50 sq ft of outs i de work w i th a good fi rst coat The same quant ity
.
w ill second coat and fi n ish from 3 50 to 4 50 sq ft W hi te lead when used

. . .
on ins ide work turns bl ack ish ye llow on acco nt of exposure to the sul phur
. .
-
u
ous fumes from g coal W hi te z i nc i a co d ingly preferable for ins ide
as o r s c r
work but hav in g less opac i ty more coats are requi red
.
For i ron d steel work red lead (40 l b p gal f il ) i s an expens ive
, , , .
an -
s er o o
but d urable coveri g T prevent bli stering on outs ide work bo iled il
. .
n o o
shoul d be used T rpent ine only shoul d be used for thi n ing Knots and
.
u n
p itchy surfaces wood shoul d be coated Wi th shell ac varn i sh and all
. .
on
grease sc l e ac id and moisture should be removed from metal work
.
a
before pai nt ing Graphi t e mi xed wi th l inseed il and lai d in fa i rly
, . ,
o on
th ick coats makes a good pai nt f metals Iron p ipes stac ks boiler
.
or
fronts etc are varn ished wi th a phaltum thi nned Wi th turpent ine
.
, ,
, .
, s .
EL E CT R OT E CH N I CS .
E L E CT R IC C U R R E NTS .
R e si s an R ) i that pro en y of a materi al Wh i ch Opposes

t of can ( iymbi l current throng g t The m of measurement i
e s o s
the flo w t e ec r c t i u s
the ohm wh ich i res istance equal to that of a colum n of pure mercury
.
'
s a
at 0 C of un iform cross sect ion cent imeters i lengt h and we igh i ng

.
° - n
g ams
,
,
r
E lec tro m ot i v e Fo rc e (symbol E i the electr ic
.
bb
0
- t a re v i a l on s
pr su e whi ch forces a current thro gh a es istance The un it f meas

,
u r o
m t i the volt the value of wh ch der ved from the standard Clark
es r .
i is i
cell who e E M F at 1 5 C i volts

u re en s ,
°
s
appl ied to a res i stance will cause a fl ow of

s
C u rre n t (I ) A
. . .
. .
n
electr ic ity wh i ch i termedi a currenth The uni t of me surement i the
.
s a s
or the current wh ch flows t rough a res stance of one ohm when

. .
i t i subjected to an E M F of one volt O ne mp i t h amount of current

an n ie re ,
a e re s e
re i d t electrolyt i cally depos i t gram of s ilver i
.
s . . . .
o d n o ne s e co n
u re
The quant ity f electr ici ty ass i ng through a g iven
.
u t l t y (Q )
an o
cr s sect ion of conductor i measured i cou ombs O ne coulomb
.
- s n
the quant ity of electr c ity wh ich flows past a gi ven cross sect ion f a con
os .
.
-
i c
duc t or i one second t here be ng a current of one ampere i the d t r
n i n co n uc t
C a pac i t y ( C ) i tha t property of a mater al by v irtue of wh ich it i
, .
s i
able to rece ive and tore up (as a condenser ) a certa i n char e f electric
s
s o
A condenser of un i t i t y i one that w i ll be charg to a potent ial ca o a c s
of one volt by a uant ity of coulomb— The uni t of capac ity i the o ne
farad wh ich i t qarge for conven ient
s
the m i crofarad (one m ill ionth
.
s oo u se ,
of o ne farad ) be i ng em loyed i pract ice
,
n
E lectr i c E n e rg y the work performed i a c ircui t thro h
.
or n
wh ich a curren t flows i measured by a un i t ca l led the joule O jou e s ne
i s equal to t he work done by the fl w of ampere t hrough one ohm
, .
o o ne
for one second

E l ectr i c Po w e r ( P ) i measured wa t ts O ne watt i equal to the
.
s 1 11 s
work done at the rate of one Joule per second O H P = 7 46 watts
.
ne
watt = 0 7 37 3 f t =lbs per sec B T U per
. . . .
() 1 1e O -
sec ne
k i lowatt
. . . .
, . . . .
w t l 3 405 H P at s
Su bd i v i s i o n s a n d M l t i pl es o f U n i t s are expressed b t he
. . .
f u
thousandt h m ill i ; one
u se
f ollow i ng prefi xe m i ll i onth m i cro ;
o
th e O s ne - o n e-
m i ll i on meg t housand ki lo m icrohms m i crofarads m i ll i
.
, ,
-
a o ne
amperes m gohms megavolts k ilowatts
, , , , ,
e
A i ds t a C t i o n of E l e ctr i cal M a g n i tu d es O h m = i t
, , , ,
o o n cc ne o res s
ance of ft of o 8 copper Wire (1 i d iam ) approx res istance
~
.
n
of 400 ft of No 1 4 cop er Wire ( i d iam ) approx O ne volt = 9 0 %
. . .
1 n
of the E M F of a Dan i e p
1 11
I cell ( Zn Cu and a solu i on of copper sulphate )
. . . . .
t
6 6 % of the E M F of a L l h é cell ( c rbon z i nc telephone battery )
. , , ,
ec a nc a -
approx
. .
,
candle power (c p ) d irect current lamp has a current of

.
A - -
a re
about 10 mm fl wmg through i t d an E M F between the c rbons
a res o an a
0 1 abou t 45 l t ; it consequently requ ires 4 5 0 wat ts of electri c power
. . .
vo s .
1 30
C
E L E T R O T EC H N I CS .
Gr ms a
G am r pe r G rams pe r per
coul om b
r s
coul o m am p amp
ho r
. .
.
u . ho u r .
l m i num
A u 9 8 0 00008 3 09 0 299 1
Co '
I Pla t i n um 97 2 00 1 009 52 3 63 4 3
il e P otass i um
) .
. . .
Co 65 4 00067 9 2 4 2 4 4 5 3 39 000 40 5 05 1 4 58 2
S i l ver
. .
. . .
L d
ea 103 2 00 1 07 13 4 3 858 5 00 1 1 1 857 4 0269
Me cury Ti n
. .
. .
00 1 0375 6 000609 96
N c kel
r . .
Zinc 0003 360 1

N i t rogen
i . . .
4 6 0000 48 40 0 1 7 4 2 1 .
i u d u mul t iply ampe re ho ur

. .
( To obt a n po n s pe r am pe re -
ho r grams pe r -
by
,
A G N E TI SM E L E C T R O -M .
Li n e s o f F o r c e W hen a curren t starts t o fl ow i a c ond uct or wh i rls n

of magnet i sm are t d a roun d t he cond uct or w h i c h see m t ri ng
. ,
e ne ra e o 3
from it cen ter a n t he reg i on so fi lled w i t h t hese w h i rls i ncre ases all y ’
s ra
i n extent as t he c urren t in c rea es re ma i n constan t whe n a steady cu rren t
,
s s
i s at ta i ned a nd S ri n k rad i all y t o ni l w hen t he cu rrent i s i n te—rru pted
.
h s
I f t he c ond uc t or i s be nt i nt o a l oop a n eleme nt ry el ec t ro ma gnet i s
. .
a
formed Wi t h a pole e i t her s i de f t he
,
, on o
pla ne of t he l oop I f t he c ond uc t or be .
wou nd i nt o a n um ber of l oo ps al ong t he

4
1
s urfa c e of a c yl i nder a solen o i d is form ed ,
an d t he whi r ls so a dd t hem sel ves t o et her

t hat t hey ma y be c ons i dered as oops
e nteri ng t he solen o i d at all po i nt s of t he
,
sec t i on at o n e e nd pass i ng al on i ns i de
parallel t o t he ax i s of t he sol en oi t o t he
,
ot her e nd t hence emerg i ng a n d ret urn i ng

outs i de i n cu rved pat hs t o t he po in t
,
Fi g 27 fi rst c ons i dered ( Fi g

.
These l oops a re termed l i nes of force a nd t he i r n umber depe nds on t he

.
n mbe r of sp i rals of c ond uct or i n t he soleno i d an d t he num ber of am pe res

u
,
.
o f c urrent fl ow i ng t hroug h t hem or a s i t i s expresse d by t he n m ber of , , , u

a m w t u rns
en si f t h e M g e i F i e l d (3C) at an y po i n t is m e s re d
nt ty o a n tc au
.
he I
by t he force i t exe rts on a u n i t magnet i c pole t he uni t i n tens i t y t he re
fore be i ng t hat w hi c h a cts w i t h a force of one d yn e upon a u i t p ole n
, ,
or one l i ne of force pe r s q c m ( A dyne i s t he force w h i c h a c t i ng

. ,
for one se cond u pon a ma ss of on e gram i m parts a veloc i t y of on e ce n i t

. .
,
meter per se cond )

M g e o -m o i e F r e 5 ) is t he m g net i zi ng force of n elect ri c
a n t tv oc a a
.
c u rrent fl ow i ng i n a co i l or so e n oid an d i s usuall y stated i n am pere t r ns -

u
where n is t he n um ber of t ur ns or l oops of t he
.
c ond ct or a nd I t he c urre n t i n a m peres

u The un i t for ff i s ca l led he t
gi lbe rt a nd is equal t o
.
am pere- t urns
e sit f t h e M a g e i i g F o r ce per un i t len h of soleno i d
nt n y o n tzn
.
T he I
( )
3C = 4 m l Z L = I 257 n 1
--
+ L w here L = l engt h i n cm L 1 = i en h i n
i n c"hes JC =0 495 n l -s- L, or i f expressed i n l i nes pe r s i n 301 = 3 1 9 3 n + L 1
.
, .
M agne i I d c i ((B) i s t he magnet i c

t c n u t on
. .
, . .
, . .
ux o r t he n um be r of
l i nes of f rce per un i t a re of cross se ct i on t he area at e very p o i n t be i g
o a -
n
normal t o t he d i rect i on of t he fl x where 1: i s t he permeab i l i t u y
.
The un i t i s t he auss or o ne maxwell pe r n orma l sq cm

. .
a i s equal t o t he a verage field i ntensi ty X area

tc ux
, . .
T h e M gn e Fl
n d ue t o un i t magnet o- m ot i ve for ce ux
.
The u i t i s t he ma xwell or t he fl
whe n t he rel cta nce i s one oers ted u
.
uct nc 1 ) i s t he res i stan ce o ff e red t o t he m agnet i c fl ux

.
R el a e (0 b y t he
ma te ri al u nd ergo mg magnet i zat i on The u ni t i s t he oe rsted or t he t e
st st a nee offered by one cub i c cent i meter of va cuum
.
,
M g e i S s ep i bi l i ,
a n tc uc t ty
.
B , F , a nd H are c ommonl y used i n pla ce of (B SF a nd 3C , , .

E L E CT R O -
M A G N ETI S M . 1 33
uct=i v i ty
R el ( v) is t he rel ucta nce pe r un t of lengt h a n d u i t cross i n
se ct on 1 Ma x wel l s = gil be rt s — e rsted s
'
o
H yst e es i s i i i
, .
r W hen a magnet c substan ce ron ) is magnet zed

i i i o i i
.
,
t he i nte ns t y of magnet zat on d es n ot n cre a se as rap dl y as does t he

'
ii
magne t z ng force b ut lags be h nd t Thi s te nden cy s te rmed h ysteres s i i i i
i i i i i i
. .
,
a n d t may be cons dered a s a n n ternal magnet c fr ct on o f t he m ole c ules

o f t he s ubsta n ce Con t n ued rap d magnet z ng a n d demagnet z ng w l l i '
i ii ii i
H i
.
ca use t he subs t a nce t o become heat ed ysteres s ( h ) may be ca l cu

i i i
.
la ted by t he foll ow n g form ula d ue t o Ste n met z : h ( n

i
where k = vol u me n e n ems a n d n = n um be r of complete cycles of ma g
i i
. .
n et i z a t i on a nd de magnet zat on pe r second
"
7
i
.
V ery t hi n soft s heet ron 0 00 1 5 Soft a n nealed cast steel

soft i ron wi re ma c h i ne steel
.
, .
, .
002
Thi n s h eet i ron (good ) 003 Ca st steel
Th i c k 0033 Cast i ron
O rdi na r s heet i ro n y H ardened cast st eel
. .
004
T he M a g n e t i c C i r cui t as fl owi n g i n M agnet ism p xa y

‘
be con si de ed r
a magnet i c C i rc u i t i n t he same ma n ner as a n elect r i c c u rre n t d oes i n a
.
c ond uct or a n d t he foll o wi ng relat i on hold s:

Magnet o m ot i ve Force
a
'
-
M gnet i c Fl ux W hI C h i s a nalogous t o Cur

R el ucta n ce
Re s sta n ce i '
o = ff + 61 R el uc tance Gi = l + pa , where l = l e n gt h of m agnet i c c i rcu i t

ii D yn m os ) ¢ = EF+ 01
a
.
, .
a = a rea of cross- se ct i o n a nd = permeab l t y (see

p .
,
SF= 1 257 nI ;
. M = $
fl a v l 20 7 pa
where l is i n c m . and a in
a n d a are i n i n c h measure n I = 0 3 1 3 2 D l l
W hen
.
ems I /
sq aa h
i
n uct on i a cond uct or o f len gt h dl i s m oved i n a ma net i c fi el d
. . .
~ l ,
I d I
(of st rengt h 3C) w i t h a veloc i t y v
. , ,
(t he conduct or ma kin g t e a ngle a

w i t h t he d i rect i on of t he l i nes of force a n d t he d i rect i on o f m ot i on be i ng at
.
,
t he a ngle 3 w i t h t he pla ne pass i ng t h rough t he con duct or i n t he d i rect i on

of t he li nes of force ) t he i nd u ce d elect rom ot i ve force dE = JCv s i n a s i n Bdl
, , ,
a si n fl
dl . W he n E is a max i m um a nd is
e qual t o JCvl l o
—S
volts w he n , v i s stated i n e ms pe r sec a n d l n
. . i e ms .
8
(0n N 10
"
The mean E M F of t he armat ure of a t wo- pole dynam o E

. . . ,
=
60
volts where 0 is t he t otal n um be r o f l i nes of for ce fl o i n g bet wee n t he w
pole faces n t he n umbe r o f act i ve c ond uct ors on t he arma t u re a n d N
-
,
-
. ,
1 pn N
¢ 10 8
se r i es —woun d m ult i polar d ynam o
‘
In a , E
60
a n d in a m u lt i p l e - wou nd mu lt i pola r dyna m o E = d>1 n N 1 0 w here
0 1 = no o f li nes fl ow i n g be t wee n one pa ir of poles a n d p = n o of pa i rs of
,
.
, .
po1es
D i r e ct i on o f C r r e nt L i n e s o f F o r c e e tc The li nes of force
.
T he u s,
i n a magnet sole no i d fl ow from t he sout h pole t o t he n ort h pole a nd
, .
or
ret ur n outs i de t o t he sout h pole The n ort h pole f a magnet i c nee dle w he n o
b roug ht nea a m gnet po i n ts i n t he d i rect i on f t he l i nes of force
.
r a o
To dete rm i ne t he d i rect i on i n w h i c h a c u rren t fl ows i n a cond uct or
.
place a c om pass u nderneat h i t f t he nee dle po i nt s

,
I f t he n ort h pole o
a way from t he pe rson hold i ng c ompass (wh i a t s i de of t he c on
.
o s o ne
d uct or ) t he curre nt i s fl o wi ng t o h i s ri g ht
To fi nd t he d i rect i on of a c u ren t fl o wi n g i n a co i l fi nd t he n ort h pole
.
r
b y means f a com pass t he n ort h pole f wh i c h w i ll be repe l led by t he
,
o o
n ort h pole f t he co i l or magnet The n pla ce t he r i ght ha nd on t he co i l
,
o
w i t h t he t hu mb (at r i ght a ngles t t he e xt e nded fi nge rs ) po i nt i ng i n t h e
.
o
d i rect i on of t he n ort h pole nd t he c u rre nt w i l l be flow i ng t he d i rect i on a in
i n wh i c h t he fi nge rs a re poin t i ng I f t he d i rect i on f c urre n t i s kn ow n o
t he n ort h pole m ay be s i m i larl y dete rm i ned
. ,
The p os i t i ve ole f a ge nerat or f elect r i c c urre nt i t he one from

.
o o s
whi c h t he c u rren t w i nt o t he e xterna l c i rc ui t I pri ma ry bat teri e
o s n s
t he zin c i nega t i ve copper carbon et c be i ng t he p os i t i ve po le
.
s , , , .
, s.
E L E CT R O TE Cl l N l CS .
Di ec t i on of a n I n d ced —l u
f t he le t t er N be dra w o n t he n
r
o
face of a n o rt h p le and a cond uct or mra l l e l t o t he vert i ca l l i nes of t he
.
le t t er ) be moved pa st t he pole i n a p a ne a ra ll e l t o t he pole fa ce t he

d i rect i on of cu rrent fl ow w i ll be de t e rm i ne rrby t he m ot ion of t he po mt
.
of i nte rsect i on ( projected ) of t he cond uct or a nd t he obl i q ue l i ne i n t he

lett er N Thus i f t he co nd u ct or moves from left t o r i ght t he po i n t of
i n t e rsect i on m oves from a bove t o below w hi c h i nd i ca tes t he d i rec t i on of
.
. .
t he i ndu ced c u rrent

,
E L E C T R O -M A G N E TS .
T r a ct l o n o r P er I f a bar of i ron be be nt i nt o t he she

L lf t l n ow
of t he lett er U a nd cm s of i ns u l ated w i re are wound u pon t he l i m bs t
.
elect ro-magnet t h u s formed (when a cu rrent i s fl

,
o wi n t h ro ug h t he co ils )
w i ll have a l i ft i n g or hold i ng power on ea c h l i m b of i( n l bs ) = B 2a +
where E = n o of l i nes of f o rce pe r eq i n of i ron sect i on a nd
.
i ac
.
i he n um ber of am pe re
.
a s t he area of one pole -

f e of t he magnet .
I
t urn s i s t he co i ls ne cessary t o prod uce t he p u l l , P = n 1 = 2 66 1 A / 17 : 51:
T
,
whe re l i s t he le ngt h of t he ma gnet i c i rcu i t i n i n c hes a nd p t he pe rmea c

bi l i t B may be ta ke n at for W I and m i ld st eel
Th e above form ula i s used when t he kee pe r or a rmat ure i s i n
. . .
con ta c t
w i t h t he pole-fa ces I f t he kee per ( by wh i c h t he we i ght t o be l i f t ed o r
,
held is upported ) is d i sta n t 2 i nc hes from t he pole faces t hen n 1 = 2 z X B

.
s
, ,
X O 3 13
t he i ron is o f g od qual i t y an d far from sat urat i on t he n um be r of
o
.
If
am pe re t urns req u i red t o force t he fl u x t hrough t he metal pa rt of t he
-
c i rcu i t i s sma ll enough com pa ra t i vely t o be negl i g i ble a nd t he form l a u

value wh i c h is t he am pe re t urns req ui red t o force t he fl u across t he ai r x
, , ,
-
,
ga ps may be taken as t he t otal

,
.
Fig 28 .
An iron cl ad m g et w hi c h may be s i mi larl y c ons i de red is sh own b

-
an
t he part A B C in F i g 2 8 ; t he c yl i n dr i cal c ore C h owe ver sh o ld e x te n d
.
, , u
t h ro ugh t he co d t o t he plane A B
ct F i g 2 8 shows an elect ro m g et of the
a n t an
.
Pl u n e r E l e r a -M g e s -
or Jac keted t ype w h i c h is pro vi ded w i t h a mo vable pl ge r or un

. .
i ron -c
c o re D a n i n ner proj ec t i ng core C and a g i de or st uffi n g- bo x ” E u
,
“
The ai r gap i s i nd i cated by z an d x is t he st roke of t he plunger or i t s ran ge

, , , ,
. , .
f mot i on wh i c h m us t be less t han 2 i n order t o m ee t t he co n d i t i on s i m osed

o
i n des i gni ng for cert a i n s pee di ed p ul ls at t he be gi n n i n g and end of st roke
.
. p
u M ax i
.
P ll i n l
( ) B = n I -
O 3 1 33 z
mu m p l l (a t en d of st roke ) = P g M i n i mu m p l l (at eg i n n i n g of stroke ) =
u u b
. .
3 02
Pi . L
et u = Pg + P i = t he Vy
E
B
n d B z= B g + v y n A ”
if
a t
EL E T R C O T EC H N I C S .
f i t is desi red met ri c un i ts ( 1 ) sh ould re d ; Pul l i n i l ogr ams a k

a d
n B u l -t -OJ Dsz
t o u se
whe re B i s t he fi ux den s ity in — .
i a
,
-
o
mes pe r - are a n c m and g p len gt h in cm

a
-
sq ci n a sq z
The forego ing i s an abs t rac t from a pape r p rese nted at the I nt e rn at i on l
.
. .
. 1 . .
,
E lec t ri c al Con gre ss St Lo u i s 1 90 4 by Prof S P I h o mpson

‘
be c om b i ned i n t o the fo rm y
. . .
, . , ,
( I ) and ( 2 ) ma
M r C R Un derh i ll ( E W B 5 -
2 0 -
0 5 ) states t hat t hi s ex press ion
i s at best i nc om plete an d o fle rs t he follow i n g form u
.
.
.
ula : P ll at an y no w t
. . .
.
'
— k ) whe re L = le ng t h of
P
wind in or solen o i d I d i st an ce pl un ger h as entered t he co d from en d — ,
of w i n i ng F e and f n a
,
.,
: ha v i g the values g i ven i n t he succee d i n g par gr aph

.
Solen o i d a d Pl u n ge r n
.
” o
on
S le oi d
o n an n o
.
d Pl u n e r The am pe re -t u r s (u I ) re q ui red t o pr d u ce
P
l bs o n a p un ger o f S wed is h i ron ma be calc ulated fr om t he y
.
a ull of
f o low i n g fo rm ulas w hi c h are d ue t o C R Underh i ll ( E W 6:
.
- 1
,
L 5 3 . . . .
_
u I = 1 0 000 P — k (P A = 0 0 1v n1 ; where
pu i n lbs on 1 sq i n o f pl u ae sec t i on w he n
.
= =
,
P = n r n l = 1 0 000 A are a °
o f se ct i on i n sq an d k = an em p i ri ca ll y determ in ed f c t or a
c . . . . .
in P and k
are t o be determ i ned from t he foll ow i n g f orm ul as wh i c h ha ve bee n de ri ve d
. . C
.
,
by t he com p i le r from c urves i n t he ori gi n al a rt i c le : P c = t 1 0 2 7 3 + 0 2 1 0 5 L )

u
. .
k = ( 6 6 000 where L = l en gt h of pl n ge r
(and generall y t h at of solen o i d ) i n i n
,
I n calc ulat i ng add 1 0 % t o P des i red an d t he r n ge t hro gh w hi c h i t a u

.
w i ll be pract i cal ly un i form W i l l = 0 5 L

, .
5X2 =
. .
E xample : For a pull of 30 lbs over 5 i n L = . .

,
1 0 ia ; P c = 8 9 73 ; u1 = 3 3 3 3 4 ; A = 1 83 d = l 523 in
From an ex am i n at i on of t he d at a e m ployed by M r U ri e rh i ll t he c om p i ler
. . .
. . ,
has ded uced t he follow i n g form l a whi c h i s m uc h S i m pler u an

.
d suffi men t l y ,
acc ur ate 11 1 96P (L
C O N T I N U O U S -C U R R E N T D YN A M O S .
C e i
on n ct on an
s d Fl f C rre Ser i es wou n d d yn mo : ow o u nt -
a An na
t ure —fie ld m agnets —exte rn al e i c i t — armat ure
.
fi eld m agnet s —
Shun t wound d ynamo
- A rmat ure extern l C i rc ui t armat ure '
a .
Compoun d - woun d d yn am o sho rt sh n t : , u

se r i es m agnet c o i ls — e x te rn l c i rc ui t
— armat u re a
A rmat ure lsh un t magnet cods .
Com po un d wound d yn am o lon g sh un t

-
, .
— se ri es c oils exte rn l c i rc i t — rm tu re a u a a
A rmat ur e
sh un t m gn et code a .
(I n t he brac kets t he c urren t d v des bet wee n t he pat hs i i in t he uppe r

i i
and l owe r l nes n ve rse ly as t he r respec t ve res st ances ) i i i
o f D y= a m o s
.
E fflcl e n ci es Let in volt s ; n I = ar mat ur e

c urren t i n am peres ; e vol t s at t e rm i n als of d y n amo ; i = a mpe re s i n e x
.
te rn al c i rc u i t ; is = a mperes i n s hun t c o i ls ; E 1 = t ot al watts ; ei = u se f ul

wat t s i n e xte rn al c i rc ui t ; R 1 = a rma t u re res i st an ce ; R 2 = se ries-c o i l re
sist an ce ; R 3 = sh un t -c o i l res i st an ce ; r = resist a n ce of exte rn al c i rc ui t
( a l l res i stances
= co mme rcial
i n ohms ) m = e l ect r i c al e fli c ie n cy
= ei + E 1 ;
.
nm Then for m agnet o an d sepa

r a t e l y exc i ted d n amos y R 1 ) ; for se ri es wo un d d yn am os - -
for shun t woun d mac h i nes

,
+ R2) ; n
= ei + E 1 -
I 2 Iil ) ;
, c
for c om pound woun d

-
short sh un t d ynam o s -
,
-
,
rn = ei t
— for c om pound wo un d lon g -
,
sh un t d ynam os n = ei
Le t n , = n u mbe r o f c o i ls o n arm t u re an d m= n u mbe r
atu a
, ,
T he A rm re
o f t urn s pe r co i l ; t hen t he n um be r of act i ve c ond uct ors for a ri n g armat ure
.
— for a d rum a rm at u re fl = 2 n n
, ,
n = n 1n 2 The
w e re s i s t he n um be r of revol u t i o ns pe r m i nu te The c r oss sect i on o f
. o 1 2 , .
t he armat ure i ron a = 0 z—B w here B = l 0 000 t o l i nes pe r sq c m

-
.
l i nes pe r sq i n ) for soft c h r l ir on di s s t he lower a coa c

, , . . .
to . .
-
,
C ON T I N U O U S C U R R E N T DY N A M O S
-
. 1 37
values f o r m ul t i polar m ac h i nes ( For t he a i r gaps t ake on l y abo ut 4 0 % .

-
o f t he se values )
I n order t o a vo i d s ark i ng Kapp st at es t h at B a
.
shoul d eq u l or exceed
— (n ) 2 ] for r i ng a rmat u res (for d rum armat ur es t ake
60 % o f value for ri ng armat ure ) w here (n l ); i s t he n um be r o f am pere
t urn s req u i red t o ove rcome t he re luc tance o f t he a i r gap an d (n I ) 2 i s t he
.
’
-
,
n um ber of bac k armpe re t urns of t he arm at ure of con d uct ors -
i ncl uded by one mle fa ce X cu r re n t st re n gt h i n am pe res ]

.
The c u rre n t i n t he armat ure set s u p a mag net i zat i on opposed t o t hat
.
o f t he fi eld magnets an d t he eff ec t i ve fi eld i s t h e res l t a t of t he t wo , u n .
The extern al d i am of armat ure (J Fissche r Hi n ne n ) . .

-
For r i n g a rm at u re s k = 1 1 5 when a
,
.
whe re l = l en gt h o f rmat ure + d

d i s i n c m and when dc i s i n i nc hes ; i = 0 5 t o
e. , .
Fo r
d ru m armat ures Ic = 1 0 (d i n and = 4 (d i n
. . .
A= 0 75 t o
The di am of h ole i n arm at ure d is di = (0 7 t o 0 8 )d for ri n g a rm at ures c
, ., , .
The pe ri p he ral spee d 3 sho l d u

.
, . .
,
an d t o 0 6 )d. fo r d ru m arm at ures

‘
n
. . .
, ,
n ot exceed 50 ft pe r se c ( 1 5 mete rs ) f o r sm all a rm at ures a d 80 ft

(I n except i on al c ases i t m ay reac h
. . .
,
pe r se c (2 5 m ) for large arm at ures

1 00 ft pe r se c a s f o r s te am t urb i ne generators )
. . .
. . .
The len gt h of an armat ure l to 1 2) i for sm oot h su rfaced , , .
d di
-
armat ur es F o r t oot hed arm at u res d i s t he d i amete r at t he bot t om of

The cross sec t i on of t he armat ure c ond uc t o rs i s det erm i ned
.
, .,
t he t ee t h -
by allow i n g 600 t o 800 c i rc ul ar m i ls pe r am pe re To fi n d t he d i ameters

.
i res d d t he foll owi n g v l ues t o t he di ameters of bare w a a

.
o f cot t on -c overed ,
w i res
I n order t o avo d edd y c u rren ts armat ures are m de up of d scs of shee t i a i

met al to i n t h i c k ) w h i c h are i n s ul ated from eac h ot her by
shee ts of t i ssue pape r rus t o r b y j ap n n i n g t he i r sur faces a
.
-
A shee t of
go d i nsulat i n g paper board i s i n se rt ed at abou t e ve ry half i nc h of len gt h
o
.
, ,
a n d ope n spaces are left a bo ut e very t wo i n c hes t o provi de for vent il at i on

The loss i n watt s d ue t o edd y c u rre nts = ( 1 4 5 t o
.
where k = cu c m of i ron i n t he c ore t = t hick n ess of d i scs i n m m an d

.
= n o of per i ods pe r sec

. .
,
p
A rmat ures w hen ade quatel y ven t i lat ed i n order t o avo i d i n j u ri ous heat
. .
i n g an d runn i n g at pe r i pheral s peed s of from 3 0 t o 50 ft pe r sec re u i re

,
s q i n ) o f exte rn al s u rface from w eh

.
, .
,
from 5 t o 7 sq c m to
'
t o rad i ate t he heat of eac h wat t wasted t here i n ( Ka pp )

. . . .
The pe rm i ss i ble r i se i n tem perat u re (4 0 t o 50 C or 7 5 t o 90 F is

. .
° ° ° °
t ( i n degs
. .
,
t (in degs C ) = 85 2 5 W F ) -e
where W = wat t s lost i n armat ure S = o u t side su rface o f

. . . . .
armat u re i n sq i n an d s = pe ri p he ral s d i n ft pe r sec

,
I n orde r t o avo i d fl uct uat i ons of E F an d t he spark i n g d ue t o self

. . . .
i nd uct i on t he n um be r o f c o i ls o n t he armat ure sh o l d ne ver be less t han u

. . .
3 0 and as m uc h larger as is c on s i sten t w i t h t he des i gn

,
The E M F
be t wee n t wo con sec ut i ve se gmen ts o f t he c om m ut at or should n ot exceed
.
, . . .
4 5 — O 2 I ) volt s f o r c ur ren t s under 1 00 am pe res and 2 0 t o 2 5 volts for

(
hea vi er c u rren ts The rad i al dept h of t he w i n d i n gs on an armat ure should
.
,
n ot e xceed on e ten t h of t he c ore d i am so t hat t he d i st ance bet wee n t he

.
c ore an d t he pole faces m ay be as smal l as poss i ble

-
.
The co re shoul d -
be wel l i n s ulated from t he w i nd i n gs by mean s of press board c an va s et c

.
I n d ri v i n g t he armat ure e ac h c on d uct or oppose s t he m ot i on by a t e

, , .
F (i n k i lograms ) = I B I —
,
sist an ce or d rag ”
r w here l = le n gt h
o f c on d uc tor i n c m
, ,
and B = i n du ct ion pe r s q c m F l bs = l B I -z
w here l i s i n i c hes an d i n l i nes per sq i n I = eu rren t i n am pe res )
n B
.
, . .
, .
The w i res shoul d t herefore be se c ured ga i nst m ot i on relat i ve t o the a

. . .
c o re s u rface I n s m al l armat ures t he fr i c t i on l res i st ance of t he w i n d a

i ngs is su fiicien t an d i n t oot hed armat u res t he t ee t h pro vi de bac k i n g f o r
.
w The o i ls must l so e held i n place aga i nst t he c a b ac

,
t he i res . t i on of ce n .
E L I C l l t t i T li t i i N i C S
' ‘ ’
.
force b b nds o f Germa n s i l ver or s t e e l w i re wh i c h are t i gh t l

t ri f u g i i l y a y
wound around t he exte r i or of t he co i ls i n t he l ane o f re volut i on sec ured
by solder i ng or l i ra z n i g and i nsulated from t e c o i ls by a la y e r of mi c a
,
i n t h i c k The band w i res are from in

.
from to to
i n d i am and t he bands are from t o i n w i de The clearance betwee n
. . .
in
. . .
t he bands a nd t he pole -fa ce s should be from to

I n order t hat a magnet i c fl ux of 0 l i nes may pass
t
.
Fi el d M a g n e s
t h rough t he a rmat u re c ore t here m ust be a certa i n n um ber of am re
. .
t urns o n t he fi eld magnets The d ynam o is t o be c ons i de red as a c oecd

magnet i c c i rc u i t t h rough whose se veral parts (armat ure c ore i r gaps a
.
m agne t c ores and yoke ) t he l i nes of force flo w a

, ,
, Fo r eac h se parate p rt .
.
and as t he am pere t u rn s I f I is -
t he lengt h o f t he mean pat h o f t he l i nes o f force i n e c h part i n c m an d a a

t he c ross sect i on of eac h part i n sq c m t hen for t he a i r g ps
- - a
f or i ron n I = 0 7 958 H l where fo r a i r
. .
, , ,
H = B + y and In
t he follow i ng t able B i s g i ven as a func t i on of 0 7 958 H =
,
.
, , .
=H so t hat
H i s t he n um be r of ampe re t urns re q i red t o force u B
.
'
ie li nes t h ro ugh -
1 c m len gt h of i ron
. .
,
. .
A m pere u m s for 1 c m len gt h of mea n pat h of l i nes of force

g
-
.
Shee t metal . Cas t steel .
The ab ove values are f or fi rst qual i t y A mer i can metals (Sheldon ) -
i n c h of lengt h m ul t i ply values

. .
T o fi n d t he n umber of ampere t u rns

The value of ; i may fie :fou nd from table i t be i ng e qua l
-
i n table b
,
fi+ H
,
’
to
For h i g h dens i t i es suc h as are fou nd i n t he teet h of s heet metal a rmat ure
.
d i scs ,
B per sq cin . ”
I
I
H '
pe r cm .
C l l i f h e Am pe r e - r s f
a cu at on o t D m Ar mat ure : 0 tu n o a yna o
an d B a re determ i ned by t he des i gn o f t he a rma tu re ; l a i s a pprox i matel y
.
meas u red from t he d i mens i ons of t he core d i scs a nd t he value o f H "

a n, ..
“
'
corres ond i ng t o 8 be i ng ta ken

, ,
If th e a rm at ure i s t oot hed a s pe c i al ca l cula t i on i s necessa ry ; a , i s t he n

. ,
t he cr oss sect i on of t he i ron i n t he teet h before o ne pole face an d s ho l d u

,
- -
be o f su ch a n a rea t hat B , is about

.
pe r sq cm . .
A i r-ga ps : ¢ m = ¢ [ m = za w here a= d i s t a nce from a rma t ure c ore ,
t o pole- face ; a m = i b where I a nd b a re respect i vely t he len gt h of t he

,
arc and t he breadt h of t he pole fa ces a nd -

.
1 6 8 ml )
F i eld —N ot all of t he fl ux i n t he fi eld ma gn ets passes t h ro g h t he a rma u
.
t u re a pa rt be i n g l ost t h rough leakage be t wee n t he poles Th i s st ray

fi eld am oun ts t o from 1 0 t o 5 0 % of t he t otal fl ux a nd t h e fi eld flu x m ust
.
,
t he refore be acc ord i ngly greater t ha n t ha t req u i red h t he a rmat ure

The nu mber of l i nes of force i n t he fi eld 0 m = ah w here c i;as t he f oll ow mg
.
v u
, ,
al es
EL ECT RO I E C HN I CS
’ ‘
.
of t h is e i ght is in t he a rm at ure w
I f t he d ime s io s of a d y mo a re n n na
m ul t i p li ed by m t he ou t put wi ll be i nc reased m2 5 t i mes w i t h e q ua l ci rcumf '
s peed of a rmat u re eq ual hea t i ng e t c ( Ka pp )

. ,
T he Desi g l r D n oa yna
. , . .
o f La r g e M u l t l mo s The t o l lo wi n mat te r
’
abri dged from a se r i es o t art i cles y H M l l o ba rt M I E E i n ec hn ics

. ,
( London J an to J uly w i ll se rve as an i ll ust rat i on f t he met hod s o

. . , . . . .
em ployed i n the des i gn o f large c on t i n uous c urren t gene r t ors a A

, . .
40 0 -
k i lowatt m ach i ne ( 550 volts 73 0 am peres ) w i t h 8 poles ( 1 00

.
is .
—3
t aken as an ex am ple ( l ) whe re T no of z
armat ure t u rns i se r i es et wee n n b

.
, .
an d brushes N = cy cles pe r sec

o r pe r i d i c i t y of re versals of fl ux i n armatu re c ore
o x
, .
M = mag i et ic fl u
l i n ked w i t h c o i ls i n armat u re The armat u re h as a m l t i ple c i rc i t w in d u u
,
i n g= t here be i n 8 paths t h rough i t for t he c u rren t The exte rn al d i m a

.
ghe polar p i tc h r = 7r X 23 0 + 8 = 9 1 c m G r oss len gt h of

, . .
D 2 3O cm
There are 8 ven t i lat in g d ucts
.
.
armat ure be t wee n flan ges Ag = 4 0 c m

eac h 1 3 mm w i de an d 1 0 % of t he ne t len h is t ake n p by i sul at i on u n
, .
,
.
, .
N e t len gt h be twee n fl an ges i n = cm he me an l en gt h of one arm a

u
, .
t ure t urn (la p cm Tot al n um be r of arm at re

a
.
slots = 2 6 4 and as t he re are 6 c on d uct ors pe r slot t he t ot l n um be r of

a
, , ,
face n d the t ot al n um be r of t u r n s = l 58 4 + 2
T u rns i n se ri es e t wee n b ,
= 7 92 Tot al len gt h of
c onduc t i ng c i rc u i t bet wee n Cross sect i on
.
cm -
Tot al c ross sect i on

.
of one c ond uc t or = 2 4 m m = 0 3 l 2 sq c m -
b
. . . . .
et wee n brus hes (8 c on d uc to rs in sq cm A rm a

t re res i stan ce at 60
u a
. .
°
oh m V ol t ge
d rop i n a rma t u re = I R = 73 0 amp X 0 02 6 oh m = 1 9 volt s D
.
rop at b rus hes

A u
. . .
= 2 vol ts (ran ges from to volts ) ss med drop in c om poun d

w in d i ng = 3 volts Tot al d rop i m h ine = 24 volts n ac
.
I n te rn al volt age =
T = 99 ; subst i t ut i ng
. .
vol ts X (8
t hese val ues i n
.
M = 2 1 800 000 lin es

C re loss d ue t o h ysteres i s an d edd y c u rren ts : W at ts pe r k i logram of
o
. , .
pe r s q c m + 1 00 I f t he i n te rn al . .
i
d am . of armat ure di sc = 1 4 0 c m .
, gross ar a e of — l 4o2 )
sq . cm . A re a of on e slot cm . dee 1 23. cm wi de ) = 4 06 .
s q cm A re a cm N e t are a of
o f 2 64 sq
d i sc = 2 6 V ol u me o f i ron in
. . . .
1 00 sq c m
The c ore i s 4 2 c m dee p below
. .
,
c u c m = 5 2 50 kgs
t he sl ots c on se quent ly t he cross sect i on of q
. . . .
,
s cm -
but as t he fi eld fl u d i vi des as i t e n te rs t he c ore n d fl ows b t h t o t he x a o

, . .
,
left n d r i ght t w i ce t hi s val ue or

a a
,
sq of c ore n d t he
fl u dens i t y i n c ore w i l l t he n be
x l i nes o r
, , . .
k il ol ine s The core loss in wat ts pe r k g f rom (2 )

o r f o r t he en t i re
. .
wat t s
Watt s per s q uare dec i mete r of e t e rn al c yl i n dr i c l su rface of rmat re : x a a u
.
The o ver a ll len gt h of arm at re m a be t aken s L = + 0 7r = 1 04 c m

-
u y a . .
sq c m = 750 sq m The l oss in . . . .
t he co p pe r of armat ure wat t s an d

W at t s pe r sq d m
,
t he t ot al arm at ure loss = wat ts

for wh i c h val ue t he r i se i n tempe rat ure i ll n ot excee d w
. . .
2 2 000 75 0
30
°
0
The M M F c orrespond i n g t o l i es pe r sq c m = 4 am pe re t urn s n -
r c m of len gt h for shee t i ron (Th i s v l ue f or E n gli sh met al i s m uc h a

. . . . .
i gher t han t hat gi ven i n p reced in g t able of v alues for H of A me ri c an

. .
'
s hee t i ron ) The lengt h of at h in ar mat u re pe r p ole = 4 2 c m

1 68 = an me r e t u r n s pe r co i P
. .
for a rm at u re core
Toot h dens i t y d t he c orres p nd i n g an o c
~
.
r = 91 m ; a re of pole
ac
.
f e = 6 l cm pole There are t eet h pe r ole

6 7 % o f wh i c h l i e below t he mean n ,
ole arc Al l ow i g 1 0 o for -
sp re ad of fl ux t he t ot al n um be r o f teet h t rough w h i c h the flux p sse s a

.
Di am o f armat ure at t he bot t om of slots = 2 2 3 c m an d c i rc um

,
ference at same d i am cm = t oot h p i tc h at b t t om o

. .
,
7 00 c m 700 2 64
W i dt h o f sl ot is t aken = 1 23 c m leav i n g i d t h of t oo t h = l 43 w
. . .
of slot s . . .
, .
cm t ee t h X 1 4 3 = 3 4 8 c m at roots 3 4 8 x 1n or s q cm
= area o f ma gne t ic c i rc u i t at root s of t eet h for one pole a d t he apparen t n
. . . . . . . .
flux densnt y = 2 l 800 000 - 940 = 2 3 2OO lin es pe r s c m q a

,
o
Thi s app re nt
, , , . .
O
C N TI N U O U S- C U R R E N T DY N A M O S . 141
dens i t y m ust n ot be e mployed b ut a c orrected one wh i c h v ries accordi g a n

t o t he rat i o of t he slot wi dt h (a ) t o t he t ooth wi d t h (b ) I n t h i s ase c
,
n d b i n te rpolat i ng i n t he followi n g t able t he a

.
a + b = 1 43
correc ted de ns i t y i s found t o li nes pe r s q c m req ui r i n g 6 40
.
. .
,
amp t u rn s pe r c m
-
or as len gt h o f t oot h = 3 3 c m a mp t urn s , . .
,
-
pe r c o il for t he t eet h .
Corrected De ns i t y .
0 75 . 1
Ai r sp -
g p : A re of pole f ace = p ole
ac e or a sq a -
A ve rage p ole f ac e densx t y = 2 1 800 000 l in es pe r sq

.
m
.
c -
de n si t y x le n gt h of gap i n
. , , .
cm . A m pe re t urn s pe r -
a
M gnet c ores d yoke Cores m ay be of cast st eel W I shee t met al
an : -
c as t stee l — occa i on al ly f shee t met al Dens i t i es ,

. .
, ,
or C I ; yokes f C I o or s o
l arge m ac hi nes are kept around l i nes pe r sq c m for
. . . .
.
,
for to
sm all er mac h i nes lower val ues
. .
cast st ee l d at about for W I

an I n
The fl ux f
. .
are t aken t he c ores d yoke m ust be greate r t h an t hat i or an n

t he ai r space an d t he arm at ure (or accoun t f leakage d i spe rs i on f t he
.
- o or o
l i nes of force whe n le av i ng t he poles ) an d t he armat ure fl ux must be
t herefore m ul t i pl i ed b y a leakage fa t or i t i s c all ed by Prof S P
,
c o r , as
T hom pson a d i sper i on c oe ffi c i en t wh i c h r nges from
, . . .
i very larg
s a n e
m ac h i nes t o i n smal l an d c om pact l y des i gned ones I t hi ex ample
, ,
n s
i t i s t aken at an d t he fl i n fi eld i s t herefore
.
ux
l in es The c ore den s i t y i s t hen
l i nes for c ast steel t he c ore be i n g c m i n d i am d h a vi n g an a ea
.
an r
The yoke i s f c a t steel an d i s des i n ed for
.
, .
o f sq cm li nes o s
pe r sq c m an d h as t herefore a t ot al sec t i on al area
. .
q cm but 0 s
as t he fl ux d i vi des aft er lea v i n g t he c ore an d fl ows t o t he r i ght an d l eft
. .
, . .
,
t h i s val ue i see n t be t wi ce t he act al S sect i on w h i c h i s

,
s o sq c m u cr os -
The le ngt h f t he p at h of fl ux i n t he m agnet c ore i s 50 c m

.
, .
o d t hat for an
t he yoke an d pole —shoe i s 73 c m
.
f t he t ot al len gt h f pat h i t he o o n
k bet wee n t w c on sec ut i ve c ores )
.
o e The n um ber f m t u s pe r cm
o o a p -
rn
l i nes 28 an d for t ot al len gt h o f
. .
e n gt h of c ore at = = 50 cm 1 400
li
.
, ,
am p t urns . The am p t urn s pe r c m of yoke lengt h at

-
. .
-
. nes = 6
o r for t ot al len gt h of 73 c m = 4 4 0 a mp t urn s -
Tot al am pe re t u rn s pe r c o i l f o r 5 7 4 volts at n o lo d ; a
. .
-
,
A rm a t u re c ore elow t he slots b

t eet h
The d i rec t de m gnet i z i n g e ffe t f t he a rm at u re i nd i n g when a c u rren t

a c o w
i s fl owi n g is very c ons i derable n d i n c re se s t he m o re t he bru shes ar e a a
d i spla ed fro m t he m e hani cal e ut ral po i nt
c Thi s e flect m ay be close ly c n
c al culated from t he form ula : A mp t u rn s pe r fi eld c o il t o o verc ome dem ag
.
n e t iz in g c omponen t o f t he arm at ure fi eld = 0 0 1 7 5I P T whe re I = a mpe res

pe r t urn i n a rm at u re c o i l T = a rm a t u re t ur n s pe r pole an d P = pe rce n t age
.
0 ,
o f polar p i t c h by wh i c h t he brushes are se t i n ad v n ce of the neu t ral po in t a

, a ,
I n t h i s e am ple I = 73 O-z x T a = 9 9 and i f b rushes a a

.
mp re set
a , .
, , ,
ahe d 1 5 se gmen ts of t he c om m utat or P = 1 5 X an d

a
,
0 0 1 75 1 P T = 2 400 m p t u rn s -
The d i st ort i on al c om ponen t of t he fi eld se t u by t he ar mat ure c u rren t

.
0 , . .
a b a
m y e t ken at 1 0 % of t he t ot al arma t ure eld per pole = 7 30
E L E CT R OT E CH NI C S .
99 t u rn s X 0 1 0 + 8 900 amp - tu rn s Therefore — for 550 te rmi al vol ts n

n u a i
. .
( 57 4 volt s i t e rn al ) at f ll lo d a re req u red :

A mp -t r s f or sat urat on at n o lo d un i a
t o c o un te ra t de magne t izat on c i
i
.
di st ort on
Tot al 1 3 80 8 pe r pole
( I n a t wo -pole d yn amo i f t he brushes are se t at t he mec ha ni c al n e u t ral

po i n t i at ri gh t angles t o the d i rect i on of t he fl ux t he c urren t i n t he
,
e
armat ure wi l l prod uce a fl ux at ri gh t angles t o t hat f t he fi elds an d te nd in
, .
,
o
t o d i st ort i on f t he same I f t he brushes
o t at 90 fro m t he t ar e se
°
n eu r
po i nt t he e ffec t f t he arm at ure c ur en t i s p ure ly
.
o of dem ti ti n r one e za o
t h fl ux i t prod uces be i n g d irec tl y oppose d t o t he fi eld fl
. ,
e he brus hes ux
be i n g generall y se t at some nte rmed i ate po i n t i t w i ll be see n t hat b ot h
.
i
d i st ort on and de m agn et i zat i on have t o be c on s i dered ) A t n o lo ad
,
i d an
5 50 volt s t he sat urat i on t u rn s
.
mp t u rn s w he re
a -
i a f ac t or w hi c h pp i m t l y all ows for s a rox xt e
t he be n d i n g of t he n o lo ad sat rat i on c rve The s hun t c o i ls m st the re
,
-
u u u
am p t u rn s at l l l o ads an d t he ser i es c o i ls at f ul l lo ad
.
fore ha ve .
-
a ,
am p t u rn s -
Space fac t or i n wi di g a rm at u res wi t h volt ages u p t o

. .
I n n -
z th n e
i n su lat i on t—h i c kn e s be t wee n t he c op pe r an d i ron sh oul d ra ge fro m
s mm n
for the presen t des i gn y a slot l i ni n g m m thic k
.
to 2 mm or , d sa an
i ns ul at i on w pe d aro un d c oi l of about Th e d ouble c o ve r i n g
.
, , .
ra mm -
of c ot t on on t e cond u t ors m ay be c on s i dered as add in g

.
c mm t t he o
d i am bare wi re The ra t i o of ac t ual sec t i on t o t he slot
.
f th o e p co er
sec t i on i ca lled t he spac e fac t or an d sh o uld be glgb poss i ble t hereby
. .
s as as
i c re as i n g t he out put f t he m ac hi n e Thi s fact or i s h i ghe r t he fe we r
,
n o
t he n m be r of sl ots nd i l ower t he sm al ler the d i am of c on d uc t o rs used
.
u a s
a rm at ures ra n ge from for ro n d w i res an d
. .
Sp ace fact o rs f or to u
from to f c ond uct o rs of rec t an gu l ar c ross —sec t i on
or Spac e f ac t ors
fi eld c o i ls r an ge from d a ve rage value be in g
.
for t a The o oo
val ue i s use d for se ri es c oi ls wit la rge c ond uct ors f rect an gul ar o
c ross sec t i on w h i c h are wo un d ed ge wi se
-
Calc ul at i on of fi eld for bot h c o il s

.
i l — Space fac t or t aken at co sz

The len gt h all owable for wi n di g = 40 c m 50 c m m i n us t he t h i c kness
.
n
f fl an ges pole sh oe Di v i d in g t h i s len gt h in proport i on t o t he
. .
o -
n um ber of am pe re t u rn s gi ves a len gt h of 2 8 cm for t he sh un t c o i l

, ,
-
d an
1 2 c m for t he se ri es c o i l A t f ul l lo ad (c o i l at 60 C ) 1 0 7
.
°
f t he sh u t o n
exc i t at i on i s w ted i n an ad j ust i n g rheost at i se ri es w i t h t h c o i ls Th i s
. . .
as n e .
red uces t he volt ge from 550 t o 500 volts a volts for eac h f t he or o
8 c o i ls A ll o w i ng 1 c m f c learan ce t he i n te rn al d i am f c o i l = 46 cm
,
or o
d ass u m i n g rad i al dept h to be 4 c m t he exte rn al d i am w i ll be 5 4 c m
. .
, .
an
an d t he me an len gt h of t u rn ( ) wi ll be
. .
, .
,
meters The wat t s pe r

on e a
shun t c o i l at 60 f c op pe r pe r c o i l
.
°
whe re k = k g s o
C oss sect i on of sh un t c o i l =
.
an d b = m p t u rn s pe r co il a -
r -
wh i c h m ult i pl i ed by t he space f ac t or
.
28 X 4 = 1 1 2 q c m s
sect i on of c opper i n Cu cm of c op pe r i c o i l
. .
, ,
i l = t = 56 sq c m co n
and as 1 c u cm we i ghs
. . . .
kg t he k gs f o
c op pe r i n one sh un t co i l = 7 9 Subst i t ut i n g t hese val ues i n a bo ve fo rm ula
. . .
, , .
t he wat ts pe r shun t c o i l = 4 80
.
,
The ext e rn al c yl i nd ri cal su rface of c o i l = 4 8 sq d m an d the wat ts pe r

.
s d m t he refo re 1 0 wh i c h a l l owance w ill t pe rm i t a ri se i n t em pe rat ure

. .
,
no
f more t han 40 C
. ,
°
o
S i ze of w i re i n sh u t co i ls — A m ps pe r l t pe r c o i l =
.
d=w tt n co a s+ vo s
T u rn s pe r
.
am p i l = mp co a
Cross sec t i on pe r t u rn = t —N of t u m s = 5 6
. .
q cm o + s
Di am of= ba
-
Curren t
. . .
am p r sq c m re
w i re = 2 4 2 mm W at t s i n 8 co i ls = 3 840 i n sh
. . . .
tt un t rheost at 380 a s
8 c o l l = 63 o k
. .
. . ,
Tot al wat t s for shun t = 4 2 20 C ppe r o in a

ge armat u re
s
Se ri es c o i l — These are placed at t he en d of c ore nea rest t ‘
. .
,
i i a t u rns
.
W nd n g len gt h = 1 2 c m Turn s = 4 4 2 0 m t ur s 73 0 m p = 6 n +
p a -
t h i s pa rt i c ular m ac h i ne 2 1 0 am p are d ve rted t h ro

. . .
. ,
};
(I a sh un t n in
t hat t u m s = 4 4 20 5 g
n i
parall el wi t h t he se ri es w i nd i n g
.
The so
+
se ri es c o i ls may h ave a h i gher c u rre nt den s t y t h an t he sh un t an d

,
d i po s,
i f th is i s t aken at 1 80 am p per sq c m t he c ross sec t on f t he se r es t u rn s
,
-
i o i
sq m Th i s m ay be t he shape f a rect an g ul ar se ct on
.
. .
,
. c . in o i
E I J I C T R U T EC H N I CS .
posed to t h i mpressed EM A" and wh i ch i called t h

e t electr= s e cou n e r o
mot i v for e Let E - F M J appl ied at the t mm l of mo=t or
.
"
c er a s c
counter E M F and R - res istance of motor armature =Then
e .
—
.
.
l (E ) -
c
wat useful watts

. .
W =
. .
+ 3 ; t t l t b
o l - M a( E w s,l E
’
c
or watts lost heat ng and the —
. ,
W = = w
'
w + l R ( i Q i ) ffi i y E n e c en c + u
e -i
i l power i f veloc ity L t m z x

. ‘
T om
—
m l lb g l n t s + an u ar e m
ec i a i i ca
-
tl c
r angular veloc ty - torque ; then a m h i l ower
u .
re vs
. . . z
i
se c T ec a n ca
i n f t b per I - ele tr ical power of the armature i watts
. . .
P n
c
.
s. se c . e . . .
‘
= 8 5 2 T where revs mmo
£ 58
’
g — and l 2 W T X c
i
g
-
- n n e r sec 0
-
. cp .
. . . e a .
O 7 46
w here m = N of conductors on the pe ri phery =of= m t o nd 0 = fl ar a u re
‘
a ux
at —1 ft If of armature
. .
T . i t n r res s a ce ,
ag ) and T (at l
)
e e
[
r
fl
,
T
x 10 m0 8+
R h eosta t M oto r If a motor at rest were d rectly connec t d

.
f s or s. i e
to a source of current the ma ins would be short c i rcu it d through the - e
armature and the abnormal current flow ing would speed ily burn up the
.
armature co ils It i s nec ssary therefore to i ntroduce a start ing es ist e r

ance i nto the armature c ircu it so that only a moderate cu rent will flow
. , ,
r
through t h armature at the beg inn ing of it mot ion A the speed (and
e s s
consequently the counter i ncreases the current stren h decrea es
. .
s
and the res istance may be lowered gradually by steps and w en full spe d
, .
e
i atta i ned i t may be cut out of the c i rcu i t altogether The fol lowi ng table
. ,
gi ves the res istance and c rrent carryi ng capac ty f several metals “ d
s .
u -
i 0 Be
i n rheostat co ils :
Galvan i ed Iron German S ilver Plat i no i dz M n a

gan i n
. . .
O hms O hms
.
E W G A mD
0t
per ft per f t per f t
. . .
.
. , .
0 005 66. 19 0 008

. 0 009 3
.
008 33. 14 . 0 1 23 10 0133 .
0 1 27. 11 . 0 19 02 1 .
0203 7 03 2 4 7 . 03 6 3
0333 . 5 05 3 5 .
0553
0583 . 3 . 089 1 0 13
.
1 15 . 1 58 1 4 46
.
18 . 26 2 95 3 1 33
.
29 l 42 3 7 5 .
esistance co ils should be wo und accord ing to the foll owing table whi ch
R
g ives the si zes for ma mum r g d ty and energy d p t
,
h i i i l SS l a D
‘
I nn r di am A pprox length
B W G
f e o
Sp i ral i n i nches Coil i inches
. .
. .
n
.
. .
75
6 25
5
375
A start i ng res istance should be so des i gned that the momentary i ncreas e
of t d
cu rre n t cutt ng out a sect on of same does not exceed a ce rtai n
ue o
.
i i
predeter m ned amount i .
1 2 3 4 n
— R —0 — R — 0— R — 0 — R 0 C rrent fl w r 2 3 n
~
u o .
I n the ab ve d i agram r i s the armature res istance R R R R are

o n
the sect ional res istances of the rheostat =i ncluded= between the segments
. 1. 2. 3.
1 2 3 4 Let the E M F f ppl y E ; i n t i arm ture at o su cu r r e n n a

full load : I = p mi ib l momentary current and= let The
, . , . . . . .
er ss e re
s ist= nce —3 between segments 1 and 2 should then be (k l ) R = (k l )l
.
e r, cr ,
and R = (k
1 2
R a (k l )k 2r
n
In order for the motor t start the total res istance i the c i rcui t
.
o n
+ E ) m st be less than E To avoid
,
i i --
i arc n
b tween the se gments no ti should have a drop of over 3 5 volts an
u . .
e se c 41 .
A LT E R N A TI NG CUR R E NTS .
if such a sect i on sho ld occur i the calculat ion i t shou ld be d iv i ded i nt

u n o
t wo or more s ct ions none of wh ch have a drop
e d 3 5 volts For i
.
e x cee in
motors us ing about 50 amperes on ful l load 1 may be ta en equ l to
.
,
as a
i + 1 0 amp For much smaller motors

. for the fi rst sect i on and =
on the —rema i nder If the f ll load current exceeds 50 amp the momentary u -
rise (I i ) should not exceed

. .
E xample R heostat f a 1 5 H P motor a 2 20 volt c i rcu=i t E = 2 20 ;

: or on
2 20 = 5 0 amp R es s t ance f ar mat re ohm
. .
i = 1 5 X 7 46 + 0 l5 i o u r
I = i + 1 0 = 6 0 amp i = 4 4 ohms Th sum f all the

. . .
E + e o
res istances k where of sect ions i the rheostat = E
. . .
"
N r
"
i 0 1 5k n o n +
and as k = exactly ) sect ions and the res i stance
. . .
,
= 18 n
of e ch sect i on may be calculated from the prev ious formu l as I f the
,
a
rheostat i des igned to start the motor say on half load
.
s i = 25 ; I = i + 1 0 -
whence and = 1 2 sect ions E i = t t l

, ,
35 ; u + o a
ohms The several sect ions woul d have the f l l wmg
.
i t
r es s a n ce o o
l ues
.
va :
r — =
hm R = O 4 5 1 8 ohm o 7 .
R1 = ( k l )r . 06 R3 . 6 325
R 2 = R1k 08 4 R9 88 5 5
ohms
.
R 3 = R 2k 1 17 6 Rio = 1 . 239 7
R4 1 64 6 R"
R5 23 05 R 12 2 2
. 4 29 7
Rs 3 2 27
Total
A s i sn a fract i on over 1 2 the rema i n i ng ohm — 8 5 ) may b e
add d t R (Condensed from an art i cle by F H D av es i Techn i cs
,
e o i n
A pri l
12 . . .
, ,
A LT E R N A T ING C U R R E NTS .
D e fi n it i o n s A lternat i ng cu rent are those wh ich peri odi cally pass r s

through a regular series f changes both i magni tude and d irect i on
.
o n
Usua l ly the magn itude i ncreases wi th a certa i n regul ari ty from zero to
.
a m xi mum dec eases w i th the same g l it to zero and then s imilarly

a r re u ar
to a max imum i the oppos ite d i rect ion and nally to zero aga i n W hen
, ,
n
a cu— rent has exper ienced such a ser ies f changes (0 to + max to 0
.
r o
to max t 0 ) i t i sa id to have completed cycle (Symbol
.
, ,
o s ) o ne v
There are t w alternat ions i cycle The t ime taken to accompl ish
.
.
, .
o n o ne
cycle i s called a peri od and the number f cycles completed i
.
o ne o n on e
second i called the frequency
s per i od i c i ty The frequency f an alternat or o
i g current dy m = pN 6 0 where p = m b f pa i rs f poles and
, .
na o + nu er o o
fi
, ,
The ide l c rve f an alternat i ng current and E M F i s a s i nuso i d

a u o
curve f s i nes and i the assumed for purposes f t heoret i cal di
. . .
,
or o s o ne o s
but commercial altern tors d t generate stri ctly s i nuso i da l
,
i
cu ss o n , a o no
pressures
R eferr i ng t F i g 29 E at any po i nt = E m s i n 2 fl where f = f q
.
’
o y a re ue nc
and t = t i i seconds A lso I = I m i 2 ii
.
, u .
,
nie n s n z
E ff e c t i v e V al es ampere f alternat i ng current i s a current

.
, u . .
O u ne o
f such i nstantaneou value as to hav e the same heat i ng eff ect in a con
.
o s
ductor as ampere f d i rect or cont i nuou current H eat i ng varies
~
o ne o s
I and therefore i an alternat i ng current who e i nst ntaneous alues
.
2 n
as s a v
vary the heat ing eff ect i pro ?= t i l t the mean f the squares of the
.
,
s r o na o o
i nstantaneous currents or I I m 2 The fl t i value therefore
,
'
2+
, , . e ec ve ,
is and the effect i ve E =Em 2 The— average + V

current and the average E M F The
.
, . . I~ x .
rat io of the eff ect i ve E M F and the average . .
(for s inuso i dal is ll ed the form factor (The subscr i pt m ca

i nd icates m x i mum )
.
a
P h a e W hen the ma imum and zero values of E and 1 occur at the
.
s x
same i stant the current and E M F are sa id to be i phase W hen
.
n n
the current atta i ns i t max imum and zero values at a t ime later than
, . . . .
when the corre pond i ng values of the E M F occur it i s id to be t

s . . .
, s a ou
E
'
of w i th the E MF or to lag beh ind the E M F When max i m m

base u
dze ro values are reached at an earl ier tw ime the current i sa d t lead
) .
s i o
an
The d istance bet ween any t correspond i ng ord i nates of
,
th o
current and may be measured and expre sed i degrees and i
e
s n s
called the angular d isplacement or phase d i fference Th s angle p i i s re re
sented by d
.
,
alternator g iv ing a s ingle pressure wave f E M F to a two W e

i .
A n o - ir
c ircui t i called a s ingle phase t gener t or gi m g pressure

. . .
O - cu n e n a ne v
to two d ist inct c ircu its (each a s ingl e phase ) the phase be ng 9 0 apart
s .
°
s i
a two pha e or quarter pha e generator A t hree phase m ch ne

. . ,
i
s - s ,
-
s .
- a i
t heore t i cally h three two wi re c ircu it t h max imum pos it i ve p

as m - -
s, e ressu
on any c ircu it be ing d ispl ced from each of the pressu es i the other
o ne a r n
two c ircu its by but the algebra i c sum of the currents i ll t hree as n a
c ircu its (if balanced ) = 0 the three return w ires f the c i rcu i ts may be
,
o
d ispensed w ith
,
Po w er i n Al t e rn t i g C rre t C i rc i t s The powe P i an alter

.
a n - u n u r
n
nat ing c ircui t depends on E I and d i thu expressed P = E I cos
. , ,
an s s :
i called the power factor i t be i ng the number by wh ich t he apparent
, ,
C os s
power volt amperes (E1 ) m ust be mult ipl ed i order to obt in the
,
or -
i n a
true power When—E and I are i phase and
, ,
n cos
Sel f In d c t i o n I m p e d n c e R e cta n c e a n d I n d u cta n c e A
. ,
- u z a a cu r
rent flo wi ng i a conductor sets p a magnet i c fi eld around it ; conversely
, , .
n U
when there i an i ncrease or decre e of the number f l ines f force cut
s as o o
,
by a d t co n cur ent i i nduced i it and i alternat i ng c i rcui ts it

u c or , a r s n n
i necessary to cons ider these s lf i nduced currents
,
-
s e
W hen the rate of ch n ge of value f t he current strength i s greatest
.
a o
(at 0 ) the self —i nduced E M F i a max i mum and when lowest (at peak s
of the s i ne curve ) t h E M F i a m i n imum : consequently the phase
. . .
,
e s
f the self i nduced E M F di fl from that of the i mpressed E M F by
. . .
,
'
o -
e rs
i s at r ight angles to i t
. . . . . .
or
l t an l t current o f I am peres fl w through a c ircu it hav ing
. .
e ti a e r na n o
a res istance f R ms and an i nductance (self i nduct i on ) f L he rys
o 0 -
o n
To =ma inta i n the current fl w through R requi res an fl t i E M F
.
'
o e ec ve
The eff ect i ve value f the E M F f self i nduct ion E w i ll
. .
E Rl o o -
the m i nus s ign i nd icat i ng that it i an opposed count r

, . . . .
, s,
b = e= s or e
A E and E are at ri ght angles t each other they not t
,
E M F s 3 o a re o
be added but are to be taken as two s ides of a triangle the hyp othenuse of
. . . r
, ,
wh ich i t he i mpressed E M F E whence

s . . : ,
E L EC I R O T E C H
’ ‘
NI CS .
‘
c o n t a i n i n g R es i st a n ce I nd c t a n e an d C apa c i t y
( I rc u i t s u c
Th s t e most g l c e l n coun d to self nduct on
, .
‘
i is i i t ene ra i ias e ue -
and leads the cur n t by e of capac ity eact

.
re r
d la g beh i nd the current by These two

l
a n ee
— fl an s
be i ng 16 0 apart t h re ultant reacta ce i the i r numerical di fl

°
, e s and n s
'
e r e n ce
i 2
the general equat on —
C]
i The quant
is : ty . i
w i th n the brackets i nd i cates an angle of l w“ if pos it i ve and an a gle

i a , , n
E
of lead if negat i e If 2 II = 2 /C then [ =b Th is cond it ion prevai l i ng
.
1
v . n J
n
' ; ,
resonance i sa id to ex i t s at one i nstant energy i be i ng stored i n the

s as , s
fi eld at the same rate i t i be ing g i ven to t h c i rcu i t by the condenser

, ,
s e
and at another instant ener y i be ing released from the fi eld at the same
.
ra t e i i be ing stored i t e condenser

,
t n
C o m b i n at i o n s f C o n de se s If condense rs are connec t ed i ser ie
as . s .
o n r . n s
equal capac it ies C = ,
I f connect ions are i n mult i ple C a d if , u , n

C =C n.
Co m b i n at i o n s of I m ped a n ce If several mped nces are to be
a
s. i a
arranged i ser ies they s ould be represented by the hyp ot henuses f t i
n h o r
angles whose hori zontal s ides represent the res istances and vert ical s ides
the reactances The result nt impedance i then represented by the a s
hypothenuse of the tr iangle whose b = m of=the res istance hori zon

.
ase su
tals of the separate t i angles and whose h ig ht m f the reactance r e su o
vert icals or resultant i mpedance =

,
If the impedances are i par llel

, ,
n a
Take y t w adm ittances at the i r proper pha e angle and construct a
an o s
parallelogram The d iagonal w ill be the resultant of t hese t w adm it o
tances i d irect ion and value Th is resultant may be s im i larly combined
.
n
w ith a th ird adm ittance etc The rec iproc al f the fi nal resultant ad m it
.
o
ta ce w il l then be the combined impedance des i red and the di ect i on of
.
,
n r
the fi nal d iagonal w i ll represent the resultan t phase .
LT E R N A T I N (i C U R R E NT G E N E R A T O R S
A i - .
A l te rn a to are e i ther s ingle ph se or poly pha e

rs more than one -
a - s
phase — l l y t w or three )
i i su a For l w potent ial s the field i stat ionary
o o s
the rmature revol vi ng w hile f h igh potent i al s the fi eld i made to
,
.
,
a or s
rot te the armature be ing fi xed The latter may have a fi eld f radi al
,
a o
oles each of wh ich i f oppos ite polari ty to i t ne ighbor or i t may be
.
,
p s o s
f the i nductor t ype i wh ich both fi eld and armature coils are stat ionary
.
, ,
o n
the rotat ing part be ing an i ron ma s called the inductor Th is inductor
, ,
( wh ich carr ies no wi re ) h pa i rs of soft i ron project ions termed inductors

.
-
as
wh ich are magnet i zed by t h current flow ing i a fi xed annular fi eld co i l e n
wh ich surrounds but does t touch the inductor The surround ing frame no
i s prov ided w ith rad ial i nternal project ions wh ich correspond to the i
.
n
d ctors i n numb r d s i ze and upon wh ich are wo nd the armature
o an u
co ils A the i nductors revolve the fl ux l inked w ith the armature co ils
e ,
s
varies from a max imum to a m i n imum but i t d irect ion i s not chan ged
.
s
the annular fi eld co il g ives a constant d i rect ion of field
, ,
as
P h ase G e n erato r I n a t w ph se system of w ind i ng if two
.
Tw o- o- a
coils and 4 conductors are used each coil generates a pressure of E volt
. .
s
between the t w w ires lead ing from i t and there i no connect i on between
,
o s
the t w co il If three w ires are used connected
o s. shown i Pi 3 2 as n
the between the wi res are i nd icated i the d i agram and
, ,
as n
l i the fi gures are taken as the e ff ect i ve and currents )
.
n
A monocycl ic generator ( for l ights ch iefl y but carryi ng a certai n motor
.
load ) i a s ingle phase mach i ne to whi ch i added on the m at re a

,
s -
s u so
AL T E R N A TI NG -
CU RR E NT G E N E R A TO R S . 149
called eazer wind ing f a sect i on fli i to carry the motor load

t o su c e nt
W th tu ns enoug h to prod uce a oltage equal to quarter of that
,
_
an d i r V one -
Fig 32. .
of the regular wind ing and laggi ng 90 beh ind same O end f the °
ne o
teazer wi d ing i connected to the mi ddle f the regul ar wi nd ng and the
.
.
n s o i
Fig 3
:4 . .
other to a th i rd l i ne wi re A three term inal induct ion motor

-
wh ich e ther connected d irectly or through a transformer

-
.
is i
F ou r P h a e o Q rter P h a e See l gs 33 and 3 4 for the

.
t wo
’
- s r ua - s . u
, .
1 50 at s m or sca mcs
styles of connect i ons The current i n each l ine i n F i g 3 3 = l and i n each
. . .
l i ne of M g 3 4 = I 2 V
T h ee P h ase (Fi 3 5 and Fig 3 5 shows the Y or star con

. .
r - gs
the current i each l ine b ing I F g 3 6 shows the A (delta )
. .
ne c ti on , n e . i .
or mesh connect i on the current i n ea h l ine be i ng I 3

, c V .
Fig 35 . .
F ig 36 . .
E M F. G en e at ed
. . r where p = mb of p i rs
.
—8
, nu er a
o f poles 0 = =flux per pole i maxwells and = uum ber of i n n n

The eff ect ive where k i the form factor
, ,
d t
u c o rs s
for a s ine wave ) A lso pN 60 = f onsequently
.
+ c
If the armature wi nd ing i ll concentrated into one slot per pole s ingle
.
, ,
s a
ph e th is formula i appl icable If however the w ires are d istri buted
,
as s
over the surface of the arma t u e i a n umber of slots the r igh t hand mem
, .
, ,
r n -
ber of the equat ion must be mult ipl ied by a d istr ibut ion constant k
wh ich varies accord ing to the number of slots on the per iphery f arma
, ‘,
o
tu e from center to center of two adjacent pole faces and the fract ion of
r -
the latter d sta ce wh ch occup ed by slot

i n i is i s .
V alues of In .
Pa t of polar r
d istance oce n 1 slot 2 slots 3 slots many slot s
p ed by slots
. . . .
i .
E LEC I ROT EC H N I CS
’ ‘
.
A ,
A, , and I! to be constants and
—
d i ff erent i t in g ) a , i t is fo nd that for thi
u s
C O "ti 1 t
°
I ’ . fl n
b_ a a bi a,
b| 6 b1 + 0
For the least total co il i t i found cores
|
v o l u n e oi n i a t r al in b t h
4r e A o 13
8 71 s s
‘l
necessa that — t i
‘ zi
and
‘
‘ ‘ 1 l
a n
b 2 2:
r
y
'
.
a, :
' 1
A +A i A A + 2A 1 1
{EM !
If the volumes a re to have a defi n ite relat ive val e l t u e
,
v,= and let the correspond i ng

n v, re lat i ve value of t h areas be A e ; .
W hen ==0 5 l x . 2 3 4 5
= n 0 7 96 .
the i nduct ion per q cm of

Le t = B in wt and the total i nduct i on s cone s
A B s in wt then the magnet i z ing curre t be i ng smal l the amppli tude of
. .
,
n
the appl i d E M F will (when the transformer not l d d gbe p t i l l
, ,
H
e is oa e rac ca
equal to =that i nduced by se lf induct i on ; conseq uent l y E
. .
Bwl O z
n
where N of turns
n, pri mary co il
o on
,
L t P = fu l l load i n watts 1 = square root f the mean square of the

. .
e , o
f l l load current
u i pr imary co i l and power factor = 1 n Then P = BI 2 + V
current per sq cm of =coil sect ion The

, .
,
or 1 4 1 P = El L t i= g e a ve r a e
heat enerated i the coils w il l then be a prox i ma t ely 4 1 vl t) assum
. . . . .
2 —6
n
g tg
1
e space factor f the coils 50 (i one half f coil sect i o i
, , ,
in o is e -
o n s
copper ) and the work ing tem perature = 80 L
0 . .
-
°
A t ful l load the heat wasted the co il s shoul d equal that lost i n the
, .
in
1 83 i a
core through hysteres i s and eddy currents Thi s heat H — 1 0 i n watts .
,
11
per cu cm per cycle er second

A certa i n area of i t i g s rface must be all owed for the d iss i pat i on
. . .
a n u 8,
of the heat f each watt the tot al surface be i ng S For ordi na ry ai r
,
o
cooled transformers i s taken at 30 sqq cm and at 20 qq cm f trans
.
,
8 s or
formers i mmersed cooled by art i fi c i al vent il at ion The followi ng
. . . .
,
il in o or
equat i ons and val ues have been der i ved from the forego ing premi es
.
v
199 2 = x
2 7:
x
7
x
1 01 1 I OSE
3 M :
7 sss l e
1 1 :1 3 a m;
Total heat d i ss ipated ,

— 2 X 1 83
H1 = 1 6 1
o
1
°
2
in watts per sec .
f equency ;
r g
—
= total expo ed surface n s
ead thu W hen = l = 2 = 3 and g = 3 4 6 etc )

(R s x , x 1 , x g , .
, .
E xample Core transformer ; P = 1 0 000 watts E = 3 000 volts , , , ,
x= 1 and from prev ious tables

,
=z
7
= and g
= 3 46 r l ~
,
0 ‘
n . .
Subst i tut i ng i ( l ) (3 ) and B = 2 7 4 7 l i nes p

n sq cm ( pri m ry ) er 71 1 a
= 853 t rns = 1 0 1 cm b = 20 2 cm = 8 25 cm b = 2 4 7 5 cm
, , . .
,
u , a . A =A . .
, a1 . .
, t . .
, l
T RA N SF O R M ERS . 153
sq= cm v = 1 7 ,600 cu cm = 1 9 1 1 0 cu cm + = 36 7 1 0 vl v v1 cu.

cm watts E ffi c ency watts output watts suppl ied
. . , . .
, , . .
, ,
H1 2 18 3 i
If the i ron sect i on i taken as
. .
s one
half that of the co ils = 0 5 v m = 3

g= 2
cu cm m= l 2 7 00 cu i v + = 28 640 cu cm H = 2 2 2 b wat t and

v = I 5 9 40 , x
cn
.
,
v1
,
1
,
s,
,
or a d ss at o of but 4 watts more than i n the fi t case

. .
, , .
_ , . .
, 1
i i i n rs -
and a reduct ion i we ig t f th i rd s n o one- .
5
,
For shell transformers B

7 4
w) ( ) ( )
—E l 1 .
g
7 1 2
3 in
2 72 1 m 11
and
w
x
§ x x
vi
.
3 63 1 -6 m = 1 08E -z —s wa 1 2
g In th=i s case where = 1 and the i on pa ts cor , x , r r
b
r pond to the copper parts i n a core transformer the values of — i n the
es ,
1
t ble are used for 3and s im i larly those f i table for £21
a o n
0 1
.
Tak i ng the data f the mfl g i ven i t wi ll be seen th t i n th i s ca e

o cx a e , a s
i nste d f 3 as f a core tran former Subst i tut i ng the var i ous

a o or s .
values in and the f oll owi ng values are obta i ned

1
B = 2 89 6 '
m=
, ,
= 8 1 3 = 8 2 2 b = 2 4 65
a = l 0 07 b = 2 o 1 3 A v = l 8 89 0 al
substant ially the
, .
, .
, .
l .
, , ,
v1 17 4 00 H = 2 16 2 ; or
same tot l v olume and e ffi c iency as f the core transformer fi r t con
, , 1 .
a or
If the i on sect i on be made equal t tw i ce the copper sect i on
s
s id d
ere r o
+ v = 28 1 40 cu cm
.
,
B = 3 09 1 = 1 3 060 = 1 6 4 00
v H = 226 6
v1 fl v e
'
If i ron sect on
. , , , , , 1 , . .
, 1 .
, .
ti =
pp i X 5 B = 3 7 7 0
se cv = 7 63 2 on co er , , , , ,
v = 1 3 6 40 H = 2 60 2 ; 1
When a transformer i i c i rcu i t cont i nuous y but loaded for onl y a
1 , , .
s n
f w hours i the day a greater all —d y average effi c i ency i obta i ned by
,
e n a s
des i gn ing t he transformer so that the ron heat d iss ipat i on i cons iderably i s
less than that of the coil at full loa d the effi c i ency ho wever i sm ll er s a
full load I n t h i s case the rig ht hand members f ( 1 ) and (5 ) must
, , ,
on .
-
o
m 1
be mul t ip l i ed by m and those of (2 5and (6 ) by 71 where m = t t l heat
"
o a
7 ,
d i s ipat=ion hysteres is d i s i pat ion

s s
If m 3 (other data as f shel l transformer wh re B = 2 89 6 then
.
or e
watts w =
.
,
B = 2 19 5 l H m v1 v - - vl
watts watts The w i t
, , i , ,
pper
e
i thus i ncreased about 1 2 % and the effi c iency lowered by If t e
, .
s
lo d however i
a onl y about 6 hours t f the 2 4 there i s a vmg
s on ou o sa
_
of about 600 watt hours p day

, , ,
-
er
It i assumed in the foregoi ng work that t h coil and core sect i ons
.
s e ar e
rect ngul ar If the i ron lam i at i ons are rect ngular and the wires
a n a n
the coils are bent i n the arc f a c ircle when round ing the corners of the
. i
o
i
ro n core (whi ch i the m st general construct i on ) then f a co e trans
s o , , or r
b + 57 a A A+ 2 a 1
b_
.
a
.
, i _ .
s
( l a e s
,
4
l, — 2
( a+
a )
A IL-D ay E ffi ci n e cy Let u = N o of hours p e r ' da y when f ul l load i s on ;
t hen
. .
d y effi c ency
Al l —
Fu l l l e d X 11 a
a
Core los X 2 4 copper loss x y f l l lo d X 11
i
s u a
°
M a g n et i c D e s i t i e i n V ar i ous A mer ica Transformers

n s n :
For 25=cycles
O UGO to l i nes per q per sq
,
B s cn i
For 60=cycles
. . .
,
6 OQO to li nes per sq cm per q i )

,
B , . . s . n .
1 54 B L EC I RO T ECl i Nl CS
’ ‘
.
For 1 25 e veles
to l i nes per q cm per q
,
B s s
C e n t D e n s it i e Pr i mary co il c i rcu la mi ls per am pe e
. . .
u rr s. r r
Se ondary
, .
c
Insulat i on between lam in t i ons i about 1 0 % of total assembled thi k
a s c
ness vol of iron bi contents
.
'
X cu c
E co n o m i c D es i g n The best economy of fi rst cost may b obta i ned
. .
e
by calcu lat i ng l transformers of t he same capac ity but w ith vari ous
.
~i
e ve ra
rat ios of copper to ron plott ng the res lts and b l m t he ann al
,
.
i i u a a nc g u
i nterest on the cost of mater ial saved ( labor cost be i ng sub t ant i al ly a
,
s
constant for a ven output ) W th the cost of the extra watt hours p year
.
-
er
sacri ficed by cg p i g the construct ion
i i
ea en n .
CO N D U CT OR S .
C o pp e r- W ir e Ta b le , A . I . E . E . 20
°
C .
reaA We i ght L ngth e

Circu ar m ls Pounds per ft Feet per lb
. . .
l i . .
.
1 56 B L EC I R O T E C H NI CS
’ ‘
.
O h n’ r 3r
l 0 06il Feet per ohm . O hms per ih .
103 1 000 6702 2

13 00 00 1 08 1 1 6
1 63 9 4 00 1 6 73 9
206 7 00 27 27 2
2 60 8 2 00 43 44 1
3 2 87 1 00690 5 7
4 1 45 2 4 12 6 . 0 1 09 7 73
Conduct i v ity taken 60 % of that of p re copper We i ght
as u
al um i num taken lbs per cu ft
.
as . . .
G e n e r al Fo r m u l as f W i i n g =(From Gener l Electri c Co li terat re==)

or r a u
A ea of conductor i c i rcular mil D WK= P E ; \ lt 1 t m l ne
. . .
’
n + 2 o os
r s s i
P E A/ 1 00
+ C rrent i ma
: in d tu W T E ; W e ght f copper
n co n u c o rs +
.
i o
i Ii
n = A WKD — P B X 1 0 : wh ere D = di t
ne 2 z- of transm i ss on ( one w 6
s a n ce i a
i feet W = t t l watts d l i r d at the end of l in e P = p
n o a c nt loss of
e ve e er e
l i ne and E = l t g betwee n the conductors at the mg end of
. ,
'
in vo a e recei v
l i ne A K and T constants ha vi ng the f ll w mg values
.
.
.
, , a re o o :
K
Per ce nt po wer factor
1 00 95 90 85 80
S ingle p - 2 1 60 2 4 00 2 660 3000 3380
T w phase (4 w i es )
o- 1 080 r1 200 1 330 1 500 1 690
Three pha e (3 wi res )
- s 1 080 1 2 00 1 330
. 1 500 1 690
T
—Per cent power f t — f
~
ac oxb fi
1 00 95 90 85 80
S ingle phase - 1
T w phase (4 w i res )
o- 0 5 53 55 59 62
Three phase (3 w i res )
.
- 58 61 64 68 72
cont i nuous c rrent = 2 1 60 T = 1 A and M = 1
. . . .
Kj or u . , .
V alu s of M — W i r 18 i apart c to c
e es ns
2 5 Cycles 40 C cl s 60 Cycl s
.
. .
, .
Gauge —Power Factors— — Power ac t

e e
— Power Fact r
. . .
: f -a
'
fl F
o rs- fl fi
o s“
95 90 85 80 95 90 85 80 95 90 85 80
00 00
. 99
00 . 99 . 92
0 1 . 94 . 87
1 96 . . 90 . 83 1 . 94
2 1 93 . . 86 . 79 . 95 . 88 1
3 98. 91 . . 84 . 76 . 97 . 90 . 83 . 99 . 93
4 96. 89 . . 81 . 74 1 . 94 . 86 . 80 1 . 94 . 87
6 94. 86 . . 78 . 70 . 97 . 90 . 82 . 74 1 . 94 . 87 . 79
8 93. 85 . . 76 . 68 . 94 . 87 . 79 . 71 . 97 . 89 . 82 . 74
10 92 83 75 67 93 85 76 68 94 86 79 71
Cycles Cycles
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1 25 . 25 .
00 00
00 . 97
0 98 . . 91 f or vo l t ages> 1 0 . 000 .
l . 99 93 . . 86
2 95 89 82
per
. . .
3 (Po wer f a cto rs i n

4
6
c ent
nex t pag e
m on
. E x am
u se
es
8 98 85 old i ncorrec t val

of M )
. .
.
1099 92 85 78
'
. . u es .
The values of M i the above tables are c rrec ted value publ ished by n o s
M H arold Pender i E l Wl d J uly 1 1 90 5
r .
n . .
. , .
The val es of A! i the above table are about true for 1 0 % l i ne los
u n s.
C O N D UCT O R S .
They are bl accurate for losses less than

reason a under 40 cycle s
and close enough larger losses If the largest conductors are u e d or s
at 1 25 cycles and the loss re ter than the val es sho ld not b
.
is s u u e
used If the conductors are c oser to each other than 1 8 i nches the los s
than that gi ven by the form ul and if very close together
. ,
Will b l e ess a, as
i n a cable the loss wil l b that due to res istan e only
,
e c
For a d i rect current 3 wi re system the neutral feeder sho ld have a
.
,
- -
u
sect ion equal t one th i rd f that f the outs ide Wi res obtain ed from
,
o “
o o as
formula For both al te rnat i ng and d i ect urrent the secondary ma i n r c s
and the house wi ri ng sho ld have the neutral W re f the same area
.
u i o as
the outs ide cond uctors
For h monocycl ic system (power n d li ghts ) c l c l ate the primar
.
t e a a u y
c i rcu it i f ll the power were transm i tted over the ou t s i de Wi res t h
as a e
s i ze f the power w i re to be to e i ther ou t s ide wi e the motor load (in
,
o r as
amperes ) to the total load ampe es Secondaries lead ing to i nduct ion
is in r
motors shoul d al l be f the same s i ze f a s ingle ph se c irc i t f t h
.
o as or a u o e
same capac i ty ki lowatts and same power factor The three lin es ofin
a 3 phase c ircui t— should be of equal cross sect ion
.
Power Factor W hen not more accurately determ i nable take fo llows
.
as
ht i ng only l ight ing and motors 85 % motors onl y
, .
F
li g
or
ht ng c i rcu i ts using small transformers the voltage at transformer
, . ,
i
primaries shoul d be 3 % h i gher than the l t g X t i f tra sformat ion vo a e ra o o n
For motor c i rc its su b t i tute 5 % f 3 % i n the preced ing rul e
.
u s or
E x a m pl e D i rect current c rcui t 1t lam ps each taki ng
.
s: 1 10 i \ 0
0 5 ampere ; l i ne w i res ; d istance feet
, ,
tw o
Ci rc lar
.
. ,
u o5 > <1 1 0 )
V olts drop to l mp = 1 0 X 1 1 0 X 1 1 00 = 1 1 volts
.
a s +
Three Wi re c i rcui t — 2 20 l t between the outside w i res A ea of each
.
vo s : r
out i de conductor 2 1 60 X 2 000 X ( 1 000 X=0 5 X I 1 0 ) ( 1 0 X 2 2 0 ) 4 90
s
2
m ils A rea =f neutral th— ird W=i re 4 90 900 63 3 c i r m il

, , , .
,
900 ci r o or s.
V olts loss i 2 2 volts
. .
.
, ,
i it 1 0 X 2 20 X 1 1 00
n c r cu
A lternat ing currents T wo w i re s i ngle phase ; 1 0 t 1 tr a nsformers
.
: -
o
2 volts loss i secondary Wi ri ng ; transformer drop = loss i pr=i mary
,
n n
l in e t b 5% o f the del i ve ed power ; effi c iency
e o f tra nsformer 97 % r o
V olts at transformer
.
6
W atts requ i red by lamps — 1 000 X 1 1 0 X 0 5 W atts req i red
.
u
at pri maries = 55 000 — Ci r mi l = 2 000 X 58 000 X
,
2 . s , ,
Three phase 3 w i re p wer transm i ss i on 60 cycles=;

- -
H P 5 mi les ; o
lo s 1 0 % f d h d power ; voltage t motor 5 000 ; power factor
, ,
_
. .
,
s o e ve re a
load Ci rcul ar m ils X 5) X
, ,
o f X 746 ) X
Two 0000 Wi res have thi s a ea a lso four 0 W i re r s
If the l at t er are used the drop w i ll be o ly 73 3 % f that when usi ng the

, .
, n . o
1
larger W i res Per cent loss X5X X 74 6 X 1 500
(4 X 1 05 7 9 % of the del i vered power or 11 P los s
i n the transm ss i on V olts lost i li ne = 9 7 9 X 5 000 X 1 4 6
, , . .
i 1 00 = 7 1 5 n +
V olts at generator = 5 Cur ent l i ne = 3 500 X 7 4 6 X
. . .
, .
5 i r n
000 = 3 55 amperes
, .
0
C a l l a t i n ppl yi n g t o Tr a n m i i n C i c i t The E M F
.
, .
’
cu o s a s ss o r u s. s
i n the vari ous parts f a transm iss ion system may be cal cula t ed by mea s
. . .
o n
o f the follow i ng table and the method employed i the example gi ven n .
L i ne Con tan ts (W i res 1 8 i n apart—) s

Gauge W t D i m A rea X —
. . .
a R t e ac an ce ,
B & S lbs m il s c i r m ils
, .
, . , r ,
fi
. . R .L C .
=
i 2 5 40 . 60 1 25 . . .
'
. .
0000 4 60 . 2 66 . 0 1 02 . 0 3 85 . 232 . 372 . 558

000 4 10 . 33 5 . 00996 . 03 7 5 . 23 9 . 38 2 . 5 73
00 3 65 . 422 . 009 7 3 . 03 66 . 245 . 3 92 . 58 8
0 325 . 53 3 . 0094 9 . 03 58 . 25 1 . 40 2 . 603
1 2 89 . 67 1 . 009 2 6 . 03 4 9 . 2 56 . 40 9 . 6 14
2 2 58 . 84 5 . 0090 9 . 03 4 2 . 261 . 4 17 . 625
3 84 0 2 29 . 00 883 . 0333 . 2 67 . 42 7 . 64 1
4 66 6 204 1 346
. . 00 863 . 03 2 6 . 2 72 . 435 . 65 2
5 52 8 1 82 1 700
. . 00 84 5 . 03 1 9 . 2 78 . 445 . 66 7
6 4 19 1 62 1 81 . . 008 2 7 . 03 1 2 . 28 4 . 4 55 . 68 2
7 33 2 1 44 2 6 98 1 84
. . . 00 809 . 0305 . 2 89 . 4 62 . 69 3
8 2 63 1 28 3 406 1 88
. . . 007 93 . 0295 . 29 5 . 472 . 708
E L E CT RO T ECH N I CS .
We i ht gi ven i n l b r m i le f w ire ; R -=ohm p m i l of cond ct or s o s er e u

i n m i ll i per m l =; C ty ln m f
.
L-i t
n u c ance y p f d en r s i e ca ac1 1cro ara s. o
tw o w i res each one m i le i n length ; i h g c= rrent of l=i ne of t w c ar 1n u o
wi res (1 - 60 E = 10 000 volts ) - 2 /C E I O
.
3
2 IL10
-
.
t . x reac an ce n .
Im pedance Z
Let it be requ i red to tra sm it H P over a 3 phase c rcu t 1 0 m les
.
n - i i i
i n length the po wer be ing t d at volts ra i ed t hroug h a ste p
. .
ne r a e s
up tran former to for transm i ss ion along the l i ne and reduced
a
. .
s t vo s
to volts at the rece i v i ng end by a step down transformer Trans
.
former copper loss each co e or hyster si s

.
.
1n r e
loss i n each i=5 % : m g t i Loss a ne i z n
in t l 5 % 1 0 f wh ich i i n l i ne ; power actor = 0 85 V oltage
. . .
i i
ra nsn 1 ss o n , 0 s . .
between branch and the ommon center of y t m = E

an y c s s e
E nergy del i vered by each wi = =2 700 X 7 4 6 re -1
watts A pparent energy per

,
watts Current each am D rop i n

.
i n re s
each wi re = 1 0 % of R es istance of w i re = 57 7 4
. .
lt vo s e ac -1
ohms or ohms per m ile w hi ch i the res i stance of a

. .
s
00 w i re ; consequently thr e 00 w i res w ill carry the load R eactance
, .
e
of 1 0 m i les s ingle ohms Inductan e f
. .
c or
m i ll ihenrys Ch ar i g current f each line
.
10 n
amp Power g
or
actor b ing 0 85 t h i nduc t
.
.
for 10 . e .
. e
a ce
n
To fi d the E M F at generator and the d istr i but i on f current when
n o
full load i on the ent i re sys t em may be cons idered at vol t for
. . .
s s
conven ience i
,
l l t n ca cu a 1o n
Commenc i ng w ith the secondary c i rcu i t work ing back and tabul at i ng the
steps the f ll wmg o bt ned
,
'
, o o 1s e1 .
Secondary Ci rcu i t :
E nergy E M F X
I nduct i ve E M F
. .
, .
X
C rrent i am peres
. . .
u n
Step down Transformers
,
- :
Res istance lo s I R = 1 of s
R eactance of
,
IX =
=3
H ysteres is 1 of
Re i s stan e loss c IR X 4 22
eactance
.
,
R IX X
(V olts at term inals of step p trans -

u
formers V 5 553 + 2
Ste p Transformers
,
p-u
Res istance loss I R = 1 % of
R actance I X = 3 5 % of
,
e
H y teres i s of
.
olts t
V a vol t or reduced b v s,
rat o volts f one branch T h total generator E MF
,
.
1 . , or . e .
would then be X 3 volts or total volts at generator V

of volts at secondar ies of rece ivi ng transformers and the po wer factor
,
of the ent i re c i rcu it i

,
s
I n d c ta n e fo r Pa all el Co pp e r W i re
u c I n u l a t ed L per feet r s, s .
1 per ft of the whole ci rc i t for a ‘
. . u
1 60 EL E CT R O T E C H N I cs .
The mean spheri cal candle power ( p ) i the mean of that o ver a - c .
- . s
sphere of wh i ch the l i ght i the center and equals approx i mately fi2 4 s , ,
where H i the hor izontal p and J ! the max imu m p ( 40 b l w h r i

s c - c - °
e o o
l for a d i rect current The cont inental it f li ght i t h hefner
. . . .
)
'
z o nt a -
a re un o s e
or candle power
. .
-
Cle r gl s lobes cut ff 1 0 % of the i llum i n t ion ground glass globes

.
- -
a a s o a
from 3 5 to 50 and opal glo bes from 5 0 to
,
I n ca n d es ce n t L m ps usually re from 3 to watt

o.
16 p i a c -
u re s
p and have a l ife of 8 00 to hour hey hould not however

,
—
. .
,
)e r c s
used o ver 6 00 hours the ir effi c ienc ies dec e se d ri n The
. . s. , ,
i t! as r a u g u se
mo t econom ical po int at wh ich to renew a lamp (i t he smash ing
, .
”
s e
point ) may be found follow
. .
"
as
Hours lamp should be d = /B E w here B = t of l mp per

'
p u se c\ -
cos a c -
t of watt hours f energy and c = l 4 1 0 when the i ncrease

, . . .
E a
cos -
o
of watts per p per hour f = 0 00 1 ( = 1 000 when i ncre se = 0 002
, ,
-
c o use c a
and 8 15 when
. .
.
, .
,
Th Ta n tal m I n c a n de ce n t La m p has a fi wi re of t h is rare metal

e u s ne
i n place of h ord inary carb n fi lament t Proper ies of tantalum melt i ng
e o t :
po int p heat p g p res i st nce ( 1 m X 1 mm )
.
C s s s a
2
The re ist ivi ty incre se w ith t he temperature and at

.
.
, . . . . . .
hm o s a s.
watts per Lamps watts per p ) have a u eful

.
c c -
s
l ife of 40 0 to 6 00 hours
. . .
lamps f outdoor street i llum i nat ion 1 00 to

.
I l l m i n t l on
u A a rc : or or
1 50 sq ft per watt ; for ra ilway stat i ons 1 0 to 1 8 ft per
. ,
q w t t ; f s a or
large ha l ls exh ibi t ions etc 2 sq ft per watt ; f d mg rooms 1 q ft
. . .
, .
o r re a -
s
per watt and for i tense i llum inat ion sq ft per watt
. .
. , , , . .
n
Incandescent lam s ( 1 6 O rd i nary i ll um i at i on sheds depots
. . .
: c n
etc 1 lamp (8 f t m floor ) f 1 00 sq ft wa it i ng rooms 1 lamp for
.
, , ,
ro or -
7 5 sq f t ; stores and offi ces 1 lamp for 60 sq ft D ark wal ls requi re an

. .
, .
,
i ncrea e i n the above fi gures Nernst lam ps h a vi ng a glower fo med

. . . .
,
”
s r
f meta l l ic ox ides wh ich becomes i ncandescent duri n the p ssage f c rrent
.
,
o a o u
are mad e i s i s from 2 5 to 1 50 p and requi e a t n re watts per —p c .
-
. r ou c .
,
L E CT R I C T R A CTI O N E .
T ra c t i v e Fo c e d P o w e r The force F requi red to bri ng a r an ca r

from rest to speed (i m iles per hou ) wi th in a g i ven t i m
. , ,
t i a ce r a n 8, n r. o.
K
,
1 1
t, ( in d ) i F (i
se co n lbs ) —
t
f + 2o ws, p where W = w igh t
s f n .
'
--
, e o
car i tons n to 3 0 ) X W d p = p cent f grad e an er o

It takes a pull of about 70 lbs per ton to start a car on a level or to
.
, ,
round a curve If there i a grade the start ing pull i

. .
s n
ba ed on a speed of 9 m iles per hour be ing atta ined= i 2 0 secs
. ,
s n
The average H P where n fi i i y of motor
.
e c enc
( from 50 to 60 % ) The per cent grade at wh i ch sli pp i ng occurs wh n

. .
.
, e
car i start ing =s

10O
where = t i of adhes i ve force to we ight a:
a
.
a ra o on
d rivers to ,
and = w igh t on dr i vers — t tal we igh t f x e t- o o ca r .
“hen r nn i ng
'
u .
R es i sta n ce f R i l sed fo r R e t rn s C i r m i ls of cros sect i on of a

/
o a s u u s-
ra il = 1 2 4 7 50 W ; equ ivalent i miL of ra il sect i on i
. .
pp
= 20 800 W ; c r s n co er
Res istance of a s i ngle ra il per m i le i ohms = 2 5 W approx ( V aries
. .
.
-
n
from to 5 accord ing to the che mi cal compos it i on f rai l ) W = w igh t
.
, .
o e
of ra il i n l bs per yard
.
. .
H ea v y E l ectr i c R a i l road i n g Tra i n res ist nce R i l b per ton . a , , n s .
2
of where = p d i n m i les per hour s s ee ,
A - cr ss sect i on of car i
o q ft - w = w igh t of t ra i n i n tons of 2 600 lb n s e s
Th is formula w found p l i b l to cond it ions met wi th t h Lo n g
. .
as a ) ca e on e
I s l and R y ( W N Sm ith 1 E E . 1 1 25 . .
, . . .
,
-
,
E L E CTR I C TR A CTI O N .
formula due to A sp i nall i s sa i d to gi ve sat i sfactory results

A
R ( i lbs per metr i c t
n f lbs where on o
L = l gt h of tra i n i fee The start ing res stance vari es accord i ng to
. .
en n t i
t h w eel d i ameter cond it i on f track etc A sp inall g i ves as a fa i r averag
.
e h o e
ton f ; 2 00 l b for best cond i t ions
.
, ,
17 lb p s er o s
E l ec t r i c Pa se n g e r Lo co m o t i v e (N Y C Type 2 —8—2
. . .
H R s
°
drivers 4 i d i m ; =trucks 3 6 d iam d iam f dri v ing axles = 8 5 i

. . . . .
4 n a in o n
wheel b se f d i 1 5 ft total wheel base = 2 7 ft W e ig h t d r ivers =
.
, . . . .
a o r ve r s on
1 3 8 000 lbs on truck 5 2 000 lbs total w i ht = 1 90 000 lbs
.
s, e
Power d irect current 6 00 volts ; 4 motors 550 rated I f I
, . , , .
: M e ac
‘
ax
mum power == 3 000 H P Normal full load current = 3 0 50 am eres
, . .
1 p
curre t 4 3 00 amp N orm l draw bar pull = 2 0 40 0 lb max
-
. .
. , .
M ax n a s
pull = 3 000 lbs S peed wi th a 500 ton tra i n = 60 m ile per hour ( General
. .
, . .
"
s
Electr ic C bu i lder )
. .
o s .
AD D E N D A .
L ar g e G a E n g i e B e l gi n a n d Ge m n P c t i c e Compress i on
s n s. a r a ra
2 00 lbs per sq i n m p generally taken as 7 0 lbs per sq i
. ,
1 70 t o e n
Cool ing water per B H P per hour cyli nders cyl inder ends and stuffi ng
. . . . . . . .
:
boxes 4 t 5 2 5 g l p istons and p i ston rods (hollow ) 1 75 to 2 75 gal
. . .
,
o a
valve boxes seats and exhaust valves 0 88 to ( Water enteri ng
. . .
, , . .
g l a
at 60 F and leav ing at 95 to 1 1 5 F ) E ngi nes are started by m
.
, , .
° ° °
co
pres ed i ( 1 50 t 2 50 lbs per sq i ) and the lubri cat ion i e ffected by
. .
s a r o n s
means f a forced il feed The foregoi ng f engi nes f 2 00 to
. . .
o H Po -
or o
O tto Deutz 4 cycle double act i ng engi ne ( 2 2 3 B H P us i ng suct ion
. . .
A n
producer gas made f i B elgi an anthrac i te ( 1 4 650 per lb )
. .
,
ron re
qui red lb f dry coal per B H P hour (R E M t h t Liege Meet
, .
q . o . . . . . . a o ,
i g f I M E
n o
Sh ea r i n g Stre n g t h of R i v e t i n lbs per sq i n S i ngle shear Iron
. .
s -
:
steel D ouble shear I ron steel
. . .
,
Di -
: s
tance from center f ri vet hole t ed e f plate should be about 2 d (E
, , ,
o o e o
S F itzs immons M aster Steam B o iler k Convent ion 1 905
. .
’
-
a er s
A safety f ctor f 4 } should be empl oyed I n butt jo ints w it h t w
.
, , .
a o 1 o
butt straps cover plates t he ri vets are i d b l shear (page
.
-
or n ou e
m
5
Fl o w o f A i i Rl t l P i p e Q = where d = id r d iam i n
n e a s. c s e or .
n F = f i ti i n oun ces per sq i r c L =l g t h i on f t Q = ft per n en n on

round and square p=ipes For a 90 bend i the
. .
.
, , . .
mi =4 4 f
n c f or or
°
n
p ip add E feet= to L Let m n rad i us f bend i n i
. .
e, r ea o n
Then when d 0 5
. .
,
1 2 r + .
4 3 2
(J H Ki l y E N A g 10 4 n ea u
Wh en = 2 5 d the bend o ff ers the least res stance and E (i i nches )
.
.
, .
,
r i n
f the curved port i on f p i pe measured along the center l in e
,
3 38 X l gt h en o o
t rad i s r (C W L Al exander Tran s I C E
.
,
a u . . .
, . . . .
,
APPE N D I X A .
CS MATHEMAT I .
M e t i c H P (Force de cheval ) l metr i c H P = 7 5 m k per -
= 0 986 3 B r i t i sh H P ( 1 B r i t i sh PI P = 1 0 1 389
r S
per
. . . . . .
ft l b -
s se c
metri c H P 1 meter k i logram (m k g ) f t lbs
. . . . . . . .
1 ft lb - - - -
g
. . . . . . .
0 1 38 2 55 m
T h e o re m s f A re a s d V l u m es
. .
G ldl
’
u n us or an o
i f a stra ight or curved l i ne i a plane revolves about an ax i s ly i ng i
.
1 n n
that plane the area of the surface so generated i equal to the length of
.
s
the h m lt ipli ed by the di stance through wh i ch i t center f grav i ty
,
ue u s o
moves
2 If a plane area revolves about an external axi s i the same plane
.
n
the volume of the sol id generated i s equal to the area of the fi gure mul
.
,
so
t i pli d by the di stance through wh i ch i ts center of grav i t
e moves
C e n te r f G rav i ty f L i n e s Straight l i ne ts m i ddle po i nt
.
s o o :
C ircumference f a tr i angle Form an i nner tr i angle b connecti ng mi ddle
. .
o :
i nts f s i des and i nscr i be a c i rcle : the center of c i rc e i c
o f g des i red s o
of parallelogram A t i ntersect ion of di ago als C i rcular
. . .
i mf
r cu e re n ce : n
O n m i ddle rad i us at d i stance from center of c i rcle
.
are : x
) length of
— ] For very flat arcs c of g l ies i h from chord where
’
di us a re
h = h ight of arc
. . .
,
e .
M A T ER I A LS .
M e t al s P o p e r t i e s f ,
r o .
Lbs p Fus i ng er
po i nts
.
cu in
806 F
. .
°
.
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 516
411 6 20
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 289 3 45 2
2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 25 67 8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 76
A l l oys
S t e r ro M e ta l (Tensi le strength lbs per q s
55 % Cu + 4 2 36 % Z + 1 7 7 % F + 0 1 % S + 0 8 3 % P W l fr am
. .
.
n e n o
O 37 5 % Cu
. . .
S + 9 8 04 % Al + 1 4 4 2 % Sh + o o3 8 W
. .
i l m
n u : n
M a g n al i m 2 to 25 7 Mg + 98 t to fusi ng
. . . . .
u 7 5 % A1 Sp g
: o
po int to Wi th 1 0 % Mg alloy has propert ies of rolled
. .
,
.
z inc : wi th those of bronze Pa r o n s M a n g a n ese B ro n z e 60 %

, ,
’
s :
Cu + 3 7 5 % Z + 1 5 % F + 0 7 5 % S + 0 0 1 % M + 0 0 1 % Pb (for sheets ) ;
.
n e n n
56 % Cu + 4 2 4 %
. . . . .
Z + l 25 % F + 0 75 % S + 0 5 % Al + 0 1 2 % M n e n n
( for sand cast i ngs ) lbs per q i z elast i c l i mi t
. . . . .
s a
lb : elongat ion i 6 reduct ion of area = 2 6 %
. . . .
,
s n
N i c k el V a n ad i m S t eel = (Carbon W i th 2 % N i
. .
- u
and V tens ile strength 90 000 lbs per i n : ncreas i ng V to
. ,
s i
W th 1 2 % N i and i ncrea i ng V
. . .
T S
. . V i , s
164 A PP E N D I X .
to rect square 1 channel angle and cruc i form secti ons

to
. , , , , , ,
The values bove g ven are for constant str sses due to a dead load P
a i e
For re ate i stresses

, .
:
take f tabul r values ;
e
( i ) oa l fluctuat i ng betwee n O
.
5 3
d + an , o a
P
l ‘ 0 0
(2 )
Fo r spri ng steel - " 000 unh rdened or (h ardened )
fl 5 ( ) a
Stre n g t h o f C yl i nde r A ccord i ng to Prof C H B en j am i n f the
y
s. 1
flanges f C 1 cyl i nder are unsupported the i n i t i al fracture wi ll be c i r
. . .
,
o n
the fl an es and w ill be caused by a r ssure much
. . ,
cu mf ti l e re n a n ea r g a
than p =2l l d A lso i f flanges are su ffi c iently braced y brackets t
. .
l
e ss + o
i nsure long itud i n l fr cture a cons iderable llowance ( y 5) m u t
'
. .
a a a sa s
made for bend ing and other acci dental stresses H ydraul c y l d
,
i c 1n e rs
under pressures above shoul d be made from i furn ce i ron or
.
lb s a r- a
ste l cast i ngs w ter w ill ooze through ord—i n r open gr i n C I wall
.
e as a a y -
a s
th ick (A Falkenau A m Bl ck 1 4
, , . .
<4 i n a
The th icknes t of the walls of a cyl i nder under i nter al press re
. . . . . . .
s. n u
may be found from the followi ng formula wh i ch i a s impl i fi cat—i on by t e
, ,
s
author of a rath er unw ieldy due to C B ach t = 0 4 2 pd (f p) where
.
,
o ne : +
d = di m of cyl i nder and f allowable stress i n the m t r al employed (to

. .
, ,
-
a p
s a e i
be used only when
.
V alues of f C and bron ze t ( d even for st ong o an r

i ron ) ; phosp hor bron ze to cast steel 1 4 200 to (for
.
,
'
-
Mannesmann tubes f M art i n steel to to

, ,
W I
,
o
t and d i i p and f i lbs per sq i
.
, .
,
n n n n
Cot t e r J o i n t s (W I and M ach i nery Steel ) D iam of rod d i
.
, , . . .
s en
l g d to D ( = 1 3 3 d) i socket Socket thi cknes s of
. . .
, ,
ar e n
key (steel ) = 0 25D ; mid depth of key E nds f socket
.
-
o
and rod should extend fih to 4h beyond key slots 1 2 5d average )
.
,
F l y W h eels Safe V el o c i t i es f V eloc i ty i ft per

.
, .
- , or . n . se c .
where = f t f s fety n= £fi i f in t used w =

of materi al and f = t l stress f materi i
y s a c or o a e c en c o o
wt of 1 cu
, ,
. . in . , ¢ en s1 e o a
In wooden r i ms = 2 o b t t h segments bre k jo i nts i n a sembli ng a u as e a s

the strength i reduced one half maki n really equal t 4 0 Steel ri ms
,
s - g a o are
made up from segments r i veted t gether and t h usual fa tor 1 0 i si m i
, .
o e c s
l l y i ncreased to 2 0 Usi ng above values and consider i ng wheels
.
,
ar as
sol id v= 1 For c st iron r ims n= 0 25 for fl g jo i nts between rms
.
a -
an e- a
for pad jo ints (e ch m= hav ing a fl t enlarged f ce on i t end to
, , .
,
-
a ar a a s
wh ich im sect ions r bolted ) O S i heavy th i ck r immed b l nce wheels
- a re n -
a a -
w i th joi nts re i nforced by steel li nks whi ch are shr n k (W H B oehm

, .
,
u on
i n I s r c E gi
. . .
,
n u i g) an e n n eer n .
R i v eted J o i n ts General Formul as (W M B arnard ) . . . . .
”1
2 's + fi m
fs
f
’
20 tf )
Efi f c i ency of j i t = l o n
In the above = N of r i vets i s ingle she r i n a un i t str i p e u l t the
71 o n a q a o
max pi tch (where rows have d iff erent pi tches ) d m = N of r i vets sim i
.
an o
m double sh ear f and f are respect i vely strengths i n s i ngle d
.
, .
l l
ar
’
an
dou l shea
.
e r
é(bld lrl i vet

fl i ) var i es from for s ingle ri vet i ng punched h oles to
.
ro n -
i ng dr il led holes (pu ched h oles ) t

.
for ou e- f n o
d holes ) to
,
to
. .
'
2g% 7 f
, r1 e .
s a
f ( for l jo i nt ) and (for butt jo i nt ) ; f ap - -
(lap )
, c
d (b t t ) an u
H el i c al Spri n g s o f P h osph o r B ro n z e wi ll w i thstand the ct i on of
.
- a
sal t water For w up to i i d i am
- formula on pages 2 3 and 2 4
1 re n use s
taki ng and G lson
. . .
,
(H R i A m M h 7 —19 . .
, . ac ,
A PP E N D I X .
o e n t o f I n e rt i a The follow i ng g aph ic method i i extended

M m r s n
use among desi gners f structur l ste l
.
o a e
d area f sect ion A (Fig 3 8) i nto 1 0 or more str i ps p rall el to

.
D 1 v1 e o a
d rect i on f neutral ax is des i red and set ff l ngths r present i ng thei r
.
i o o e e
respect i v areas the polar d i gr m at t h l ft
,
e 01 1 2 2 3
on m a a e e as n
These str i p areas are to be cons idered p r llel forc s wh ich t at the ir
, , , , .
as a a e ac
respect ive centers f=grav i ty i nd ic ted by the sm ll c i rcles S t fi o as a a e o
pole 0 mak i ng OB § A and draw 0 0 0 1 0 2 D ra w KO||0 0
.
A t J the i nter ect ion of

, , , . , ,
12 02 l g d g m wi t L ||O c o s1 n 1a ra n n n s
L and O draw J X w h h i the neutral ax i s f the sect i on Fi nd the
,
.
n , , 1c s o .
FI G . 38 .
area f the equi l i bri um polygon A then M oment f Inert i a f Sect i on

o o o
rea A X (The greater the num ber f str i ps the more accurate
, ‘, ,
a A ar e a o
the resul ts obtai ned )
1 .
,
La m i ate d S p r in g For nearly flat spr i ngs Deflection A = W1

.
s. 3
n +
4 4 60 bt (appro ) but f exact results as true buf fi ng as f or
,
n 3 x f di or or or
nary spri ngs D fl t i = d [1 — c (5c = where l = l gt h of
, , ,
e ec on en
arc of t p pla t e = m b b and t wi dt h and th i ckness ( ll i i nches )
,
c ca er , - a n
of plates and W = l d i tons (H E W i mp i E gi r L
o , ,
u =N o oa n e r s, n n ee on
don 9—1 5
. .
.
, .
,
Stre n g t h o f Fo r g ed R i n g (for ho i st i ng Cons ider the

.
s su s
pended r ing to be di v i ded i nto t w equ l parts by a vert pl ne 5 f total
,
o a a o
l oad W act ing each h lf Employ formula for combi ned tens ion and
.
,
, on a .
bendi ng (page 2 9) — where W = Ig = d 4 1
C
l
,
a 7r
2+
,
where D = i t l d i am f r i ng and d = di m of i ron used

n er n a = 1 6 for W I o a c
steel = d 3 2 Th i s reduces to f d wh ich

. .
. . ,
or s 3 + i : 3 n
f = 5 000 to lbs per sq i for safe tens ile stress ( llowing for sud
, 7r .
,
n a
de ly appl ied load and e ffi c iency f weld ) W i lbs d d D i i any
, . . .
,
a o n an n n
t w of wh i ch be i ng assumed t h th i rd may be der i—ved from formula
.
, .
,
.
,
o e
A formula di scussed i ri g ( L ndon ) 5 2 9 and a r ived t
.
,
E gi n n nee n o r a
through a difi t method i f d
,
62 W D
'
3
e r en s:
C o l mn E ler Fo r m l as S fe lo d W = E 1 I where =
, , , .
‘
’ 2 + s o
u s. u s u a a cz s
for one fi xed and one f ee end = 1 f both ends free load guided =2
.
r ,
or , ,
166 A PP EN D I X
for one fi xe d end and one free end -w i th load n ded = 4 f both en ds
fi xed load gui ded - safet factor 5 to 6 for a l and steel 8 or more
, , or
a
:
for C l and 1 0 f fi T h above form la should not be used where l

.
. ,
or r e u
- le ngt h i n less than for I and steel or less t an 1 2d for
.
W
.
. . ,
i i 2 5d h
(J l and woo ) where d = di m t
( n s
or smaller rectangular d m i of
. . . .
r a e er 1 e ns o n
cr ect ion i n i n
.
oss-s
re inforced concrete columns = = 1 0 and
.
F or 1 - c a
whe e E - modulus for concre t e = cross t l c ross
, , ,
r t t a co n cre e -
se c 1 on + s ee
ect ion b E“
c ,
s
For shorter bars subjected to t hrust the f ll wmg formula due to ,
,
o o
Grashof should be employed
, ,
, :
TV = m load i n l b = k I ax . s . c a
+
whe e - sect ional area f bar i n q i ; k = 1 2 000 for steel

r a for o s n
for steel and for W I ; = 1 for bar free at both
.
.
.
W C c
ends onnect ing rod ) = 4 for bar fi ed at both ends For connect i ng
. . .
c - x
rods take but 7 5 % of the above values f k
.
,
or
C olla p e o f T bes (Lap welded Bessemer st el 3 t 1 0 i i n d i am )
.
s u - e o n
. ,
. .
where
when l > 6d A safety factor of from 3 to 6 should be introduced i t s i ze s
be i ng accord i ng t the risk at stake t l ife and property (R T Stewart

.
,
o o
A S M B M y
. . .
.
. . . .
. a .
FI G . 39 .
T o i on n d B e n di n g (see also page

rs A ccordi ng ta B ach E qu i v o ,
aient Bendi ng M m t = 0 3 58 m + 0 re = l g for o en

for
. a
W I
,
C n k ed S h aft Let b di (Fig 39 ) be a hori zontal cranked shaft

. .
,
ra s. a oa
The turn i ng for e P (hav i ng a moment M due to wt f fly wheel at and
.
.
c o - a
w ua i to P ) acts at cen t er ( ) f cra k pi i the d i ect ion i ndi cated

, .
r e o n -
n n r
of fl y wheel (W) acts vert i cally downward at Neglect i ng end
.
i -
a
t herust
ght
.
B mg t at center b (upward ) = P
ea r
Pk
re a c 1 o n
1 +1
,
1 5
"
W0 Pb
f (downward —
) P 2
—
m m +
end ing— and Tw ist= i ng M oments at b E m = Wg T m = P at c E m ==

B : r
'
W (m + a) P p T m P ; at d B m = P at B m = P k T m
, , ,
t r ,n , c,
at (any po nt on throw ) the moments P and P f are ea h 2
, , , ,
' °
at 1 ex x c
r solved i nto moments i and also perpend i cular to the cross section and
2
e n -
t hen comb i ned The component i the pl ane f cross sect ion gi ve T m and .
n o -
s
1 68 A PP EN D I X .
E N ER G Y
T R A NS M I SS I O N O F P O W E R AN D T HE .
Sc e w f Po we r T a n s m i ss i o n (Screw Presses
r s or Square r -
th eads are preferable to V threads and the moment t ra se load W

,
r ,
o i
- W,
wh ere - mean rad i s of thread p = p itch and
r u of fr i ct i on b e
tween nut= and screw — Let = N of threads i nut the projec t ed area
, ,
n o n
of wh i h 0 78 54 (d d ) and —d ) where d and d
. .
,
2 2 2
c n
are root and outer diams of thread and p = li w b l press re in l b per
.
2 . 2 , , z
a o a e u s
n of projec ed area whe e b b i g spe d ft p
. .
,
sq i. . t V V = , , r ru n e in . er
mi and
n V when V = 4 00 ) Th se valu s f p are -
e e o
for W i for steel mul t iply same by
)
= o o7 for heavy mac h ne
. .
i n
i l and graph i t e i equal vols for lard l for heavy mach ne
. .
,
,
o n .
-
Oi , i -r
,
E ffi ie cy Let = p it h angle at rad i us r (tan

c n : a =p and c a
angle of fr i ct ion (tan Then ffi i = tan tan ( or

,
c en c a +
order that load m y not over i

e a
max fl make = 4 s
, ,
’
°
e I a n a u a
mu t be less than and the effi c i ency c nnot then exceed

. .
,
s a
P i s to n -B o d s C o n n e c t i n g R o d s E c e t r i c -R d s ,
-
, c n o .
E uler s formula for compress ion (both ends free ) i P = E I —l where

'
2 z- 2
s 1r
P = t t l press re or load i lbs of rod — 6 4 for

.
o a l =l g t
u h i i (I = d n en n n 7r
4 z
c ircular sect ions ; I = b b 1 2 for rectangular sect ions )

. .
,
3 +
Subst itut ing i formula i ntrod=uc ing a factor —f safety and t k ing E =
.
n o 8, a
for W l forg i ngs P 2 9 000 000 d 2 1 for c ircular sect ions
,
4 -z 2
8
and P = 23 800— OOOb h l where d = d i m i i b and b = b d t h and
. .
, , , ,
3 -
s 2, a r ea
n n
he=ight i i d b and h be i ng taken at m id length For p iston ro s
.
, ,
.
,
n n - -
d
1 1 when load fl uctua t—e between P and O; = 1 5 t 2 2 when load
.
, , , . ,
a 8 t o s 8 o
fluctuates between + P and P (For very large hori zontal engi nes the
deflect ion of rod due to wei ght of rod and p iston should be cons idered
.
d i t sho l d not exceed in ) For eccentri c rods = 4o f connect ,
-
an u a or
i g rods = 2 5 and 1 5 respect i vely f c i rcul r and rectangular sect i ons
:
.
,
n - a or a
h at m i d l 2 b (he i ghts at crank and cyl d = 1 2 h and
.
g t h = l 75b t -
en o en s
d tape rs t 0 8d at crank end and to 0 7d t 0 75d at cyl end )
- .
,
0 8h o o
For very l w speeds (c =rc sect on ) = 3 3 ; for sudden changes i di rect ion
. .
.
,
. .
.
o 1 i e n
of P (as i pumps ) 4 o to 6 0 For h i gh speeds as i locomot i ves
.
n a n
rect sect ons 6 6 to 3 3 (See als Columns E ul er s formul as
. .
,
( i ) h = 2b = , s . o ,
’
,
an e t )
C o n n e c t i n g R d E n ds (M ari ne type rod formed w i th a T —end brasses
.
- o
be i ng held to T by bolts and cap ) Diam f e ch bolt at bottom of thread
, ,
. . o a
where P = § max press re p is t on i l b Th i ckness of

.
u on n s
cap and T end f rod t = 1 4d Th ese values of d and t are for W I ;
.
on o
for steel take 90 % f same
, . . . .
o
P i s t on R i gs R d al depth h = 0 03 3d when bored c ncentri cally
.
- n a i o
= 0 04 d oppos te i mt when bored eccentr i ca l ly (taper i ng to 0 7 h at end )
. . .
.
,
i o s
W idt h = 2 h ; overlap f d = 0 1 d where d = di m of cyl
. . .
o en s .
, a . .
S t ffi n B o xe
u Inner di am f- s. to 1 ) d o V
where d = i m of rod
.
,
a
Pe d e ta l s (d = h f t di am l = l n t h f brass both i n Di am
.
s s a e g o
of bolts for ba e and i ; di st bet cen t ers of cap bol ts
.
, . .
s a -
do b se b l t = 3 5d l 7 5 i w idth of d t l = 0 7 2l
. .
a -
o s 4 n pe es a
Thi ckn sses cap 0 37 5d ; base pla t e O 2 5d + 0 1 2 5 ; metal around cap
. .
. .
e : - ia
bolts and brasses 1 8d + 0 09 i ( if d < 7 i use 4 bolts each for base
. . . .
,
n n
and cap ) B rasses th ic k ness at i ; do at des
.
, . . . .
. : n . .
,
ai ,
0 06d + 0 0 9 i n
J o u r n l B ea i n g s
. . .
a r
A llowable pressures (p ) per q i n f p j t d area (l
.
) s o ro ec e :
J ournal B ear ng
. .
p i
Cru mble steel (hardened ) Cruc i ble steel
. . .
lb s
(hardened ) B ronze
.
(sof t)
A PPEN D I X .
ou rnal J .
W rought i ron po li shed

W I orC I
,
C I bronze or
W I (water lubr i cat i on ) Li gnum V i ta
. .
. . e
Crank p i n - 900
55 0
Cross head pm -
700
0 0
M ai n be ri ngs a 200 — 3 50
Cra k and cross head p ins locomot ives resp
,
-
n
Crank pi for punch and shears and up
.
, ,
-
n
(B ach )
,
M ai n rods of locomot i ve s
Freight car axles

,
3 50
i
-
Passenger car axles i l = 1 8d ,
- 300
Neck beari ngs f sheet mi ll rolls o
,
-
Soc of W P D
.
(E g
’
n rs . . a .
, ec .
M ai n bear i ngs of engi nes c

r bb ng surface n ft per sec 5 00 for vert i cal
,
= l f i i =
[ v ve ;
o u c
engi nes = 3 75 f hor i zont l = (E dwi n R eynolds ”
. . .
or a
to lbs ft per m n
. .
,
V
p < 5 0 000 ; p = 3 0 8 0 ; V 4 00 t i ; l = 3d . o . .
A llowance i di am f il —fil m = 0 00 1 (d + l ) i
n f in Al lowance =
or o n or
E lec C Pr ct i ce )
. . . .
i f d> 5 i (G n or n en o a
T hrust beari ngs W th loads up t lbs per

. . . . . .
p V -= 4 0 000 t : o i o
f projected collar area
, .
s q i n o
W orm gears p V = 6 0 000 t max e ffi ciency the hi gher value
. . .
- f : o or
h igh v lues f V and where hel i x angle = 2 0 ; worm f hardened steel
,
.
,
°
for a o o
wheel of phosphor bronze F elect i c elevator work V = 6OO t ft
, ,
-
or r -
o
per m
. .
in
Large shaft bear i ngs tested by the W est i ngh ouse E M over runs
.
f 7 hours yi elded the follow i ng unusually h i gh values f sh ft

. .
o pV 9 i or : n a
-
to shaft (p 1 4 0 to
,
.
15 i t = - n o
Lower values f each si ze were when heavy machi ne il was used h i gher
.
,
or o
values wi th paraff n i l (A S M E Dec
,
i o
F i c t i o n C o u p l i g (C Shaft di m = d ; hub di m = 2 d ; depth
. . . . .
r n s a a
of g = i d ; wi dth of groove = } d ; wi dth f fr i ct i on cone f
. . .
= 1 dz
r oo v e § o -
a ce s
t hi l c f wheel w b = § d ; angle between shaft and cone faces = 4
n e ss o e s
°
to 1a
Cl a w C o p l i n g (C Di am
u f both claws D = 2 1 d + 2 i ; d iam s o n
f fi xed i ; length f fi xed depth f
. . . . .
,
o i n o n o
re esses i n both ; length f fi xed
.
c i i ; n o a
length f sl id i g ( f d i am D throughout length ) ; depth
. .
o i n n o
of groove mi dway between end and i ; wi dth
. .
n
O 5d + 0 5 i n (d = di m of shaft )
.
,
a
R lle B e r in g heavi ly loaded slow r nn i ng journals P ==
. . . . .
o r F a s. or -
u
2 1 00 l d for hardened steel rollers (I g Taschenb ch )
. , ,
n -
n u
The coeffi c i ent f fri ct ion f roller bear i ngs i from f that
.
, .
t o or s o o
o f pla i n bear i ngs (C H B enjam i n Mach i nery O ct
M o sberg be r i ngs (rollers con fi ned ri gi dly as poss i ble i a c ge ) S fe
. . .
; ,
.
s a n a : a
load i l b = ld where = 250 f rollers up to i i d i am ( = 3 00 t 3 50
n s cn c or n c o
for larger rollers ) = I (generally ) X l ft di m D For D up t 1 2 i
,
. . .
s ia a o n
d iam f roller d o l 04 D ; above 1 2 i d = 1 i t 1 1 i ( ppro )
. . . .
o n o ; n 71 a x
for d < 1 i i ; = 90 when d > 1 } i Take nearest
. . .
,
27 n n n
even number
. .
B all B e a i n g allowable load ball i n lbs P = d V alues

.
M r s. ax o n on e c
9
f c For C I balls bet w en t w planes = 3 5 : steel b ll s plane con i

. .
, .
o : e o c a on
cal cyl indr=i cal surfa es = 7 00 to steel balls i races whose rad ius
.
, ,
or c c n
of A bove values f con ti nuous
, .
t §d
cu rv a u r e = 1 4OO t c ; o or use
nterm ttent lower v lu s gi ven (d = di m of b ll i in )
, ,
for i = t wi i u se c ce a e a a n
Total all owable lo d on f b lls (B h and S t ib k )
. .
a o a ac r ec
A ccord ng to C C é fl the least
. .
g i ( L I d t E l d iq 7 — 25 au
'
’
n us r i e
'
e r ue,
power i l t fri ct on when where D = i nner di m
.
s os in i i a a
f race al l owable load i n lbs f an annu l ar bear i ng P =
.
, .
M
o
o in in ax or
84 000D — where
. . .
,
,
z
For a 2 p i t bear i ng the c of fr ict i on ; = -

O n for 3 p i nt co -
0
to for 4 pm t 0 ms to ( wh ich i no be tter than a p l i n
, ,
1 ,
- n s a
The fr ict i on loss i constant up to l i near speeds of ft per
,
h i g)
ear n s
m i n A b ve r p m centr ifugal force causes the ball s to sl i de on
. .
o
the shaft i nst ad of roll i ng
. . . .
e
B e v el Gea i n 0 = angle between h f t = + B where and B are
.
r s a s a a
angles made by t shafts-and elements the i r respect i ve p i tch cone
,
i ie n s
( for larger gea ) L t 1 80 — 0 and = angle to be added r t and e

°
o a
to g ve face a ngles of gears Then i f
r
tan cot
a .
,
p i fl =
[ 0 + (R i r + r + s n
tan cot
,
i f 0 t fi = N ; i f an — n + = --
i si n r a
0 tan r i 19 Face= gl s = + r and [9 + for l arger and
s
s n 4 sa a
smal er ears respect i vely D D + D = ; d = d + D fl (D d ==
a
z cos a 2 cos
outs i de i ams ; D d i tch di m= D w k i g de pth of tooth ; R =
, , .
.
a sx or n r
p i tch rad ii N of teeth Cap tal let t ers for l a ger
g
0
.
,
N u o i r
gear )
.
.
, .
The cutter for larger gear sho ld be the proper one to cut N teeth
.
u
whe N = N ; for s maller gear the to cut t eeth where
,
n: , + cos a , one n, ,
n,
n + cos 9
Sp i ral Ge a Let angle t hat t eeth make w i th a l i ne p rallel to axi s
, .
rs. a
of gear = 0 Then— normal pi tch = p cos ? (where = c ircumferent ial r
”
t
”
p i tch ) and p 0 Le t P d = di m t l p i tch = No f teeth i

.
,
r z- cos a e ra o n a
spur gear of p i tch rad i us r and N = No of teeth i a spi r l of p i tch
.
, , .
n a
rad i us r Then N = 2 P d and N = 2 P d 0 Pi tch di am [gear P d cos 0;
-
, , .
r r cos ,+
outside d iam = pi tch di am + ,
. . .
, ,
The teeth of spi ral ge r should be cut w i th a spur gear cutter whi ch i
. .
a -
s
correct for N teeth where N = (N f t eeth i sp ir l g ) 0 o o n a ea r + cos’
and page 0) and (90 respect ively
2 g
—
, . .
°
r r (
W o r m Gea rs I nvolut gears f more than 27 t eeth and havi ng d
, .
- e o a
denda f y ield favorable resul ts for pi tches not exceedi ng
. ,
o
A llowable pressure on teeth P (i where b = widt h of to th i n o n
and p = p i tch i i n
,
i a n
= 2 50 to 4 00 f cast i ron 700 for phosphor bronze whe l and
,
. .
c t or -
o -
e
h ardened steel screw ) -
W orms whose thread s m ke an angle > 1 2 5 wi th a normal t ax i s of

.
°
a o
worm generally run well and are durable (H alsey )
.
D iam f worm wheel at

. .
o f i o o
worm
.
in in
Po we r Tra n m i tt e d b y W o m Ge a i n g
.
s f r - r or
s i ngle thread where =pi t h of t t h i worm w eel i i F = H P trans
.
p=
’
c ee n n a
For = — 1 05 ; f
, . . .
,
mi t t d e d N = ,
m anF>3 H P = 4 74 b = 1 1 3 r . . . . .
, a .
, , c ox
F <3 H P = 22 = 25 =2 a c
For double treble and quadruple threads take 2 N 3 N 4 N respect i ve ]
. . , .
for denom i nator f formula Greatest pi tch d i am of worm d = i 7 2p

, . , , ,
-z
o
for s i ngle thread For double treble or qu d threads mult i ply formul a
. .
, .
a
value f d for s i ngle thre d by 2 3 The foregoi ng i for fi ni hed
.
, , .
o 4 a or s s
worms and gears ; i f rough cast teeth are used mult iply values f p and 1
, , .
o (
obtai ned from formulas by and ( Der i ved from
, ,
p ti l re s ec ve v
f O tto Gruson stated by W H R eburn A m M h
.
C
p
4 1g
ra
j 0eg
t ce o as a ac
. .
, , .
,
. .
— ’
Fl at L i n k D i v i n g C h a i n (Steel ) Load i n l b = P ; end d i m f

- r s a o
d iam of pi bet for
. . .
pi n, n
small s i zes (r ngi ng to 1 1 2d for large s i zes ) ; w idth of li k = 2 5d ; length
. .
a n
of pi bet (for d < l (for d >
. .
n i 2 6 2d i n or n.
length c to c of i ; over all length of li nk =
. . .
1 = n -
No of lates {(H each s ide )

, . . .
4 4d + 0 1 6 i n on :
W hen P = up to
. .
.
,
.
b t t )
g
s .
1 : i
T i ckness of each
h
—i P + 2 9 ’
( D er i ved from data a chai n extens ively us d i Germany ) on e n

P ul leys (C 1 ) W idth of face 6) = ( 1 1 X b l t w idth ) + 0 4 i ; th i ck
.
e n
ness of im at f pulley ) + 0 1 2 i Crowni ng di am
.
.
, . .
r o . n . : .
1 72 A PE P NDI X .
T A N D T H E ST E A M -E NG IN E
H EA .
P pe r t i es o f Satu r ted Ste a m (below A tmos P ss re )

ro a re u .
abs .
Su Stea m A ccord i ng to Li d (Z V D I O ct 2 8 05 )
er h e a t ed n e
’
the V l w may be expressed as where

. ,
. . . .
, .
,
a = lb : s
pressure per sq i ft i 1 lb at the pressure p and = solute
.
= n v cu n t a
temperature i degs F A formula wh i ch expresses the results of h i
. .
, . . . .
n .
s
exper i ments to determ i ne k i s p and p : r
as above Herr B erner (Z V D I 9—2 sta t es that Li nde s v lues ’

a
for f are con fi rmed by h i w observat ions those of Lorenz bei ng from
. .
,
. .
or s o n
h igh H further states that the cost f lubri cat ion i
,
20 t 25 % t
o oo e o s
sl ightly hi gher t h wh saturated steam i used that t h resistance to
,
an t en s e
fl w i a superheater f smooth p i pe and that the
,
o n o
res istance f a valve ful ly open i equal to the res i stance f about 55 ft of
,
o s o
smooth pi pe The l i t f fl w i gi p— g m y be hi gh
.
'
v e oc o o n en ne assa es a as as
ft per mi (A tseu Z V D I 1 1 25
.
,
n rn
Co V a lve D a s h Po t D i am c l d i am where
.
, ,
. . . . .
li r ss f l =
s, - s. o v a ve c
= 0 25 for valve h i gh pressure cyl l w pres D ash pot
. . . ,
c f on - or o - -
d iameters are about f the d i ams of the i r respect i ve valves

. . .
o
S t e a m C o n m pt i o n o f C o mp ou n d E n gi n e h i gh grade t full load
. .
su s, - s
lbs per k i lowatt hou lbs per H P h ) at 1 7 0 lbs gau
,
-
r
3?
r
pr ssure 90 F superheat and 2 6 i n vacuum (A verages by S t e vens 5
. . .
- . .
°
e
H obart P w r Dec
.
, ,
. .
o e
Pr i m e M o v e r f o Po we r Pl a n t In a h i gh g ade power lan t abou t
, , .
s r s. -
r
f the heat un i ts i n a pound of o l are del i vered to the
o bars i c a u s- n
the form of electr i ci ty It i poss i ble to rai se t h is thermal e ffi ci ency to s
about (w i th steam turb i nes to by reduc i ng the loss s due to - e
the stack boi ler rad i at ion and le kage and by us i ng superhe ted st e am a a
W here the load factor exceeds econom i zers shoul d be used A ux il
, , , .
should be steam dr i ven with exhaust i nto he ter The fri t ion loss
.
i i
a r es - a c
of a H P engi ne recently tested w f t h H P gen rated
, .
as o e e
Large gas engi nes can convert about 2 4 % of the ene gy f coal i n t electri c
. . .
-
r o o
energy the ch ief objec t i on to thei r use be i ng wi th regard to overlo ds a
Th s object ion may be overcome by a su gested comb i nat i on f g en gi nes
. .
i g o as-
and steam turbi nes (ut il i z i ng the wa t e heat of the g engi nes t h p
-
s a s- in e ro
duct on of steam ) wh i ch would yi eld an average thermal effi ci ency of
i
Comparat ve cost of m i ntenance and operati on of plants per k w h
,
i a - r
.
Steam S t e am Ga f fi tg
g
fi s
n ee
eng ines turb nes en g nes bi nes . i . i .

l
M a i ntenance and O perat i on 1 00

.
80 51
R lat i ve Investment
e 1 00 83 1 00 91
A P E N DI X P
’
e S t eam E n gin e M ar i n - s.
Th S c e w P ope l l e The p i tch of a screw i the di stance whi ch any

e r r r. s
po i nt i a blad e W ll dvance i the d i rect ion f the shaft axi s dur i n
n i a n o or
one revolut ion the p mt be ng assumed t move around the axi s an o i o
w i thout sl p Prope llers are generally prov ided w i th four blades (naval
,
“ "
i
vessels and small h gh speed boats W th three ) The blades are generall y
.
-
i i
i ncl i ned backwa d from the vert cal from 8 to 20 (accord i ng to the
.
° °
r i
i order t throw the water t the rear and to i ncrease the effi ci ency
n o o
The i di t d t h t f screw n ca e where N = ru s o
,
and P p t h feet The mechani c l effi ci ency f the shaf t trans

,
. _
z
i c in a o
mi ssi on var es from eng nes f about 5 00 H P up t large
.
f i f or i o o or
ones The mechan i cal effi ci ency f the w = U f l work f axi al
. .
o scr e se u o
thrust —Shaft performance = 0 6 to for best condi t i ons D i m f
.
s .
. a . o
P vari es from 0 9D to 1 5D Speed V i s mea u ed i n s r

knots (1 knot ft per
. . .
= 6 , 080 .
V K K
Cargo B oats ,
. . .
8—1 3 1 7—1 9 19 1 5 -
Pa senger and Ma il B oats

, .
s 1 3 —1 7 19 5 15
very fi li nes
,
D o 1 7—2 2 2 1 —2 3 9
ne
N v l V essels
.
, ,
a 1 6—2 2
a 21 7
Torpedo B oats
,
2 0—2 6 25 7 6 ,
The A pparent Sli p (i per cent ) S = (C V ) 1 00 C wh ere n +

2 to + 8 f slow fre ghters = 8 to 1 5 f passenger and
,
S=
.
-
or i or
i l steamers = 1 3 t naval vessels = 2 0 t 2 7 f small fi li ned
,
20 f o or o or n e-
gats
ia , , ,
o
Stren t h of B lades —The i ndi cated thrust T (d i v ided by t h number f
.
: e o
blades acts at a di stance 0 35D from the c nter f sh ft and causes a . e o a
b nd i ng moment E m E m %
e (O 3 SD — di stance from c f shaft to root of . . . o
blade ) F a parabol i c segment l cross sect ion (length l th i ckness h)

or a -
obl i que to ax i s the M oment f R i t and consequently

. .
= 0 0 76 1h o e s s a n ce 2
per sq i = 7 800 f ca t steel

, .
,
f ( f ) i lb sa e n s n or s
for bron ze for C I
. . .
, ,
Th i ckness f blades at ti ps = 0 25 t in f bronze and to in

, . .
o o or
C I accord i ng to s i ze f the screw
. .
, .
for o
I di ca t e d H e Po w e of E n g i n e
. .
.
,
n or s - r s.
where = of l w pressure cyl i sq i pm the mean e ffect ive pres
a are a o n n
sure depends the absolute bo i ler pressure p and also the number f
. . .
,
, on , on o
ex p an S i on s :
steam adm i tted i nto h p cyl v ol . of . . .
l p cyl l h p cyl vol . . . vo . + . . .
I has the follow i ng v alues at ord i na y sp eds

t r e :
Com p und E ngi nes

o t (at h i gher speeds
- to o
Tri ple Expans ion
, ,
Q uadruple Expan on
,
- si ,
Total Num ber of E xpansi ons Comp und small boats 5 to 6 : o

do fre i ghters 7 t 8 Tr i ple E xpans i on torpedo boats 5 to 7 ; do nav l
, .
o - a
vessels 6 5 to 8 ; do express and fre i ht steamers 8 to 1 0 Q uad r ple
, .
, ,
u
m express steamers 1 0 ; d ig h t steamers 1 1 t o 1 3 Cut fi
, . .
, , .
E p x a ns n, o re -
o
i n h gh press cyl at about stroke stroke for slow boats )
.
, ,
i - is
P i t on S p e e d a n d R e v
.
s p M in s. er
Speed ft per mi R P M n .
Torpedo B oats
. . .
,
1 000—1 2 00 3 00—400
A rmored V essels
. ,
800 1 00 1 50 -
E xpress Steamers
,
800 950 7 5 95
Large Passenger Steam rs
.
7 00 900 70 90 e
Fre ght
.
7 00 800 7 0 85 i
95—1 30
‘
600 75 0
p a e nger 400 6 00 1 50 2 00 ss -
Stea m V el o c i t i es (i t per Mai n team p i pes s -
steam h p cyl ntermed a t e cyl

. ,
i i
l p y 7 530—8 500 For exhaust take 80 % of above valu s For sm all

a ss s: . . .
,
c e
engi nes the e veloc i t i es may be i ncreased
. .
.
s
d
Cyl i n d e s Th ckness f walls (c st ron ) 1 5 1 20 + 1 0 + 04r i o a i tu
whe e p - gauge pre sure i n l b per q i n at h p cyl and —d iam of

. .
,
r s s s
h cyl i n i n (Th is value of t i for h p cyl wi th or W thout j acket
. . . . .
, .
.
s i
dalso for i ntermed iate d l p cyl l i n i ngs Cy h d wi thout l i n i gs
. ) . . . . .
an an n ers n
should be th i cker to allow =for
. . . .
i n
Th i ckness of yli d h d t t (for cast ron h ad bb d) = 0 6t to
.
c n er ea i e ri e
0 65t for cast s t eel D am of cyl head studs - t : pi tch of t d = 3t
, , .
O
i -
s u s
and for h i gh i nt rmed i ate and low cyl nders respe ti ly
.
. . .
.
e re ssu re i c ve
Th i ckness of l he d flan = 1 2 t widt = 2 6t t 3 3L
, , .
cy -
a o
R el ief valves (f both hea ) should have a
. .
, . .
l or 8
of (h igh i ntermed i ate low pressu e V alves h open at about
, y,
- r o
s
above p
. ,
8 lb s
P i sto n s (Cas t steel coned concave toward crank ) Th ckness near
. .
. , . . i
center t th i ckness near i m = 0 5t to 0 7 L r

respect i vely for h i and l pres cy ls
,
. .
= 0 24 i
c i n in a
pressure i l b per q i for h p <bo i ler pressure
. .
,
.
, .
, , .
, . . . .
p = b il o er 45 > n s s n
for i ntermed iate c pressure for l p cyl For forged steel
. . . .
take of above m l value for t

. . .
Pi to
or u a
R ods (Med i um hard steel end tapered and fa tened t head
.
s u- . s o
by nut ) A rea at root of thread i n q i n (a rea of h p cyl i n q i )
.
s .
s n
(For naval vessels and torpedo boats subst i tute and

. . . . . . .
ti l y for Full sect ion of rod beyond t p = 2 ><

re s c ve a er a rea
at root thread 0
C o n e c t i n g R ods Length = (2 to 2 25 ) X t k D iam at p iston
.
n - s ro e
d = di m of p iston d appro ; d i am at cra k
. . . .
en a t l 4) x -
ro x n o
d i am of p iston rod accord i ng t leng th
. .
, . .
-
o
B e r i n gs The crank bear i ng i l i ned w i th wh ite metal of th i ckness =
.
, .
a s a
(0 0 2 5 X di m of bear i ng ) Th i ckness of cast steel be r i ng
.
i a p n -
a ca
at the m iddle = (0 1 7 to O 2 4 ) X di m f be ri n Sh ft beari ng th i ck
. . .
a o a g a :
ness (cast bronze
. . . .
i ; f i n . or , n .
i
Th i ckness of whi te met l li ni ng = (0 2 —3— i5 i d = h f t d i am i n i n -
a .
; n . s a . .
16 Tm
C a n k S h f t (forged s t eel ) d
r -
I
d
where
a d outer
s : 3
f
(
;
I
d‘
di am f shaft i n i n o d i am i case of a hollow shaft ) T m = n
turni ng moment i n i nch
. .
.
,
fw ( average ) i lbs per sq i = 6 600 for torped o for

n n
naval vessels for mail steamers for fre i gh t e s (m and
, ,
. . .
r ax
m i n v lues are equal t average
, , .
a o
C a n k T h o w s O tl i ne descri bed i part by c i rcles (of di m = 2d)
.
r - r u n a
from centers = f shaft and crank pi connec t ed wi th fil l t i g curves of
. .
o - n, e n
ra dii = d (d di m of shaft ) Th i ckness of t h w = 0 6d t 0 7d T h a ro s o e
sh ft i enlarged { f i ts di m i n the throw Thi ckness of flang s on
. . . . . .
a s o a
—
e
h f t = 0 2 5 d to 0 2 8d L n th bear n d a of shaft = 1 4 to
a . .
s a g f i g i m e o s
for t p d boats = l 1 to naval ves els = O 9 t for other
. . . , .
ci r fe o or s o
vesse l
.
, , .
8
S f a ce C o n de e Cool ing surface i n sq ft requ i red per
.
ur n s rs.
Compou d 5 to 6 ; tr iple expans ion 5 : qu druple expans i on to
. .
n t -
o a -
tor edo boats 26 to 3 2 (The lower values gi ven are for naval
, , ,
p v es
sels ) Condenser tubes f br ss t i nned i ns i de and out i to f i n out
, .
are o a
s i de d i am and about th i ck
.
.
, , .
i n
A i -P m p s f S u fa ce C o n de n s e r (S i ngle act i ng )
. . .
r u V l m = > or< r s -
o u e c
vol of=l p y l = to f for compound ; = to for tr i ple p
.
' ‘
c 3 -e x an
s ion : J to f for quadr p l e exp nsion For i njector condensers
. . . .
rt , go 9.
u - a
x
l of l
, .
,
t }) X o yl vo 0 c
S f ce C on de n e o f H i g h E ffi i e n y B y p s ng the condens ng
. . . .
ur a s rs c c as i i
wat r several t imes t h h the tubes ( rr nged i groups ) and by p
.
e ro u g a a n ro
vi di g for the thorou h dr i n e of the water of conde nsat i on th t
,
n g a ag so a
the tu bes are not cont i nually s bjected to shower of wat er parti cle wh i ch u s s
1 76 A P PEN D I X
may be re l i d The approx i mate fuel lo
a (i n p cent
ze d t o in m ss er ue co
ombus on — cent by v lume of where 1 3
.
p l t
e e t i c - OA U l o
temp of chi mney gases an t - t m of i enter ng the furnace (both Q 2
e a r i in
deg s A i nstrument called a O recorder i nd ca t s and records
.
n i e co n
ly the percent e of that g pre ent
. ?
i
t n uo u s as s
Mechan i cal stokers not a omp lish any marked m of fuel ov r t o cc sa v e

a eful hand fi ring i n lants where les than 200 tons of coa are used per
month but they y i l f m l bet t er results than average hand fi r i n g
c r s
e c uc i a re
ea ily forced ma i nta in a un iform s t e m pressure and ass st greatl y the
. .
.
s a i in
smokeles combust i on of soft oals They are adaptable t all k nds of
, ,
.
s c o i
ol id fuels and i n th is ct promote economy for i t of t en hap
.
s res ns
that a cheap l w grade fue may be employed whereas W t h hand ng
. ,
.
o - i
a more expen i ve q ali ty would have to be used
. ,
s u .
c s ta t i o n a n d C o o i o n ln ru rr s .
B ol l P r g e Caust i c soda and l ime water comb i ne w i th t a

cr u s. - he c r
bo i ac i d conta i ned i water (i comb i nat i on as b i c rbona t es ) and pr
n c n n a e
i pi t t calc ium and m gnes i m c rbonates Soda ash acts on the b c r .
c a e a u a i a
of l ime and m g i f mi bi carbonate f soda wh ch i
.
'
h t
o na es a n es a , or n o i s
decomposed by heat i nto 0 0 and um carbonate the latter be i ng
,
'
so
preci p i tated
2 ,
Sod i um alu mi na t e and sod i um fluor ide are also used i n waters conta n
.
i
in
g b i carbonate of l i me
I i di m phosphate i used where water conta i ns s lpha t e of l me
.
0
'
r so u s u i
prec i p i tati ng sod i um sulphate and calci um phosphate
,
I n t e rn al C o mb s t i o n E n g i n e - u s.
Ga P od ce are closed furna es i n wh ich the fuel i burnt w i th a

s r u rs c s
l i m i ted supply of i and steam resul t ing i the product ion f g a r The n o as
i and steam are e i ther forced (pressure roducer) or drawn (suct i on p
, .
a r ro
duoer ) through a bed f i ncandescent coap coke The O of the i fi rst o or a r
combines w i th the C f coal to form C O Thi s passes up t rough the
.
When steam i m i xed with the

o h
i ncandescent coal and changes to C O
.
s
a i r and meets the burn i ng fuel H i l i berated and the O f steam com
.
s o
b ines to form more C O These w ith the N of i and the volat i le part f
,
a r o
the fuel (O H ) make up the resulti ng fuel —gas Theoret i c lly the best
.
,
a
t emperature i about l 900 F 1 lb f coal w i th u wards f lb steam
4 .
°
s o o
wi ll yield from 65 to 75 cu ft f gas (1 3 5 t 1 40 B U per cu ft ) Pres
, . . .
o o
sure producers are used f engi nes f over 2 00 H P In these the i and
. . . . . . .
or o a r
steam are furn i shed under a pressure of from 2 t 8 i f water The h t
. .
o n o o
passes through econom i zer where i t preheats the a i r used and al so
. .
g as an
g ives up heat for the generat ion of the steam requi red I t then passes
through the scrubber (vessel prov ided wi th tr ys f coke upon whi ch
.
a o
water streams from above ) and thence to the purifi er (another vessel p ro
v id d wi th trays of sawdust and lso wi th ox i d i zed i ron fi li g when sul
e a -
n s
i to be removed from the g ) The best results are obtai ned from
,
pl i ur s as
anthrac i te (pea s i ze or larger ) hav i ng less than 1 0 to 1 5 7 of ash and but
.
l ittle moisture If the fuel contai ns more than 5 t 8 % f volat ile m tter o o a
i t wi ll cohere and prevent proper work in g f producer Coal wi th an ex
,
.
o
amount of ash tends t choke p the i passages
.
cess vei o u a r-
Grate surface per H P = 6 to 8 q i (the latter for producers of l
.
s n e ss
than 2 5 H P capac i ty ) The volume f producer per cu f t

. . . .
o
approx (fi i i n t erv ls of 3 to 4 hours ) for anthraci te and cu ft
. . . .
,
.
r n a
for coke V f scrubber = 0 9 to cu ft per H P V l of pur ifier
.
, , .
o o o
cu ft per H P In ord i nary generators bout 85 % of the he t of
. . . . . . .
a a
the fuel leaves the producer a loss f 1 5 to 2 0 % be i ng due to heat i ng
. . . . .
o
rad iat ion and u burnt res idue E ffi c iency 6 5 to
, ,
n
t l n Prod cer Te s t s f a number f plants i n L ndon us i n Scotch
, . ,
S uc o - u o o o g
a nthrac ite ( ) showed a consumpt ion f ea to lbs per B H P hr
for full loa Pand
o
to lbs at half load (larger values for 8 H P
. . . .
smaller for 20 Volume of producers i cu ft per (for

. . . .
,
n
20 H P ) and 2 00 ; me ha i cal effi c iency 8 1 t o
. .
(8 c n
8 4 % at full load (69 to 7 1 % at half load ) M p about 79 l b
. .
,
. . e . . s .
A PP E N D I X .
Bl a t F n a ce n d C o k e O v e n G e For each ton f i ron smel t ed

s - ur a - as s. o
about cu ft of blast furnace gas are l i berated O t of coal i -
ne on n
cok ing i l d about cu ft f coke oven gas
. . .
-
e s o
be requ i re from 5 t 7 u ft f illum i nat i ng gas per hour (or
. . .
H t o u s o c o
to p hour )
. .
lb li a so ne er
De t re d ethyl alcohol rendered un fi t f consumpt i on
.
.
na u 1 1 00 10 is or as
a beverage by the add it ion f wood alcohol benzol etc It burns o -
smokelessly w i th a h t lum nous fl me and the products f i t m

, , .
o n on - i a o s oo
do t yield an unpl easant odor u l ess the percentage f ben zol
, ,
b ti
us on no n o
w
i s e x cess e
E t hyl al c hol ( C H O ) i s made by the fermen tat ion of s gars or s t a ches
.
o G u r
conta i ned i molasses corn potatoes etc w ith wh ic h malt and yeast are
Q
n
comb i ned
.
, , , ,
Starch + water Dextrose = A lcohol + Carb d ioxi de

l
(C 6 H 1 00 5 )3 H QO '
C GH I ZO G 2 (0 2 H 60 )
The alcoh ol i s di st i l led ff by the proper ppl i cat i on f h eat absolute o a o

alcohol be i ng that i wh i ch no wa t er i present
,
n s .
Spec i fi c Grav i ty f E thyl A lcohol at 59 IF A pprox L w H t i g Value

o
°
o er
'
ea n
by l by wt Sp g
. . .
vo . . . .
1 00 1 00 794 6 B T U per lb '
95 93 8 805 1
90 81 5
O ne gal abs al cohol lbs
.
. .
= 6 625 . .
Compos i t i on f absolute o Ai requ i red r

for combust ion f 1 lb alcohol = 9 lbs = — cu ft at 6 2 F
o or
°
B o i l i ng F freez i ng poi nt 2 00 F
. . , . . .
-
°
Spec i fi c heat f l i qu id at 3 2 f v po = 0 4 53 4 ; k = 0 4 ;
. .
°
k o p o a r
v
L w f compress i on
. .
PV =P V a o : lol4 1 -1 4
Alcohol motors are started up w i th g d when warmed i p

1 | ,
li ffi a so n e , an t su
i t l y alcohol vapor i s used Cool i ng water req i red i about 2 0 lbs
,
c en u s
H P hour and effi c i ency promoted by h g t temperature
,
” .
is av x n i s as
pi gh as poss i ble
er . .
,
D enaturants
Lower H e t ing V alue a
Meth yl
(or W ood alcohol ) CH O 1 51 F B T U per lb
- °
B enzol C ri
. . . .
°
1 76 a
A cetone
. .
. C H 0 1 33 3 6
°
CJ l N 1 17 s
°
Gasol ine 1 80—2 1 0

°
De at red Al cohol M i xtures [p rts by vol me added to 1 00 vols

n u f a u o
90 % (vol ) lcohol ]
.
. a .
Sp CH O C H N C H O C H G sol ine ll s s g e G G a
French
. .
4
German
Sp ir i t 2
No more heat sh ould be used than i necess ry to vapor i ze the mi s a x

ture h igh temperatures l im i t i ng the allowable compress i on d decreas ing an
the economy For a 90 % ( l ) alcohol lbs of i theoret i cally
,
vo a r a re
re q u i red f the combust i on f 1 lb A ssum i ng lb excess f
. . .
i n pract i ce 1 cu ft dry i (at 6 0 F ) i s s ppl i ed (or

or o an o
lb
. .
°
a r u
lcohol as 90 % (wt ) 1 lb i w ill c rry
, . .
a or (1 1 1 8 ) a r a +
0 007 5 lb bs lcoh ol 0 1 lb of w ter
, , .
? d (10 ri a an a
If the i be cons i dered s tur ted w i th mo i sture when enteri ng the
. .
,
a r as a a
vapori zer at 60 (2 6 i mercury ) i t wi ll cont i n 00 1 3 lb water i addi
°
n a n
t i on t o the lb i n the alcohol lb i n all A t emp f 7 7 F
.
, .
°
.
, or . . . o .
A PP E N D I X .
w i ll vapor i ze th i s amount of w ter and also lb of l ohol on a a c c

sequently the smal ler amount of alcohol act ally used w ill be s per
.
s
,
u u
heated
Under these cond i t i ons (total heat of vapor i zat ion at 7 7 F bei ng
.
4 58 B T U per lb ) the heat requ i red for vapor z i ng i about 6 of the

.
i s
heat i ng value of the al ohol and may be obt a i ned from the e t or
. . . .
o
c us
by h t i g the i d t about 2 70 F n a r o
°
,
TE
re ea u se
e best results are obta ned by compress i n g the m xture t o 1 80
.
o
i i
2 00 l b per q the correspond ng max explos on press e bei ng about
s s in i i ur
per q i
,
. .
.
45 0 l b s s n
90 % (vol ) al ohol costs about 1 5 cents per gal cent per lb )
. .
c s
when mad e from good corn at en t s per b shel To compete wi th
. . .
c u
gasol i ne at 1 5 cents p gal i t cost mu t be reduced t 1 2 cents per g l
.
er s s o a
wh i ch poss i ble t hrough the of low grade grai n cheap vegetable
. .
.
‘ -
8 u se
mat t er and refuse conta n ng s gar or starch
,
,
i i u .
Gasol i ne . Kerosene .
B T U per lb
Cost per i cents
. . . .
n
l
Spec i fi c gravi t
Lb per B P hour s
Thermal brake effi c iency per
. . . .
in
cent
B T U per B H P hour
.
Fuel cost per B H P h our (cents )

. . . . . .
. . .
n g i n e D e i gn G a s-E s .
P l t on M s pressure on p i ston P = 0 7854 pd Permi ss i ble s rface

s. ax 2
u
press re k = 1 8 to 2 2 lbs per sq i (frequently l w as 8 lbs where
.
, . .
u n as o
length f p i ston i un i mportant ) Length of p iston 220 1 1 P —dk C

, . . . .
o s -z
u
ll y l = 2 2 5 d to l 5d for large
. . . .
era , 0 . en
gi nes ) W r i st p i n I = t t l length -
f o a o
b cknes f p i ston
.
I O
i e o
om 0 995d
0 998d at head end P i stons over 8 i i d iam have from 4 to 6 radi al
.
t o n n
st i ff eni ng r i bs
. . . .
Pi s t o n R i n g R d i al depth = oo2 2d ; wi dth b = 0 028d t o044 d

.
- s. a s o
No f i g = d 5b Space between g depth of groove ==
, .
, . . .
o r n = b; s + r oo v es
to
. .
8 +
C yl i n d e r Thi ckness f walls for strength s. (f where o
C I may be as h igh as lbs per sq i If d > 2 4 i the wall
,
f f or n h
may be graduall y tapered from t at compr ss i on end to To al low
.
. . . . .
,
e
for rebor ng etc i to i ishould b added to t throughout the n n e
length J acket where ax i al forces do not en t er i nto cons iderat ion 1 of
, .
, . .
: ,
jacket § 0 4 i n If the jacket i cast i n one p iece w i th the cyl i nder

.
,
a test pressure f 4 2 0 lbs per sq i n (correspond i ng to

. .
,
f or o
per q i i a cold test )
. . .
f ==8 500 l b s s n n
V al v es i ; d = di m i n i ; f v lve
. . .
, .
h = li f t i = d h = n n a n al 7r are a o a
ope i ng i sq i ; = pi t area i sq i ; S = t k of i t i n f t ;
.
1 .
, . .
l 1
n n n a s on n n s ro e s on
veloc i ty f p ist n=i ft per veloci ty g through
. . . . .
c =m ea n ; =m o o n se c v ean 0 as
valve i ft per d di m of cyl i Then and i f
. .
; n i se c a n n
d h = d N S or d h mean = 82 ft per sec

. . . . .
, ,
h g 0 2 5d
‘ 1, n ( ) l , 7r
2
l ; v
If I of connect ing ft per In order
. .
, .
se e
not to exceed th is velo i ty each pos i t ion of the p is t on requi res a corre
. .
c
s p di
on g l i ft of the valve
n h 2 where ¢ = i ( l h 1 ) ; s n a : co s a
be i ng the ngle made by the crank and the di rect i on of cente r l ine of
, ,
a -
a
p ston rod For (max )
i and 1 64 ft p . resp subst itu t e v . . e r se c .
, .
d l " 6 0 for
,
an 0
Best results obtai ed n .

A PP E N D I X .
Co m p re se d A l s r.
B lo w e r n d C o m pres so rs s a .
Pressu es employed Capac i t i es r

l b per q (gauge ) (cu ft per s s in
For b l t f 4 to 1 0 lbs Up to
. . . . . .
as u r n a ces
B essemer converters
v
,
15 45
compressed i transm issi on
,
70 1 15 -
a r
reservoi r storage d upw rds
,
an a
(for torpedo boats )
F pressures above 75 lbs two

or three stage compress ion shoul d be or -
employed the i pass i ng from compress ion cyl i nders i n t o i ntercooler

.
,
a r
where i t i spl i t up i nto th i n streams and flows over the s rfaces of tubes
, s
s u
ch illed by water circulat ing thro gh them For t w stage compres ion u . o- s ,
the same length f stroke o For la e hori ontal z

blast furnace blowers n= o 85 for blowers or converters an compress rs
.
,
-
o
to i l effi c iency )
.
,
r, ( =m l q e c i a n ca
The volumetr i c effi c iency ranges from 90 to It may be dete
.
m i ned from the l w pressu e——cyl d i agram V olumetri c ffi i y = l gt h

r
- r
o : e c enc en
f card on atmospher i c l i ne total length between the extreme end ord i
.
o z
nates f card V eloci y f fl w through valves = 3 000 t

o ft pert o o o
(s ct i on ) to ft per mi (compressi on )
.
, .
mi n u n
where = 1 3 to for blast
,
. .
.
c
furnace blowers to =f compres ors and blowers for converters ;
.
or s
ft of i per mi ; p b l t pressure f i i lbs per q i n
,
O= cu a r n a so u e o a r n s
’
0 9 = p i fi we i ght of i at i n of mercury and at 7 7 F compare d

. . . . . .
°
s ec c a r
wi th i at f mercury and at 3 2 F
. . .
°
a r i n o
V alues f
. .
o x :
For p = 75 1 00
a: ( poor ool i ng ) = c 50 44
(effi c ent cool ng compress on ac
. .
0
:r i i , i
cord i ng t p ) o v1 2 5
’
F t lbs of work theoret i c lly req i red to compress 1 cu ft

.
-
. f free i a u . . o a r
0 -2 9
f rom p to 1
] ( page see
R o t a ry B l o w ers cons i st f t w i mpeller wheels revolv i ng i a close fi tt i ng o o n -
cas i ng w i th equal veloc it ies and i opposi t e d irect i o s the i be i g drawn n n a r n

i n at ri ght angles to the axes f i mpellers d del i vered compressed
,
t o an a
the oppos i te open i ng The pro fi les f the i m pellers are developed i n o
the s me manner as are the teet h f gear wheels
.
o -
a
Capaci ty i cu ft sec q = AN B (D where N =
.
2
n p er n
i l length and D = d i m of i mpellers both i feet ea of

. . .
,
: A =
.
B = ax a a n er
cross sect ion of i mpeller i sq ft ) = volumetr ic ffi i y ==0 6 to
, .
,
- n e c en c
Mechan i c l e ffi c iency r nges from to Pressures from 1 2 t 80 i
. .
a a o n
f water to lbs per sq
.
o . .
M e c h a n i c a l R e fr i g e r t i o n a .
P l a t e I v C n I ce Plate i ce does not requ i re t h use of di st i ll ed

ce s. a e
wat er i n i t product i on 1 lb of co l w ill make bout 1 0 lbs of plate
. .
s a a
i ce some 27 5 q ft f freez ing surface be i n requ ired per t capac i ty
. .
s o g on
I the manufacture of can i ce fi ltered d ist illed w ter must be used

. . .
n or a
otherwi se the i mpuri t i es cont ined i or n ry w ter wi ll be reta i ned
,
a n d i a a
i n t h core of t h block
e C i does t keep well when stored 1 lb
e an ce no
oal wi ll make from 6 to 7 4 lbs f can i Plate systems cost from 40 to
. . .
c . o ce .
A PPEN D I X .
75 % more than can sys t ems (For 5 0 t -

on plant a ca n sy tem s co st s abou t
50 per ton c pac ty )
.
,
.
5
$ a i .
eat i n g a n d V e n t i l a t i o n H .
H eat L o sse due to conduct i on and radi at ion H (i = Esq i n u va

lent glass surface =E X where t = diff between t mp f room
,
’
e r e n ce e o
and outs de temp 70 F general ly
, .
i
Exposed wall surface E xposed ce i l i ng or floor s rface
, .
. .
4
Glass s rface u
u
(Su faces i n sq ft ) E xposed su faces are those

r s ide of whi ch i r o ne
b i t d to temp f outs de
. .
s
su ec e . o i ai r .
H must b to prov de for vent at i on losses where

t no
T
eo dd d V
T 55
i i l J
a e ,
'
n =N of changes f i per hour = t t f room cubi c ft The

o o a r c co n e n s o in
t otal loss (H + V ) must be i ncreased 1 5 % for E exposures and 2 5 % for
.
, .
N and W exposures
.
H t A i H eat i n g Ai shoul d be heated t bout 1 4 0 F No f cu

. . .
°
o - r r o a o
ft f i heated from 0 to 1 4 0 = Q = t t l [K t loss i
. . . .
° °
o a r o a a n
A ssum i ng that 5 lbs f c al are burnt per sq ft f grate area per h
.
o o o -
r
and that each lb suppl ies B T U area of g te i sq f t = Q
. . . .
,
ra n +
The heat i ng surface of fu na e shoul d be from 1 2 t 2 0 ti mes the grat
. . . . .
r c o e
area 1 s ft of heati ng surface gi vi ng ff about B T U per hr The o
p t s ould not be less than 1 2 i deep and the cold i b sho l d
.
, . . . .
fi r e- o n -
a r ox u
have an area f about 75 % of the comb i ned cross sect ion of ll the pi pes
.
,
o -
a
For an aver ge outs ide temp of 2 5 F from to 2 lbs f coal are
.
°
a o
t per hr per sq ft grate area For temp of 5 F from 4 to
. .
, .
b u rn f — o .
°
. . . . .
,
1b s
A e a o f P ipe f H ot A i H eat i n g V olume f i i cu ft per mi
.
r s or - r o a r n n
V eloc i t i es f d 500 ft p
. . . .
i v = 280 400 o a r, an er
m i n for l t 2 d and 3 d floors respect vely A rea f pi pes i sq ft V v
, , .
--
s , ,
i . o n . . i
or di am f p i pe i n A rea f i outlets should exceed

.
’
o o a r
,
area A rea f of p pe supply i ng sam e

.
1 1 Xg t ra e o i
(Condensed from Proceed i ngs Am S H t g and Vent E g W G Snow

.
. .
oc n rs
and I P B i rd )
.
. . . .
, . .
B l ow e Sys t e m o f H ea t i n g n d V e til a t i n g In th is system the i

. . .
r a n a r
i s blown by means of a fan over co ils of p i pe through wh i ch steam i
.
c r
enl a t es Cu ft f i q i d = T t l B T U requ i red — 70 o a r re u re o a -
z
where 1 40 = degs F i i s to be heated and 7 0 = degs F tem to whi

. . . .
. .
general ly f l i p pe pmm 200 to

a r c
rooms are t be heated The co ils
. .
_ , . .
o n
‘
o ar e -
i
2 50 l i near ft f p i pe be i ng used per cu ft of i to be heated per

. . .
a r
'
o
veloci t ies (ft per M i ns branches to
.
. .
.
mi Ai a
to regi sters 500 700 ; from regi st ers
n r
re i ster fi
. . ,
g fi u es, u es ,
-
,
3 00 —500
Ste a m H e a t i n g S i z es o f M a i n fo r (Ind rect R ad at =on )
.
s i i i
Sq ft f radi at i ng su face suppl i ed b y p ipe 1 00 ft l g A

.
,
.
. . o r . on .
A where p < 1 6 lbs lb allowed for drop ) . .
A p > 16 (Q
For other lengths mult i ply by factor or
pressure i lbs per q i ; d = di m of p i pe i

( p = ab s ) n s n a n in
am returns d = 0 5d when d > 7 i If d < 4 one S ze .
.
. . . .
Di of d n in , is i
sm ler to 7 i d = 3 } i
1
.
. , .
. ,
al ; i f d = 4 h h
rect ad at on F W I p i pe d t A W l l be 20 % greater than
l
.
, .
Di i i
.
R : or -
ra i a o rs, i
above for a gi ven d i am d d for C I rad ators 30 % g reater

. .
.
an i
The forego ng been d gested from matter c nta ned

.
.
,
h i T h E
[ i as o i in e u
gi (Ch i ca o ) f
n eer J g or an
Compare wi th Square feet f rad i at ng surface == l b steam p
.
o i s er
per l b 400
:
mi J X 1 45 ( = 1b steam per
.
n B T U s +
B T U rad iated per sq ft per hou ) See also formulas on page 7 0 for
. . . .
.
r
Fl ow of Steam i n P i pes
. . .
. . .
.
A PP EN D I X .
o f H t W ate r P i pe
C oo l l n g O rd i ry 2 i p i pes i n thi ck) o - s. na -
h
w i th water at 1 40 F cool i ng t 3 2 F (a i r about 7 F ) lose app o v
. .
° ° °
o r a
mately follows
. . .
as :
B T U per q ft per hr per degree drop i n temp (st ill a i r ) s

B T U per q ft per hr per degre drop i t emp ( i mov i ng 1 ft
. . . . . .
s e
n a r
r
. . . . . . .
se c
per q ft per hr per deg ee drop i t emp (i st i ll wat r at
.
s . . r n . n e
per q ft per hr per degree drop i n t mp (i water mo vi g

.
B T s t n n
i n per
. . . . .
)
(Pw r Feb
1 . se c .
o e , .
U LI CS A N D H Y D R A U L I C M A C H I N E R Y
H Y DR A .
Pl n g e r -P m ps Strai ner area = (2 to 3 ) X

u u sect ion of suct i on cro ss-
tube A rea f valve pass = (l 5 to sect ion f suct i on tube
.
o -
es - o -
V alves should be of pure ber

. .
ru
Suct ion i chamber to f p mp l Suct ion l
.
a r- o u 0 ve oc
t = 1 50 to 2 00 ft per mi f pressu e cham = (6 to 8) X l
.
i V l n o o r a i r- r vo
ump cyl
. .
o
veloci ty = 200 ft per mi for large pump and long p ipes
.
ressu re n s
300 to 400 ft for smal l pumps and short pi pes
. . .
i n for verti cal pum

m
.
in
Thi ckne s Fcyl
er
p (for hori zon t al
. .
"
s 0 s
pumps make th ckness 2 5 % greater )
. .
i
Thi ckness f i chamber wa l ls t = 0 4 2 pd —(f — p) where = l b per
.
o a r- s
safe for C to for f
, ,
W
.
, .
i n f ( ) au I = S 5OO e,
sq g g
E ffi c enc e up t o usually 80 to
. , , . .
, .
i i s
C h a ac t e i ti E q a tion o f a C n t i f ga l B u m p
r r s B ;t Cm
c u e r u
-
vi - ' ’z
wh ich A B and C are —ons tant depend on the d me so and

.
20 11 in c s i i n i ns
de ign of any part icu lar pum p J G D av is and R H ard i g E gr
,
s n in n
A g 2 7 0 9 (A lso i ndependently G Z k wit i Z i t O st rr i ch I g
.
. . ,
i
’
u er o z n e e e e n en e ur e
A rch Sept 2 4
.
. .
, , . .
u .
, .
,
L e Pressu re developed by suddenly

.
W a te r H a mm I n P i pe i n — er s.
l mg a steel p pe l ne wh ch wat r fl wmg lbs per q =p=
O . .
c os i i in i e is o , in . s . ih .
= l it f fl w i n ft per t = thi k v v e oc v o o se c c
For as t i r n
. .
,
m
.
ip e in s c o
the t ime sec nd
.
in o s re
qu i red to close the le gth i n f t the efi t on the p pe n .

'
ec i
i t h same
s ethat of i n t an t an o clo ing —S L B erry i n J l El
as
’
s e us s . .
, . eo .
P w o f G J
er c : 3 0 09 as, an
P m p i n g E n gi n e A rea f valve seat
.
.
,
u - f pl n g x s. o -
o o u er
pl nger speed i n ft per mi 2 00 (Chas A ag e )

u . n .
-
. . . u .
S H O P D A TA .
H i gh - S pee d S t ee l P a c t i c e (Speeds i n ft per mi r . n c ts i n

.
, u
H vy ea
Speed Cut Speed Cut

C I med ium
. . . .
75 { X} 47 X 1 ;
C I (hard ) tool st eel
.
, ,
35 20 X -
Steel soft ,
. .
1 50 67 X
hard 92 50
,
X
,
M all i ron
,
1 00 80 X
B rass
.
,
1 20 90 X
Chi lled i ron 3 to 1 2 ft per m all cuts ,
. in .
,
.
The above v lues for tu n i g are for d i ameters of work 2 6 i ; f a r n n . or
sm ller d iams
a speeds 1 0 to lower F m illi g mult i ply abo v u se or n e
eed by — for b ri ng mult i ply by to
.
.
,
sp s o ,
A PPE ND I X .
n te rn a t i o n al M e t r i c Th read s A ngle of thread = 60 The top f

I °
o
thread i fl atted of? (i of i t he ight ) and the bottom i rounded t fi
. .
s s s o
it he i ght mak ing total depth of t h d = it X t h depth of a sharp V
s rea e
thread of same p itch
,
Co st o f l e ctr i c P w r I large street —r ilway power houses

.
E — o e n a -
k w capac i ty ) w i th coal cost i g r ton the cost of one

.
t o n
k ilowatt hour at the sw i tchboard i about (C H H i le P w r
.
,
8 s o e
No v
. . .
, ,
c ell a n eo s M c h i n e D e ign M is u a s .
Po we H a m m e r = Li ft in force P = w igh t of hammer W X where

r- s.
Li ft L 3 to 6 g
e a
W = 1 00 to lbs Veloc i ty
,
c =l 2 t 2 o t t o
2 50 ft per mi ; strokes per mi
. . .
, .
= 20 t n 30 n o
S t e m H m m e rs W = 50 000 to = l 5 to 2 No of
. . .
a - a lb s
— .
, , a
strokes per mi = 7 2 ——V L Greatest li ft L

. . . .
n D iam z in 7
W F sm ll hammers ( W = 1 50 to
. .
d i n i n = 0 055
.
=2 t é
o f pi t s on r V or a
g
. . .
a o
P iston rod d i am i n -
to 0 65 ) X pi t d i m s on a
W e ight of A nvi l and B as W = L W ; ( = 1 8 for i f gi g = 3 for
. .
.
e c c ro n or n
steel work )
l .
,
-
Pressure exerted on where = 1 8 t 2 5 f i ron work x o or -
and 25 to 35 for steel

,
R i vet e r are desi gned to furn i sh to pressure per

.
s lb s
f r i vet sect ion (accord i ng t the hardness f ri vets ) and abou t
.
s q i n o o o
th i rd f th s pressure for hold ng pl tes together wh le be i ng ri veted
. .
,
. .
on e- o i i a i
B en ding R l l D i am of roll where b = widt h of p late and

.
o s.
(d b and t i
,
.
t = t hi k c n ess n
P n ch e Di m f pu ch d = d d — fit ; d i am of h ole i n di
, ,
u s. a o n or e
ole n plat f plate both i n
.
, . .
(d = d i m f h i t = t hi k
a o e, c n e ss o
Greatest force q i d = dt or s h e r i ng strength f materi l i
.
,
re u re az 0 a o a n
lbs per q to or steel plates to
.
s
W I when heated to a dark red )
. .
,
f
or t o t o
copper to z i nc V eloci ty f stroke = 3 to
. .
,
f or f or o
4 ft per mi
, .
n
Sh ea V ert i c l clearance f blades = 2 ; angle of cutti ng edge of
.
°
rs. a o
blades = 75 (appro ) A ngle i ncluded between cutt i ng dg
°
x f both e es o
to Greatest pressu e requ i red (when
. .
bl d = = 8 °
a es a r
where b = widt h f blade d t = t hi k of plat e to be sheared Pres ure
o an
2
c ness . s
2 2 5——
req ui red — 1
Z
t
Cutt i ng speed = 3 to 6 ft per mi
a0
-
. n .
C i l a S h ea r are used f cutt i ng sheets p to

r cu r si n i n th i ckness or u
Di am f sheets t be cut c ircumf erent ial
. .
f b l d = 70 > <t hi k
o a es c n e ss o o
peed = 1 00 to 200 ft per mi
.
,
s n
W I am roll n n n) where 0 i
. .
R l l
o f o D
s i f ri i d = l — 1 ) — o -
z co s s
obtai ned from t h relat ion= tan— 0 = for = I at roll i g heat i a prox
. . . .
2 ,
e p a n s
l to 0 1 whence d (t t ) X 2 00 (t t hi k f metal fore
. . . . .
t o fl
et ua
l ing t = t hi k , af t er )
s.
,
c
P l a n e r Speed f tables ove 6 ft w ide = 1 2 t 2 0 ft r mi ; for
2 ne ss
or
.
1 2
r
.
1 c ne ss
o
o
n
tables less than 6 ft w i de from 20 t 28 ft R eturn p = 4 X t t i g
. . .
o s ec cu n
speed
.
, .
S h ap e Cu t ti ng speeds up t 48 ft per m ; return

.
rs. o in
t i n speed
. .
g
B el t C o n v eyo R ubber covered belts from 8 to 60 W de ru ni ng
.
- rs . - in i n
on rollers (3 to 5 i i n d i am ) are used f convey i ng gra i n coal ashes etc
.
n or
whe e the angle of elevat ion i not over
. .
, , , .
,
r s
Sp c i ng of R ollers a
D r i vi n s ide R eturn s i de
.
g
1 2 to 1 8 ft
. .
“
6 8 to l 2
For ch ngi ng di rect i on gui de rollers 6 to 8 i d i am are used ; i f

a n
the dev iat ion i abrupt rollers from 1 2 to 20 d am are employed
.
.
s in i
The tens i on f belt i ma intai ned by we g hts a screw
, . .
.
0
o s i or . g
A PPEN D I X . 185
elt Vel c i t i es V i n ft per mi

B o , . n
B ran l ight gra i ns etc 4 00 ; heavy gr i n 5 00 to 600 a

Coal (hor i zont l belt ) 4 60 ; elev t i ng 6 60 to 900
, , .
, , .
a a
Sort i ng or gatheri ng belts up to 60
, , .
, .
Cubi c feet moved p where b = widt h f bel t er o

in in
Sc re w Co n v eyo r s cons i st f she t metal hel i co i ds mounted hollow
.
- o e -
on
shafts wi th bear i ngs 8 ft p rt for a 4—i screw (up to 1 2 ft apart f a a h
an 1 8 i screw ) Used where elev t ion angle i s less than
, . . . or
-
h a
Troughs of= sheet met l 0 08 to th i ck ; clearance between screw
. .
i a n
and t g h 0 l 2 to Spi ral s of rectangul ar sect ion steel b rs
.
ro u in -
wound edgew se and connect d to sh ft at about every 2 0 i n perform

. .
a
i e a
about 2 0 % less work than screw conveyors
.
Sect i ons of spi r ls 0 8 X Q 2 in a 3 X O 28

Di am of trough 8 in
. . . . .
. 4 12 i .
20 i in . . n . n .
D i am f screw d< 1 7 i general ly P i tch f pi l = 0 7d R p m

. o n .
, . o s ra s . . . . .
28 2 + N/I
If42% f the cross— sect i on f trough i s assumed to be fi lled wi th the
o o
mat r i al to b moved t hen Cu ft moved p h = 2 2 65 d

e e er r V 5
where l g t h of crew
. . . . . .
.
H P q m d = t o re X L qr L = re i en n
ft del ve and cu ft f the materi al
. .
, s
ft = d =
.
q re p cu r lb p i er se c s er o
moved
.
, . . .
, . . .
E L E CT R O T E C H NI CS .
S t o ra g e B tt e i e ns i st f lead plat s i mmer ed i n d ilute s lphuri c

a r s co o e s u
aci d These pl ates are e i ther co ted wi th a paste made of d l ad (or a re e
red lead and li tharge ) they are c st i the form of gr ids the pa te
.
or a n s
bei ng forced i nto the holes f the gri ds un der pr ssure The n m b er of
, ,
o e u
negat i ve i always more than the number of po i t ive pl tes
.
on e
T h H S (p
s
lates
s
a
must be pure (free from H N O H Cl and Sb ) d dilute—d onl y
.
e an
wi th d ist illed water the ac i d be i ng always poured nto the wat h nev r
Q ,
i c
vi c r The d ilute ac id electrolyte should have a p g of about
, i
e ve sa or s
) at the begi nn ing f a ch rge wh i ch ri ses to to l 2
. . .
B mé au o a
(2 3 to 2 5 B mé ) at the complet ion f ch rge The densi ty b m

,
° °
au o a e co t s
altered i through evaporat i on f water loss through ebull it ion etc
.
n use o
and w ter acid should be added from t ime t t i me to k ep the l tes
, , .
,
a or o e p a
covered W th to 1 i of the electrolyt The p g i the b st g id to
i n e s s e i
'
e
the condi t ion f the cell V oltage of cell = 2 volts pp
. . .
o t b gi i g a ro x a e nr r
f charge r i s i ng slowly to volts thence more rapidly to w its

.
, .
,
o
D i scharge begi ns at about 2 volts qui ckly dropp i ng to volts t i en
, , .
slowly to volts d then rapi dly to volts If no current i t ken

, ,
an s a
from cell i ts voltage i about 2 volts regar dless of the degree to h ich
.
s W
i t i char ed Current strength vari es ( to si ze d
, ,
‘
s g i t accors ng an con s ru c
t i on of cell ) from to amperes per sq ft of plate area ( chargi ng )
.
to 1 1 amp per sq ft (dischargi ng ) amp p lb f

. .
,
t
c
i t or o er o
p lates
.
.
,
. . .
Capac i ty i measured by the number f ampere ho rs wh ich a cell

.
s o - u
w i ll yield up t a cert in de fined drop i voltag e (7 to o d own to a n
volts The cap c i ty i s g e t er the slower the d ischarge d v r es from a r a an a i
to mp — per lb of plates (rap i d di scharge ) to to 7 mp h
.
h a r a - r
per lb (slow —d i scharge )
.
. .
Good c ll s y i eld from 90 to 95 % of the am perage W th wh ch

. .
E ffi i v c en c z e i i
t hey charg ed and (t h vol tage of d isch rge be in lower than th t of
a re e a g a
ch r ge ) from 7 5 to 85 % of charg i ng energy i w t t s
,
a n a
The fi rst charge m st be undertak en s on the l t l t pour d
.
u as o as e e c ro v e i s e
i nto the cells and i t shoul d cont i nue unt i l the pos i t i v pl tes h ve d rk e a a a a
b own color and the
r g f elect l t h r isen from to t least sp o o v e as a
Ti me re u i red from 1 6 to 50 hours Ch rg ng g all m
. .
q : a i is en e r v a cco
pl i h d wi th vol tages up to volts for a t d curr nt d

.
s e 0 0d s ea v e an 18 17 9 17 0
when g bubbles slowly begi n to form t bo t volts ( when

.
as a a u i e
vi olent ebull i t i on occurs at about volts ) Cells should be f l l char ed
.
u v g
When l yi ng unused and should be recharged every 1 0 days or f pos bl,
so , i si e
A PP E N D I X .
T he D i el e ct r i c
St re n gt h f I n s u l a t i n g M t i l v i h i k w o a e r a s ac g ne
generally (for l ra b b strength th ickness ) (A pprox val ues b
.
'
’
a ru r, C
A e
low )
t . .
Volts for V olts for

M at r ial 1 m t Mater i l 1 mm in a
th ckn ss th ic k ness
. . . .
i e .
O rd i nary paper V arn ished paper and l i nen

.
F i ber and M an ila paper E bon i te

.
Impregnated R ubber
. .
P p h
re ss a n and
paper Gutta —percha
Para rubber
(C K i l E l t ri ci London . 9 2 9 and 1 0—6
n z i ru n n e r ec an , ,
-
E l ectro - M a g n ets Tabl e fo r , W i n ding .
Tur s per sq i n
‘
c lculated
n the assumpt ion that the number a re a on
f l yers per i de pth = No of turns per i (l i ) X 1 1 66 (or
. .
'
o a n i - n n e ar n
crea per i due t i mbedment f layers ) d that T sq
. . . .
'
se n p o o an u rn s er
1 1 6 6 X (turns per i )
.
.
,
2
n
No of feet of w ire i 1 cu =i L = T per sq i 1 2
. . .
n n u rn s n +
'
O h m res istance per cu i L X No f ohms pe r l i near foot (see table

. . . . .
s n o on
pa e
. . .
g
Insulat ion assumed 8 (d iam f covered W = d m f bare wi re i J ) , . o i re ia . o - - ’
S i ze of Wire 4 to 1 0 i nclus i ve 1 1 to 1 8 i nclus i ve 1 9 and up

S in le —covered 3
.
,
g i i i n n n
D ouble covered J é
,_ . . .
-
i ,
n i n . i . n .
E M F f D yn m Let 2 p = N f poles 2 = N f p ll l ar
o a o s.
a
-
o o a o o
s
s e
‘
. . . , .
mature branches i nt whi ch the current d i vi des : then E = 0 gO £ o ,

a no
-
L et = l — (l = p l arc = p l i tch ) B = i d ti j i gap D = n

cm l = l —gt pof armature i cm Then =k ilow tt
a -
z o e r o ar z uc on n a r-
i am f armatu e i
r , , ,
Sp it y of g
o r n en i n a
where of
.
. . , .
,
a ac t = l N D 10 ene ra o r (A N c 2 6
o
ampere conductors r cm f c ircumference 2 D where I & = m
, .
-
l o no + 7r a
e ch con t ) A (ord inari ly = 200 ) may re ch 3 00 t 3 50
.
,
a ,
pa res i n a uc or a o
wi th h ig B strong s tur t ion= of teeth d good vent il t ion (If = 0 6
,
h i, a a an a a
1 50 to 2 00 the n The current

. .
t
o E t A rr =1 t o c o
W l m in e slot of an armature ( = I n ) should not exceed 900 amp
,
'
i u e on a o .
A PP E N D IX .
S t ea m The lat st and most acc rate data on the

S n cr h e a t cd e u
ec heat superheated ste m at on tant pressure (k ) are th se
.
s v i c of a c s o
0 by essrs Knoblauch and J akob i 1 90 5 at the M un i ch I m
t a i n ed M n
p
per al Techn cal College They found th t at saturat ion k ri ses very
. , ,
i i a
r p dly w th the pressure but as the temperat ure ri ses above t hat of ,
.
a i i :
saturat on i at fi rst rap idly falls reaches a m i n i mum and then ri s s
hp e
more slow y w th further i ncrease i temperature ; also that the tempera
, ,
l i n
t ure g v ng the m in imum becomes gr ater w ith greater pres ure A t
i i e s
h gher temperatures t spec i fi c heats at all pressure approxi m te each
.
'
i ie s a
ot her much more closely than at lower temperatures T h followi ng e
table em bod ies the resul ts obta i ned by th s experi menters
.
e e :
S E I I H E (k ) P C F C AT AT
A bsolute
p
E tW a
Pressure 3 02 F 3 92 F 4 82 F 57 2 F 66 2 F
a ° ° ° ° °
. . . . .
,
i on
lbs / sq in
.
. .
T he ci fi h t t hr gh t h wh l r g f t m r
mea n spe c ea ou e o e an e o e at u e r from satu
rat on up to the var ious pres re temperature con t
i su -
.
i i on s g ven i is as
follows :
3 00 F 4 00 F 500 F 600 F F
° ° °
7 00
° °
. . . . .
Th ese values have been obta i ned fr om d iagrams plotted by M R obt H r

Sm th ( T h E gi r London A g 23 0 7) from the data of Knob l auch
.
. . .
’
i e n n ee u
and J akob s experi ments
.
, , ,
’
.
S t re e i n R o t a t i n g D i k
ss s Let D = t id d iam i i ; d= s s. ou s e n ns
d iam of hole i i ; v= i m veloc i ty i ft per sec ; w= wt f 1 cu i
.
n ns r n o n
of metal used ; f = t il stress i d d b y 1 force Then for
. . . . . . .
t if en s e n u ce ce n r u
a pla i n d isk For a s id d isk
¢ .
aD
- 2
c
a con i cal =di sk I = 2 w (D 3 d 4 D d ) a (D
.
,
i w
«
v2 9 F or v2 4 4 3 2
For sol id con i cal d isk (d For d isks such are u ed

.
, ;
f 2 wv 2 as s
h i gh speed ste m t rbi nes =and wh ich h v logar i t h m i c pro fi les whose
.
i
n -
a u a e
equat i on i y = log when = a when
,
s f w a g b ; f = w v2 + a az +
(From a t i cle by A M Le v i n A
.
—
¢
a = m Mr h 1 0 20 . .
, . ac ,
A PP E N D I X B .
MA H EM A I T T CS .
Va lu e s log w= 0 4 97 1 5 ;
of ir . . x ?
— The mant issas

V i = 1 4 64 6
f logar i thms may be calculated w i th i n
. .
i th r n s.
i o
f t b value by means f the follow i ng equat ions
o a u ia r s o :
Lo g N = (1 0 1 3N _ when N 5 2 ;
.
(l 34 N when N = 2 t 4 ; o
when N = 4 to 1 0
.
( l 686 N
The n mbe (N ) correspond ng t the logar ithms (L ) may be found from
.
.
u rs i o
N = (1 3 67L —L ) when L 5 0 3 0 1 ;
.
, .
(2 9L — L ) when L = 0 3 0 1 t o
— L ) when L = 0 602 to l
.
, .
(6 3 5L .
, . .
T E R I AI S MA .
C u o N i k e l S t eel — A
t - electr ic furnace steel conta in i ng
c h
Cu and tes ted by D r J ohn U M at t hews (I nd E gg
.
.
N i. us n
Sep t 1 9 1 0) gave the fo l low i ng r ult
0 . . . . .
,
.
, es s:
Ult imat E long i R educt ion e n

Stre gth of A rea
.
2 i n n
M ater al rol led
. . .
i as lb 22 7 51 7 s.
A nnealed 2 5%
.
5
lb 48 % s
H eat d t F
. .
°
e 1 500 o
drawn back t
,
o
600 F
°
lb lb 12 % 46 % s s
M ag na l i m conta ns 90 t 98 % A l and 1 0 to 2 % Mg S g m2 6
. .
u i o :
Te s le strength (lb per q Ca t ngs to 4 2 forg ings
. . .
, .
n i s s s i
late and w ire drawn rods tub in
. .
, . ,
t s o
he metal fuses at F and i t p heat i I t i muc
, .
s s s s
stronger than al m num i l i gh ter and doe t t rn ish ; t forg l ke
.
, .
u i s s no a i es i
Swed sh s teel and mach i nes l ike brass
. ,
i
M on el M e ta l a natural a l loy from the Sudb y M i nes Canad p
, .
.
is ur a. a
prox imately 70 % N i Fe Cu S p g about
.
m lt
g g
e i
po i n t F Te s ile stre ng th (lbs per q cast i ngs
. . .
,
plates
,
E las t ic l im i ts and
. n
resp E long at on oll . s .
,
.
i
r
.
in
2 8 and resp ; reduct ion of area and resp
.
, .
2 m s
N i c k e l S tee l conta in ing 3 % N i and C—T strength (lb
.
.
, . ,
d e ns e s
per i A nne led very hard temper E la t c l m it
. .
.
ang
8 n : a s i i s.
re p ; elon gat ion i n 2 i 28 and 8 % re p ; reduct on
, ,
60 s ns s i
f area 58 and resp
.
. . .
.
o
S i fl G a v i t y f L i q i d — B ea m e H y d o=m e t e S— ca l e F r m l
, .
c r o u s u r r o u a s.
e spec fi c grav i ty f a l iq id l i gh t r t h
i water (1 50 2 Q O2 B o ;t u e an
B ) i n wh ich B = N f degre s on the B méscale For l qu h v r
:
.
o o e e au i i s ea ie
th n wat r Sp —B )
.
, .
a e , . .
A PP E N D I X .
S t eel C ti nQ —Accord i g t O B eckman i n G i

as Sr n o esse e r
Z it ng i e u
the f ll wmg su t able percentag s of C S i and M for the purpos
.
spec ai
ci a re i e , n es
i cc
Small mach ne parts i

Ca i
é0
mn S il icon M angane e s
Large to to to
H ard ca t gs for ore crushers etc s in to to to
R udder frames stern posts etc
, . .
to
Track sw i tches press cyl inde s etc
, .
, r ,
T E R I A LS
'
ST R E NGT H OF MA .
A ll owa b le F i b er S t resse for R o l l d Co p p e r Pl t s (B ach ) — For s e a e

co stant stress f = 8 600 l b per sq i ; for repeat d s tresses due t lo d
.
n s h e o a
fluctuat ing between 0 d P f = 4 3 00 lb per sq i
, , . . .
an , , , s . . n .
C h ai n L i n k S t re n g th o f — A ccord i ng t the result f extens ive t s ts

s o s o e
at the Un iv f 11 E xper iment Stat ion b Profs Goodenough d M oore
.
o an
safe load i open l i i wh ich d = d i m f metal
. .
, .
.
d f f n 2
or n n a o in
the l inks i i and f = m perm iss ible tens ile stre s i me t al lb per
, .
n ns ax s n s
q in stud l inks i pl ce of i f ormul a

.
. .
, .
, .
s . F . or use n a n .
C h a i n R i n g Propo r t io n o i —A ccord ing s, —6 s

load at wh ich deformat ion commences i ho ist i ng r ings forged from i ron = W
.
n
d /D ; s i ng a safety factor of 3 safe load =
3
d /D i wh i ch
u
3
n
f i ron i r i ng and D = m d iamet r of i g = i t 1 d iam
. ,
d = di m t a e er o n ea n e r n n e r na
Th is i equ ivalent t the formula from E gi r i g on p 1 6 5 tak ing
.
+d . s o n n ee n , . ,
f g = 2 2 700 l bs , .
F la t P la t e S t e ng th o f (B ach and Grashof ) — F a c i rcular p la t f

s, r or e o
rad iu r un iformly loaded W th 3 fi xed more less completely at the edge
.
s i 9, or
wh ch C I and for m ild s teel
, ,
f = k p / t i r2
i k = 0 8 t 2 f n o or
when s pp rt d at edges ) C ircular pla t e suppor ted at edges and loaded
, . . .
,
u o e
centrally w ith W (of rad us ) f (f C R ect
.
, .
W[ 1 i 1 1 or
a gul r plate i s ides and b supp rt d at edges u iformly loaded w i th p
.
n a o a o e n
For square plate o and
, ,
[ = k a
C I For rectangular pla t e loaded at cent r w i th
,
t f o or f = e
wh ch k = 1 7 5 t 2 for C I La ge flat surface
. .
.
i n i o r
supported by stays at corners f square areas For each area
. . .
f = 0 2 2 8 p /t o : 32
2
wh ich = di t c t c of stays I n the for o i ng p = 1b per

.
.
in q i o n
of plate f = g t t normagstress l b per q i ;
s s . . . . e s
. s . .
.
W= lb t = t hi k
‘
s c n ess re a es in s s n
ll di mens ion i i nches
.
, , . . .
a s n .
H l l ow oS ph e S t e ng t h i — For i nternal press res

re s, r o . u ,
— 0 65 )
p
i wh i ch 1 should t exceed For ex t ernal press re
.
n 9 no u s,
K ey s, P o po r t i o n o f S u nk (Frey t ag s H ilfsbuch fur den M ch i nen

’ ‘‘
r s . as
— W id t l
0
f ; i o i ; d ln n
d i m f shaft i i nche
. .
a . o n s .
R i v e t ed J o i n t —A ccord ing to C B ach r ive t d jo i nt should be de igned

s. e s s
w ith regard t the fr ict io al hold f the surface fa tened together i st ad
.
,
o n o s s n e
of ly i g on t h shear i g streng th of the r ive t s u ed ; f r ivet wh ich are
.
,
e n s or s
dr ive vi h h t do not f ll the r ivet hol s af t er cool in and sl ip mus t
re l
n r
en o i e
necessar ily take place before t h r ive t s can be subjee t shear T h e o e
German p m p t i are based on th is supp s i t on
.
f l l wi
o o n or ons o i
L p gi nt (or but t jo int w i th a s i ng le cover p l ate ) S i ngle ri vet d

.
a o s s . e
d = 1 4 1/ z in to p = 2d + 0 3 2 i ; D ouble n
r i veted staggered k = l 2 2 50 t
. . . .
= 0 6p o in
; : c1
D ouble ri veted cha i n Tr ple r veted h =
, , . . .
i = 0 8p : n ei i i :
o 5 p (d and the sam for all l p
. .
.
t p
= 3 d +
o 0 8 8 l ; = n cl e e a
j o ints)
. . .
.
A PPE N D I X .
on ca t i ron pulleys w i th the t ight s ide benea th the followi ng tens ion i n
s s
h of w idth may be employed
, ,
ins p i. er nc :
Pulley D iam D i 6 6000 and up

00
. , ns . .
5
8 19
20 28
40
80
For double belts i th ick ) add 50 t 60 7 to valu s i n table wh n n o e e

and 70 % when D > 80 W hen t h dr ver i smaller than
.
D >4O i ns i ns e i s
the dr iven pulley take from 5 t i f t h tabular valu s ; for crossed belt
.
.
.
o o e e s
from 70 to 80 % of the tabular valu s
,
e
The be t cond it io s f dr iv i ng w ith Open bel ts are whe the t of t h
.
s n or n o e
tw p ulleys
o i t h same hor zontal plane ; when the lower i e of the
a re n e i s
b lt
e i tens ion ; when the pulley rat ios are from 1 1 t 2 1 (at mos t
is n o
when pu lley X b l t t h i ckne ; and d i tance between e ss s
shaft = 1 6 ft f belts up t 4 i w ide ; = 33 ft for w i der belt — I g

s or o ns s n
Taschenbuch
. . . .
S t l B l t are used qu i te w ly i Germany They range fr m

.
ee e t s ex e ns e n o
i th ickness and are used up t 8 i i w idth Cro
.
t i o n n o ns n ss
sect ion per H P transm itted at a speed of around ft per mi =
. , . .
n
Th ickness f belt accord i ng t publ ish d i format i n
. . . .
i 8 n o o e n o
m y be ta en p A spec i al jo i n t
. . ,
m t ly XH P )
a i r ox x a e as n
i used and the g
a
elts are made at the fac tory t eno gh less than th exac t
. . .
s o u e
len t h t p d the proper n i t ial tens ion when on the pulle
o io u ce I he i
'
pul y r ims have cork faced canvas cemented around them and i prae
e -
s
el im inates sl ip The e ff ct f centr ifugal force—i negl ig ible and
,
t i ll
ca e o s
spe up t o ft per m i may be used I n a 1 00 H P transm is i on
.
,
n s
us ing 4 0 i pulleys a 2 0 i leather belt can be replaced b
. . . . .
,
-
n -
n
a 4 X 0 0 1 8 i steel b l t ; t h cost i about 60 % f that f a leather be t
. .
-
h e e s o o
dr ive f the s me s ize (due t narrower and l igh ter pulleys and the
.
o a o
power lost i dr iv i ng i but i nstead of around
,
n s
F i c t i on Cl tc e C ffi i t f fr ict i o
r h — u i ron Cor k s leather oe c en s o n on :
w od I n large clutches for h st i ng p ile dr iv ing etc make the
, ,
o ei
a gle bet ween t h cone surface and shaft ax is = 2 0 t Such clut he
, , , .
,
n e o c s
requ ire pressure t hem co stantly—wh ile work ing but they d ise g ge
on n n a
promp tly e i ther s t and ng runn ng C W H unt J l A S M E O ct 08
.
’
, i or i . .
, . . . . .
, .
M ag n e t i Cl tc h e — The exc i tat i on requ i red for a imr l magnet i c

c u s. s i e
clutch cons ist n g of a th ick d isk w ith an annular space mach ined out of
i
s ide for the magnet iz i ng co il and id d w i th a fl t f aced d isk arma

,
on e ro v e a -
tu e f the same d i m e t er may be ca l t d from the eq at ion A mpere

,
r o a . cu a e u :
di m a . all d ime s o s i n 08 n i n i nches — E ngi neeri n g D igest J une , ,

’
.
F r i c ti o n Gea r i n g — A ccord i g t W F M Goss (J l D ec 07 ) n o

’
for a safe work ing pre sure of 1 50 lbs er i nch f width (b ) of wheels the
. . . . . . ,
s o
mit t d = bdN /84 0 i wh i f wheel i
.
,
H P t r a ns d = di m e i N u n o a o n ns
= w k i g coeffi c ient f fr ict ion (6 0 % f actual value )
. .
, . .
.
d an u or n o o as
g ven i the follow i g table
i n n :
D an '
s ri s D R E IV N W H EE L S
lum inum Type Metal
. .
A . .
O 2 73 0 1 86 .
297 . 1 83
3 18 . 309
216 . 24 6
I n d isk dr i ves the d istance between the f ce of the dr iver and the center a
of t h dr iven d isk should not be less than l 2 b
e .
A PP E N D I X .
In v l t e Ge r
o u d isplaced those of the ep i c l id l
a s have pract ically c o
gi m i g
a
form W lfred Lew i (J t meet i ng I ns t M E and
'
i s o rn r n
ham E J uly 2 7 1 0 ) recommends a stub form of t oth h g a pres
. . .
’
n o a v rn
gg e of an addendum f and a dedendum of
, , ,
su re a n o
mak ng depth of o
i On p 49 t the angle 7 5 ment ioned a n e,

°
the d iff erence between 90 and a angle of an angl e

. ,
°
18 F r ess u re or
o f the pressure l ine should be rawn through the po i nt f t ngency o a
of the c ircl at an ang le f to the l ine connect i ng the cent s of the
es o er
c rcles and t h base c ircles drawn tangent to th is pressure l ine The
i e
teeth f racks for a 2 2 5 pressure angle have stra igh t faces mak an
. .
°
o i
a gle of 6 7 5 w ith the p i tch l ine f the rack A t the same m t i
n
°
D o ee n
Steven propo ed an i nvolut t o t h w ith a 2 0 pressure angle an ad d m
.
.
°
s e o en u
of and d d d m f Teeth w ith these large pressure angles
,
a e en u o
W ll s rve for p n ons f 1 2 teeth up t racks ; they are stron er than teeth
.
i e
O
i i o o
of the forms u ed at re ent and a large pr port io n f the ace f such a s s e
'
o o
tooth does f l w The flanks of involu t e t eth w ith i n t h base i
,
use u or e e c r
cles are not work ng parts and may be e ither stra igh t parallel faces fi ll t d i e e
the root rcles have any other form f surface ( a rad ial p lane )
,
to Ci or o as
wh ch does not nterfere W th the face f th teeth i n the i nt rme h ing gear
,
i i i so e e s .
H e rr i n g b o n e (D o b l e H e l i c a l ) G e a r — E d thrus t i n hel ical (or u s. n

sp ral ) gear ng may be avo ded and extra smooth
i i i obta i n d by i -
ru n n n e
comb n ing t w hel cal gear wh ich are exact] equal but w
i o it eeth are s ose
tw isted i Oppos i te d irect ions (r igh t and l t handed hel ices ) Propor
,
n e -
t ons commonly u ed W idth of face f comb i ned gears = 4 X i l p i tch

.
-
i s : o c rcu a r
:
angle of t eth of each half of wheel w ith l ine parallel to ax is of shaft

e
35 mak i ng angle at apex f jo int f two teeth = or c ircumferent ial o o
lead f apex i advance f correspond ing s ide of tooth t out r face =
,
o n o a e
X i mf t i l p it ch
c r cu ere n a .
J o r na l — Length i n
u d iam i i = d
s. n ns
total load i lbs on b i g = P = p ld I n order tha t h ing may not
. . .
n . ea r n ear
heat i t i necessary that l Z PmN /m s W i th respect to strength d = ,
fi 5 P l /f I n th se eq uat i ons for f take } of the values for all ow e

able fi ber stresses p 1 6 3 ; and values f p from table at the bott m of
a
b , h
ou o o
p 1 68 Pm i the mean pressure on h i g i lbs and m should be taken
.
s ea r n n
for crank p i n w i th steel or bronze bear ings both par t s f wh ich
. .
-
s o
are 1 l ly cooled by the surround ing i Under very good c nd i t ions
,
ua a r o
a id babb tted bear ngs and good lubr cat on For
.
( l p l wr i i o i i ) m = 500 000
en i flywheel shaft where the heat mu t be t ken care of by the lower
, , .
ne s s a
ha f of the bear ing m = 8 5 000 t for bronze and t o o
babb i t t d bear i ngs To calculate the d im ens ions of a j ournal det r
, , ,
for e e
m ine rat io l /d from and then l and d from If t h value of I thus
. ,
e
found sat is fi es the calculat ion i complete If not settle on I from s
(3 ) and then determ i ne 1 fr m For speeds below 200 r p m t ake l

. .
( o
h igher speeds take l = 3 d to 4 d (C B ach )
. . .
l 5d to 2 d; f
. or . .
Pi v t ( S t e p) B ea r i n g — Leav ing out f co s iderat io the

o or s. o n n
wh ich d im i n i h the bear i ng surface some 1 0 to s and

t avo id heat i ng it i necessary that
o /m3(us i n the t ti i J our
s no a on n
na s. l above ) F cruc ible s t eel ru nn i g hard e se C I a n turb ne
"
or n on n s i i
s t p bear i ngs take p = 1 2 50 lbs per sq i For transm ss on work n=

. , . .
, ‘
e n i i r
for turb ine bear i gs well de i gned and w th good lubr cat on
. . . ,
, ,
n s i i i
For annu lar s tep bear ings if D and d are respect vely the
.
,
m = 700 000 i
ou ter and i nner d iamet r f step P = 0 7 854 (D — d ) p; also D d mus t

, . ,
z ? -
e s o ,
éPN /m
, .
be .
Col la r B e —i ng s — D = l l d iam d ==h f t d iam ; ar co ar s a

and b = 0 5 (D d) all i i nches Then P dmb p
.
.
.
n , n .
1r z , or i
wh i ch = N f coll a For i co led beari ngs b mus t

z o P N / 1 1 2 000
. o rs . a r o . z .
Th ickn ss of l l = b to d istance between l la = b the

.
e co ar co rs
latter value for hollow bear ing r i s w i th water c irculat on I t d ffi cul t n i is i
to secure a un iform d istr ibut ion gheavy pressure on the colla s and
.
0 s r in
co se and are taken only from to the valu s for

,
u p m u e n ce 3 0 5 0 % f fl t ‘
o e a
p ivot ear in gs O n account of the d i ffi culty of gett n g d of t h he t .
i ri
.
e a
A PP E N D I X .
genera t ed it i customary i the ca e of t rb ine s t ep h i g t use flat

s n s u ea r n o
or annular p ivot bear ings up t d iameters of 6 i or more before reso t ing
. . s,
o ns
to collar b
.
, r
g ea i i i i s .
l B ea ri ng Press u res — From the r lt ob t a ined by S t h k

J o u rn a e su s ri
Lasche and Tower W H Scott (E g D i g st J
ec
09 ) deduc the fol
.
.
’
n e an es
g formula for calcu l at i ng the allowable pre sur s on jou nal bear i gs
. , . . .
. .
,
l w m
o s s e r n
below wh ich there i no danger f the bear i ngs h t i and se iz i g (p s o ea n n
,
ressu e lbs of projected area of bear ng

a
i in i d = d m n
p
ms r
p q .
; er s . . ia .
in
( ) Wh en load comple t ely reverses dur ing each revolut i on on the

.
a , as
ma in bear ings f a vert ical double act ing steam e i o -

ne .
(b) W he load only p t y reverses n on t e ma i beari gs of a ar i a i i , as n n
hori ontal double t i g t m eng ine p = 660dfi / N

z -
ac n
’
s ea ,
(c ) For dead loads w i th ord i nary lubr i cat ion p = 4 oON §

(d) For dead loads w i th orced lubr icat ion p 1 6 00 N i
, .
crank p s vert and h double act ng steam eng in s p =

:
. . .
( ) F e or -
in in . or .
-
i e ,
’
1 . 560 D f N
/ iu
( f ) For ma in bear i ngs of 4 cycle s i ngle act i ng g eng i n s 1
1
l 300d / N i -
,
-
as e , 9 ,
17 o
(g ) For crank p ins f 4 cycle s ingle act i g g eng ne -

o - -
n as i s,
The e values of p are for gun metal bear ngs ; if wh i t metal bear ings
.
s e-
-
i
are used the values may be i ncreased about

,
K c k l e J o=in t D iam f i ! d = di m of rods ; d i am of d head

nu — s. o a
and fork d 2 d ; th cknes F d
t ro
th ickn ss f each fork
. . .
en s i s 0 ro e o
W he the p fit loo ely bend ng stress s mus t be con n in s s i e
calculat io s and i th is case d (safe ) i i f m ild steel
,
Sid d
ere in n , n n ns . or
0 022 4 1/ F where P = p ll i n lbs p i s fi tt i g t i gh tly and tak ing ‘

.
, P u . or n n ,
shear only i nto account

_
S h a f ti ng — D iameter i n i ns
r p m and i the allow
. .
s
taken from 1 63 hav ing ard t (1 ) and (2 ) at t p of p 1 64 Gener
. . .
o o
ally f l ie £ t w 1 ) and 2 ) about 5 of the t abular values
, . .
t, s e ee n or .
of h g = l = 1 00 d for shafts w ithout pulleys ; l = 1 1 0 19 7 for shaft ing

an ers
/
carry ing pulleys g Ta chenbuch . ri . s .
F l exi ble S h a f ts — Steel w ire rope can be used t o dr/i ve portable tools
in one d irect ion f rotat ion For any g iven d t v d ék flH P J N i wh ich
o u n
I ranges i value f rom 8 f § i ropes t 1 1 f 3 mp
.
, ,
: n or ~
a . o or -
ln . s
e .
S h f t C o llar (for prevent ing endw ise movement ) I n t ernal d iam =

a s
-
d ; external
. .
; i in . ns .
C ri t i c al S peed o f S haf t The center l ine of a round sh ft when s s

-
a
ro tat ing does not co i nc ide exactly w ith it ax is of rotat ion ow i g t the
.
s n o
we igh t of the shaf t (and load ) lack of stra ightness v ibrat ion t H ence
. .
e c
centr ifugal forc s due t i nert ia of shaft roduco a bend i ng moment
. . , .
e o re
su i ti ng i a deflect ion and th is i turn i uces greater centri fugal forc s
n n n e
the sp ed increa es the centr ifugal force a proach i n value t the
, .
A s o
elast ic forces r s is t i ng them and t h deflect ion dstress u nle s
s e s )
e t d e an s re ve n e
w ill i ncre se unt l fracture occurs T h speed at wh ich i t b i t y set i
, , ,
a i e ns a s n
i s called the cr i t ical wh irl in speed V l d ord inary c ircum
.
.
" “ '
or g. n er
stances t h speed of the shaft should b at le s t 20 / under N the bal

.
, .
°
e e a as
nce then need t be unusua l ly good If there are t w cr t ical spee d
.
p .
'
a no o i s.
d of m i n imum v ibr t ion between them I n the f ll wm f m=

.
a t th e sp ee a o o or u
d = d i m of s teel shaft i s t eel a sumed t have modu us E
.
las a i n ns s n
W i de flect ion q t i = wt of sh ft or oncentrated load
.
n e ua o ns a c
of shaft value ; vert ical shaf t
. ,
d fl ti
.
in lb l =ls g t h i i ; 8 = en n ns c ec on s
cons idered hor izontal N i r p m as : n
For unload d shafts N = d/l
. .
e , e
A PP E N D I X .
i ntermed i a ft there w i ll be 60 t e t h on the dr m g ar T h c ircu lar

t
e sh a , e u e . e
p i t h of the teeth i found from p fi 2 T m/ /n

c i n wh i ch the t rn i ng s i t cc u
moment T = 5 000 X 7/ 0 = 84 0 lb = of t e th =-60 ; k ti in s n 0 e z
ra o
of w idth rg to pit h Subst i tut ing th ese
, . . . .
y 2 5o; = t t = 300 ea r c sa c co ns a n
value (l ) p ==l 7 2 6 i say 1 7 5 i mak i g p it h d iamet rs of p i n io
, , . .
s in i ns ns n c e n
and gear — 5 57 and Turn i moment t be
, . .
. . .
.
.
p t ly i ns i ns res e c i ve o
transm i tted by the i ntermed ia t e h f t = 7 m = (5 000
. .
.
( 95 X 0 92
‘
s a
i lb Tak ingg = 24 0 and k = 2 the i t h for a 1 4 red uct ion
n -
s c c :
( assum i ng dr iver of 1 3 teeth and dr iven gear 52 t e t h ) f om
. . , ,
, 0 e r
w ithstand a (s fe ) to rs i onal s tr ss of 5 700 l b per q a e , s . s . in .
B el t C o n v e y o — M i n i mum d iam f dr i v ing ll y = 0 666 B + 8 in rs. o i ns

H P requ ired = (C F L e
u
wh ich B = bel t w idth i i wh ich
. . .
‘
000 n ns 4 in
t ns per hour L = l g th of onveyor between cent r
. . .
,
T =l d i oa n o i ft en c e s, n
H = vert i cal he igh t ft =that mat r ial l ifted— i the c e of i ncl ined b l t
, .
,
in e is n as e s
for level co ns tant from t able below For each
.
( 1 1 C = co n v 'o r
movable fi f tr pper add the H P g iven table A dd 20 % t the

s .
or x ec i in o
total H P th s obta ned for a yor ft lo for
. . .
< 50 ( 1 0u% L = 5O t 1 00 i co n v e o
belt per inch f widt h = 33 000 X R B/S B i n wh ich S = bel t
y D
ft ) Stre
. . .
ss i n o
speed ft per m No of pl ies rubber belt = str s per nch of w id t h /20
, .
,
in . in . in e s i .
M s ize M Capac ity ax ax

W i d t h of p iece speed at max spe d V alue
. .
s e
ca rr ied f t p cu ft of*
.
B et
per hr
, , . . .
ins . m C i ns . i n. .
12 2 3 00
24 8 4 00
36 18 500
48 24 600
For mat r i als we igh i ng from 2 5 to 7 5 l b per cu f t ; for 7 5 t 1 2 5 lb

e s o s
per cu f t column should read 0 13 1 and
. . . .
:
idler should be spaced about (69 Q B ) i nche a art and the
. .
, ,
t H
i
gl tn
s s
ge carri ed idl
u p
p aced from 8 t 1 2 ft part rom data
,
re u r on e rs s o s in
a paper by C K mb le B al dw i n 31 S M E J une
. s
. e , . . . .
, .
F l igh t Co n v e y o (E ndl cha i ns runn i g i n tro g h nd carry i ng rs ess n u s a

scrapers or fli h t t i ntervals ) — These conveyors have lid i shoes or s a s
rollers attache t the cha i n fligh t t reduce fri ct ion ; t h flig t do no t o or s o e s
touch the trough bot t om s idesg The follow i g t ble gi ve capac i t ie o f or n a s s
hor i zontal fl igh t conveyo i to ns f coal (2 000 lbs ) at a S pe d of 1 00 ft rs n o e
per m i
, . .
n ; .
F l igh t Lbs p er
s ize i Fl igh t
, .
, ns . 24 i ns .
4x 10 15
5 x 12 23
6 x 18 60 40
8 x 20 1 05 70
1 0 x 24 115
I ncl i nd C y r For 1 0 i nc l i nat i on take 84 % of above we ight :
e on ve o s
°
s
for 2 0 ncl i nat ion and for 3 0 i ncli nat ion
.
° °
i
H P for handl i ng anthrac i te (n glect i g ear ng and oth er dri v ing g
,
n i eo n
ich g t ns
e
wh r h
. .
i ]b ) '
n o s ou r
L=l c th t c of conveyor pull eys i n feet ; W = we gh t i
e oi an d i s n
fl ight both ru s ) lb and S = speed ft per mi 4 and 3 foll ws
. .
s n in s , in . n . . 88 o
H or . 10
°
20 °
30
°
45
°
0 3 43 O 94 5
0 01 0 01 0 009
Speeds range from ft er up 500 ton per
. . .
t 100 to 2 00 m in wi a cit ies

0 o s
ho r — From data i paper by S Peck S RF une 08
. .
'
u . n . . A I J , . . . , .
Sp i ra l Co n v eyo rs — Capac i t i es i cu f t materi al convey ed per hour t n a

1 00 r p m
. .
D iam i
. . .
ns
Capac ty
.
i .
A PP E N D I X .
in i wh ch C = p ca a c it y per m i
in lb s n L = le ng t h of
and for c al for gra in and for ashes
.
o r ve in f t K= 0 67
gg
or o
g
.
.
, . , .
l cck
Power H a m me may be tes ted by the m i of lead y l i d rs rs co ress o n c n
U mg I i X l i l cyl i nder nch lbs f energy f b w = E =
.
s - n C 87 s, i -
o o o
wh ch of compress on nches wt i lbs X
. .
—
C) i i C = m t i in i ; E = a ou n n n
drop m Th is form l a closely approx imat s the values g iven by W T
, . .
in s . u e .
Sea i n A m M h M 1 0 1 9 1 0 when str ik ing l it i Z I O ft per

rs . ac , ar .
, , ve o c es . se c .
Po w er Pr ses may also be tes t d w i t lead cyl inders For 1 } X l i

es e h
c l nders and a speed f mp m f ft per sec
-
.
iii .
i , o co ress n o . .
m
o r co m f res s 10 n 1 ns o
E in i
.
lb n 5 000
-
s .
,
ST E A M E NG I N E H EA T AND T H E .
H ea t I n ul a t oq —T h fl i i t i n t h foll ow i n table were determ i ned

s e coe c en s
by W N s l t p b l sh d Z V D I J une 1 6 g8 and transformed b y
e
‘
us e u l e in
t h author nto E g l sh me ure i E ng D i g t A g B T U con
.
, . . . .
, , ,
’
e i 08 n i as s n es u
ducted per hour per d g F d iff eren ce of t m p t = of s rf ace i
.
, , . . . .
e e e ra u re a r ea u
q ft X fli m t K (from table ) th ckn s f i n ulat ion i i
. .
n
s . . coe en + i es o s n ns
r
.
M ater ial 32 2 12
° °
10 Cork granul at d 2 50 3 87 e
W ool
. . .
I 2 66 403
S ilk w te
.
3 06
as 411 .
379 4 76
Carbon zed cabb age leaves
.
1 1 86 4 03
i 508
I nfu or al earth (loose ) k i el guh
. .
2 1 85 s 4 19 i 53 2 596 or es r.
A sbe to
. . . . .
s s
at at
Sawdu s t at 1 1 2 F ; k esel guh r d ry and compact ed t 3 02 F ;
°
i a
°
at bl t furnace slag cement (9 l g ; 1 cement )

, . , , .
°
as t 1 12 F ;- s a a
P ortland cement n a t t 95 F
, .
°
e a
cont i nued N l t re earches heat i nsul ators
.
, ,
H Gm b
’
D r h e er as usse s s on
and h also i nves t i gated bu ild i g mat er i al s d asbes tos at l w tem peratures
. .
,
as n an o
Some of h i val ue (from Z V D I A g 6 1 9 1 0) are g iven herew i th
s s u :
S i ze of er
. . . .
, .
,
Lb s
gra i n cu t V alues of K
.
Cork gran l a t d in
. .
, t u e “ o .
E x p a nsit l to in .
Pa t e nt gu ri t 2 3 5—4 3
l
G ra n u l a te d cork exp nd d by Spec a heat treatment Prepar t ion a e i l 2
a
m ix d to a pas t e w i th wat e and pph d t p p w th n coat
.
.
e r a e o i es i n su ccess e i s
per V alues of K
.
Lb s
ft 3 2 — 58 — 3 28 F
.
148 — 23 8 cu
° ° - ° ° °
A sbes t os
. . .
A sbest s o
I n a B ri t ish A ssoc iat ion aper Frederi c B acon gave result of s
s i m il a experi men t s us i g e t i heat g dev ces
r foll ows for temper n ec r c in i as
tures betw e n 1 2 2 and 1 6 7 F
, , ,
° °
e . ;
K
Y ell ow p i ne across g ra i n
Teak across g ra i n 1 8 54
S lag wool
.
A bestos shee t i i s n
A b s tos m i llbo rd i i
.
s e to a n
For st ill i Clerk M axwel l and W i kel mann have hown t hat K = 0 1 6 :
, ,
a r n s
it at g ive above i thus seen t be a rem rkably fli t .
ex p a ns as n s o a e ci e i i
n ul t r
,
i s a o .
F m l a fo r Sa t a t ed d S p r h ea ted S t m
or u s ur an u e ea .
T t l H t f 8 1d S t m ==H (i B T U per o ea n
wh c F Th s ed
oa ea 0 . . .
— — 0 000 5 5 ( i i h l d ( m l
( t 2 1 2 ) t g n n e s i or u a is us i
z
. .
.
A PP E N D I X .
Peabody t ables d ’
s an was der ived liv Dr H N D av i f rom t h lat s e e re~
f Gr i ndley and Kn blauch (J l A S M E
, . . .
h G r icss ma i i u Pca k e o
g 0 Sf
a rc es
g
, , . . .
’
cc
S pecific Vol u me o f S u p er h ea t cd S t ea m m V (I + 0 00 1 6 lmp ) in

wh ch volume of saturat d steam at the same and
.
i v==spe c iflc e ressu re

No of degs F of supe h t (W J Goud ie E ma J y r ea r u
formula g v valu s w it h i n 1 % for the ent ire range f press es and sup r
. . .
. .
, ,
i es e o ur e
lea st dealt w ith i the w s t eam tables of P abody and of M arks and n ne e
b aV i s .
The follow ing emp iri cal formulas gi e alues w i th i n the l im i t sta ted wh ich i s
are well w i th i n f those to b f d the w s t am t bles 0 o e ou n in ne e a .
T E M ER RE P RE SS RE a P S AT Un S E M -
U r ro rzs o r AT U ATEn T A
80 F lb to lb b ) p = (0 33 t —
.
32 t
°
o
° —2 —t
) a s :
to F lb lbs
. . . . . .
80 1 2°
0 0 5 t 1 7 b °
p = (1 2 2 t 4 8 — t) o a s
1 60 F
. . . . . . . . .
1 20 t
°
o 1 7 lb t 4 7 lb b°
p = (3 85 t — 27 2 2 ) 5 — t) s o s a s
lbs t 2 5 l b abs ) L g p = 4 1 3 7 4 log t — 8—4 54 3
. . . . . . . .
°
1 60 t 2 4 0 F
°
o o s o
abs L g p = 4 4 8 63 l—g t 9 2 804
. . . . .
2 4 0 t 4 1 7 F (2 5 lb t 3 00 l b
° °
o s o s o o
H t f th Li q i d (h From F
. . . . . .
ea o q) 4 0 t e2 00 h = t 3 1 9; f m
u or .
°
o
°
. . ro
h= t 2 1 5 38
°
t o 4 00 F
S p ci c V l m f S t r t d S t m (v
.
.
,
L g v= 2 523 l og
i n wh fi = abs pressure i l b per sq
e o u e o a u a e ea or o
q i
.
ic n s
z r For
. . .
H t V p
ea i t 0( L ) a or 3 50 — t) a i on
'
or
e ch degree below 80 F h wever i t i necessary t add 0 06 t the resul t
. .
°
a o s o o
obta i ned from the formula
.
, , .
E nt r py
.
b ( 0) (t o . ( y Or
t
i , L /r (o r r /r )
= (0 S t
r g
.
13nt r opy
4
o a p e h ea t e t ea m m 1 11 u ;m
wh i ch deg F gaH
t a iti omp entropy f g at
,
1 7 in tw = s
p
. . . o f su per h .
= r ni wat zr
3
S t ea m E ng i n e D ig n The follow ing are r t i o al —emp iri cal formul as es -
a n
deri ved by O I T oi i 1 90 7 from data a la ge nu mber of e g ine f
.
ro en , n on r n s o
d ifferent type vary ng s ize from 20 t 400 H P A ver g e result
. . ,
_
s i in o a s ar e
iven ( E g D g s t A pr il D = p ist n d iam ; A = p i t ar a
. .
se c n i e o s on e :
length f stroke ; p = 1 2 5 lbs p per sq i g e p ressure ;
.
, , .
“ o n
d and lg= d i m t d length of it under cous i A ll d im n ions
. . .
a t e er a n un era i o n e s
i n i nch mea ure
. .
s .
Pi st R d d = 0 1 51/ D 1
on 0 1 1 4 1/ D L for l w speed e g i ne
o or o -
n s
Cy l i d r Th ickne s of wall = 0 0 54D + 0 2 8 ; clearanc h igh speed
. . 1 , . .
n e s i n i ns e :
5 t 1 1 % ; Corl iss 2 t
. . . .
o o
m t = L 07 whe n N > 2 00 ; when N = I 1 0 t
c ,
St k D ro e+ ia e er o
1 6 3 when N < I 1 0
1 for Corl iss )
. .
P t F = 0 32D
i s on 1( O 2 GO a ce or
Cr ssh d S h
. . .
o A = 0 53 A
ea oes r ea
Cr s h d Pi d = 0 2 5D ; l = 1 2 5d (h i gh speed ) = 1 4 3d (Corl iss )
. . .
o s ea n . . . . .
C ti g R d
on nec B readth f rectangular sect ion
n d = b = 0 G73 1/ L D ;
o s o ro
he igh t = 2 2 8b (h igh speed ) D iam f c ircu lar d for l w speed e g ine =
. .
1
-
. . . o ro o n
0 i n wh ich L = len t h c t c of beari ngs o

For h igh spe gcenter crank
i e
Cr For s ide
. . . .
k P an in l = 0 87d -
a
ank Coi l i d = 0 2 7 D ; l = 1 1 4d
. , . .
cr ss, . . .
M i J rn l F h igh speed cent r crank e g ines d = 6 6 12 H P / N

a n ou a s . or -
e - n , .
/
. .
F Corl iss eng ines d = 7 2 H P /N 2 1 6

or
The forego ing formulas ould be compared w ith the s im i lar one of an
, . . . . .
s s
earl ier date p 74 , on . .
S ha f t (o Fl y wh eel ) Go v e n o —L t = d is tance feet from cent r of

r r r. e s
i: in e
grav ty f we ight t center f pi around wh ich the we igh t turns ;
i o o o n 2
d istance fee t from center f p i t po i nt of attachm nt of spr ing w i ht
in o n o e to e
Then p ll P on S pri ng due t the entr ifugal force of we gh t W (lb
.
cruor revolve at N revs per mi = 0 0003 4 WR i / f wh ich

, u I o c s .
feet from center of sh ft t c f g f we igghg

Oi s n r I i in
72 = d i t
i i
t when runn i ng
. . .
1 s a n cc i n a o o o
at N ; also at N p m P = 0 0003 4 WR s / Le t L = length of spr ing
. .
g 2 r 2 z x i
when closed (i when r p m L when m and L
i , . . .
, .
z
in i ns p = N e 1 r 1, 2
when p m = N Then ex t ens io of sp ri ng t S peed N = 6 = L L
. . .
. . . . . . .
ru .
2 .
, n a 1 1 a:
A PP E N D I X .
64 Wn 3
r /C d‘ in wh i ch = N f free o ils i n the h el i cal s teel spr i ng used n o o c
rad ius f co il i i and d = d i m f round w i re or s ide of squa re
. .
,
r =m ea n o n ns .
. a . o ,
w i re i n i ns d i9 W /K i n wh ich K= 1 2 om to
= /
for round w ire r
g iv ing str sse from lbs per i ) and
, . . .
(or sq are w ire (str sses from

t e s t o 3 n o
Take
. .
u t e o
to for round w i re and t for sq are w i re , o u .
D o b le- ea t ed D o p V a l v e f o S t e a m E ng l e —These usua l ly have

u s r s r u s.
the outer seat of larger d ame t r (d ) than the nner (d ) The Len valve i e i i z tz
however i of a spec ial con truct ion and reverses th is order f h purpose
.
,
s s or t e
of reduc i ng t h spr i ng force requ ired for clos i ng Tak i ng d[ = (d
, .
e
mean d iam and ll wmg f r ibs central hub etc free cross sect ion for st m
.
;
a o or -
ea
fl w = f = 0 6 5 (to for sma l l and large valve resp The
.
. , , ,
z/
o )( d 4 a s
d i meters should be proport oned t allow a veloc i ty f fl w f saturat d
. , .
a i o o o o e
or superheated steam of from t ft per mi for i nlet valve o n s,
and a veloc i ty from 2 5 to 50 % h igher for exh aus t valves
. .
L i ft h i i Z — b) i wh i ch b = sum of the th ickne es of all the

n us n s s
r ibs i a valve V alve seat an gle about w idth of seat from
.
,
n t o
Freytag s H ilfsbuch
. , ,
“ ’
i
’
-
a . .
S t a m Pi pe For short run =(3 0 t 60 ft ) from bo iler to e i or

e
— s. s o ne .
eng i ne t c ndenser area of p ipe 0 009 1 5A i wh ich A = area p is t o
.
o o a c, n 0 n
and = p i t speed ft per (when separa t or i small ) W hen the
, .
c s on in . se e . s .
separat or ha a v ol me 2 30 t i me t he volume of s t eam ed per stro ke

s u s us ,
a = 0 00 6 1 A A c ord i ng to W e iss (I ng Taschenbuch ) for short ru ns

c c
d iam f p ipe d (i i wh i ch G = l os of steam fl wi per mi
.
. . , ,
-4
'
o n n o n
For lo g ma i ns wh ich l = di t from
.
. , .
n i t in s an ce n ee
e i to conden er
,
ne s
f S te m F l wi n g i P i p s P r ssure drop per

.
D ero i o l b a o n e n s
g
r essu r e q s
wh i=ch G = d ty f st am i lbs p r
. . .
i n e n5 i o e n e
cu ft at the pressure i t h pipe L l gt h f p pe i f t = l it y f
.
n e en o i n v ve o c o
fl w i n ft per sec and D = d m f p pe ft For each valve in a pi
. . , .
,
ia o i in
—C E berp
o e
53 8 f t t o the lengt h of p ipe L used e
. .
. .
,
f l
3? 1 908
Ii n d in on n u a
Z e3
'
.
. . .
,
,
M nii m m S t ea m C o n s m p t
u i o n i n E n g l n — L o c m o b il e — B y far u es o s.
the h ighes t s teameconomy ob t a ned by the f the Wolf and Lanz sem i is i u se o
portable eng i nes made i Germany and known locomob ile These n as
“
s
”
co s is t of e g i n s moun t d i nter ally fi d tubul r bo il ers w i th shor t

.
,
n n e e on n -
re a
s t eam connect ion and bu ilt i superheate s A 1 3 0 B H P Lanz compound s -
n r
c nde s i g locomob il e te ted i 1 907 ave a B H P hou p l b st am
. . . .
o n n s n -
r er s e
lbs coal ; gag e pressu e 1 88 b ; superheat 2 10 F A tes t made
. . . .
an d r s
O ct 2 2 09 shows marked i mprovement — 1 B H P hour be i g ob a i ned
. , .
, .
’
-
n t
from l b s t am and lb coal A s imple condens i ng eng ine f 90 H P
. , , . . . .
s e o
t ste d D ec 2 2 09 by Prof G i m 1 B H P hour per
. . . . .
lb
'
e r ess an n ve -
s
s t ea m and coal Th e eng i ne doub l e sea t ed poppet valve
. .
, . . . . .
lb s es s ave - s
controlled by a Lentz val ve mot ion A 1 3 8 Wo l f omp und
. .
c o co n
i g locomob ile w i th p ist n valves (s t eam t mperature 8 06 F ) i
.
°
d ens n o e s re
t d t have requ i red bu t lbs f steam and lb al per B H P
, .
r e o o co
our i a 6 hour t est made J 2 1 1 0 at M gdeburg Ge m any The e
. . . . .
’
n -
an a r s
e ngi n made up t apac i ty
, .
, , , .
es are H P i o . . n c .
E n t o py A P h y i ca l C on e p t i on
r f — The max i mum work done by a s c o
heat eng i ne work i g w it h a quant i ty f heat H between the absolute t mpera
.
,
n o e
tures and i accord ing to the Carnot
r cycle
1 0, H( s, the m i n imum r
amount f heat rejec t ed i W = H — [H ( - or
,
o s r r.
B t H / i the mathemat i cal express ion call ed entropy and be i ng q i
u r
°
s e u va
lent numer ically to W/ the f ll wi de fi n i t ion i po s ible E ntropy i
, .
r o. o o n s s : s
( equ i valent t ) the m i n imum id b e wa te per d gree of the ab olut
o u nav o a s e s e
temperat re at wh i ch all f t h wast i the conve ion of heat i nt wor k
u o e e n rs o ,
by Cec il H P eabody (New Y ork J ohn W iley Sons ) Th e i r com t t i : u a on

i b sed on rece t edeterm i nat ions of the of st am y w
. .
s a p ti n r ro er es e ne
re fi ne d and b igh l a curat methods A b ute t mperatu e i t ake
,
c e so e r 7 s n
e ual t t f ¥ The old table on p 60 h b e re t ai ned for p rpo es
. .
-
o as e n u s
c ma and refe ence
.
0 o r .
H 5
A PP E N D I X .
w he t her heat external t t h work ing substance or co nta i ned w i th in it o e as

i ntr ins ic energy ma be reject d by the work i ng subs t ance e
ti n max imum th ermodynam ic eff c iency p s ible
, .
I ll t Fi ? t
u s ra o n h e i os
us ing dry st am at 1 50 l b abs evapor t d from the hot well temperature
.
,
e s. a e -
and e hausted aga inst a pre sure of 2 lb abs

.
.
x s s
Temperature t 2 lbs abs pressure = F
. .
a t e n re
from water at F t dry s t eam at 1 50 lb heat req u i red
py . . .
o s
from w t r at F t d ry steam at 1 50 lbs
. .
a e B T U o
M in imum w m t t temperature
. . . . .
m ib l = t mpy X h en
+U total max imum work per lb of st am = 1 096 9
e s e ex au s
e
max imum effi c iency
. .
, .
m in i mum poss ibl st am consumpt ion er H P hour under the e e -
lbs per H P hour) — A I

. .
E g N ws Sept 1
. . . . .
M
’
i
enz n , 10 n . e , .
, .
H ea t T a n s m i ss i o n i n S t e m B l l
r t ransm itt d per hour a o e rs. e
from g to wa ter s team per q ft of flue
as 0 0 2 5 wv
or s . .
-
t ) i wh ich m or wat r temp l ) :

.
( 1 — X (g t mp T + t n as e s ea e
d of g i ft per m l mean depth of fl
, . .
v= p m = = i Xi t
.
s ee ; hyd as n l in ra u i c ue n c ri i a
d iam i i : w= l b g per cu ft E mpl T = F t = 4 00 F ; v
. .
°
n ns s as x a e:
and Then F and Q fr m formula
. . . . . .
2 00 ; d = 3 6 i m = 9 ; w = 0 02 ns o
U — J T N colson paper before the J un ior I nst of E g
.
.
.
.
‘
J an 1 4 63
B . . . . i , in . n rs .
,
.
,
C al o lfl V a l u es o f C o l f o m P
r c i ma t e A n a l y es — From govern a r ro x s
ment t sts 2 40 difi t coa l s of ll cl ss s Prof L ionel S M ark h
.
e on ere n a a e s as
found that the hydrogen content H (i per cent ) i foll ows
, . .
n s as :
For V = 1 0 1 2
.
16 20 24 28 32 36 40
H= 4
Fo r V = 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 70
H=
V is
the percent ge of volat ile matter the combust ible and i obta i ned a in s
f om t h prox mate analys s
r e i i .
Ca l o i fl V a l e o f Pe t o l e m O l l
r c For a w i de range f o ils (crude
u s r u s.
-
o
o il to ga ol i ne ) from the pr i nc ipal fi elds of the Un i t d Stat s B T U per
s e e
lb + 4 0 8 i wh ich B = N of degrees on the B méhyd ometer
, . . .
n o eau r
H C Sherm n and A H K p fi J l A m C h m S O ct 08 A ccord ing
.
, . .
'
’
a ro e oc
(E g N ws M y 1 3 the f l l wi formulas g ive the

. . . .
, . . . .
to R W F cn n n e a o o n
calor ifi c values of Cal iforn ia fuel o ils t a h igh degree accuracy B T U
. . .
, ,
o 0 :
per l h = l 7 780 + 60 B and fi rs t for spec ifi c
. . .
th e
grav i t ies up t 3 7 B and the second for p g from 3 7 to 4 5 B

.
, ,
° ° °
o , s . . .
C0 i n F na e G a e — A ccord i g to F F ischer
2 ur c s s. n
the combust ion gases i a properly des igne d furnace should conta i n from
.
n
1 0 to 1 2 % f C0 or better 1 3 to 1 5 % f 0 0 and no C O ; the larger the
o o 2
e of C 0 withou t t h presence of C O and O th better the fi ri ng
2, ,
p t
e r ce n a 2 e e
and t h ower the temperature of t h gases i the uptake (w i th natural
,
e e n
draft from 4 80 to 580 F ) the h igher the effi c iency of the plant The heat
° °
loss due to i ncomplet combust ion i cent temp

. .
e n
d gs F m [per Temp i
. .
l = 4 64 °
i
n e E t F ; p x a p e
-
n s ac c er
cent C O = 1 2 The los = (4 64

. . . . .
z x 12 ) .
s
C oo l i ng T ower — t water for condens i ng i expe s i ve ose s n

cool ng t “ are employed that the water can Ee used over and over
p s. re ur s .
i o ers so
aga in less evaporat on I n such towers the condens ing water i del vered i s i
a trough s me 3 0 ft above und level d t l allowed to tr in k le
, .
to o an i en
l wl down over rou gh u npl n boards t iles or other means for spread ing
~
.
s o a
t t h water i nt th n fi lms for a max imum surface contact w ith the i
,
ou e o i a r
E i ther natural or fan draft i used A bout 1 s ft f ground
.
i s o a re a s re
qu ired for each 6 0 gals (500 lbs ) of water cooledp hour F n if used
. .
s
er a
requ ire about 2 % of t h total eng ine power O lb of i w ill ab orb
. . . . .
e ne a r s
more of it we i h t i w ter to it dryness W ith an
. . .
5 7 0
or di s g n a a cco r n s
effi c iency of
0
each lb of ste m condens req ire 1 95 cu ft of i
.
a u s a r
t o cool the c irculat ing wat r A ssum i ng 2 6 lbs steam conden ed per hour
. . .
e s
H P it w i ll be necessary t f urn ish 8 5 cu ft of i per mi per H P

. .
p er . . ,
o . . a r n . . .
Sa fe t y V a l v es A formula that takes acc un t of t h l ift of t he val ve -

o e
and hence i more rel iable than the var ious statute m i s i D am n
. ,
s c s: i . i
A P P EN D I X .
wh ich E l h steam d ischarged p hour ; L = l ift f va lve in n

s er o
m pr ss re i l b r For 4 5 deg
.
i ii l = h
i ns : l t t
’
a q i so ii t c s ea e u n s s n se a s .
C = (L00 9 5 ; for fla t rl ing J l A S M E
. . . . .
C = 0 00 6 7 — P G
'
t 09 se a s. . . . . a , . . . . .
E co n o m i ze rs — For Green s econom izers w i th scra pe rs q ft f heat i ng

'
s o
surface q i d = k w(t wh ch w = l b water t
. , .
T — t —l ) i
. .
re u re n i s o
be h ated per h from t t t t h ch imney gases be ing cooled from T t
1 z i o , .
e ou r o o e o
Tem pera tu res i deg s P I t i pos ible by the i r
i . 2
T ; l = 0 65 t
1 e o n s s u se
t o heat water up to from 2 1 6 t 23 0 F — (I g Ta chenbuch )
. . .
° °
o . n . s .
A to mo b i le E n g i n e P ro po r ti n — T h follow i ng d ata are from a seri e

u o s. c s
f art icles b A G Kessler and (J W Lew is i A m M ch Sept 1 5 1 0 '
o n
and later i h y repr sent the average pract ice of th i rty A mer ican make s
. . . . . a .
, .
, .
’‘
c e r
f 4 cycle eng nes
.
o -
i
R ti g f 4 cycle type formula i n wh ich

.
a n o -
d = y l d iam i and = N of cyl i nders ; average A meri can

.
c i n ns d n o an
fore ign Formu la ba ed on p ist n speed of ft
. . . .
s o
per mm
.
W ight f gi i n lb =
.
e o + 1 14 en ne s
L gth f s t r k i i
. .
en = 1 4 3d o o e n ns
C n ct i g k len gth
. .
o d l gth = 4 3 5 X
ne n ro en cr a n
P i st l gth = l l 4 d; th ickness f p ston face = 0 044 d; p ist n webs
. .
on en o i o
h i k ; p s ton barrel th ckness g t W t of p is t n i l b =
.
Oé
.
fi
d ia
5
i
g
t t ; n c i i , o 5, n . . o n s.
P i st i gs O uts i de d iam f fi n ished b l ank from wh ich r ings are cut =

u o
on r n : o
1 04 d ; w id h f r ings = i ; max th ick
.
t o i ; mi l
n n n
ness = 0 63 7 X m t h ick ness ; depth f th ic k ness )
. . . . .
. ax . o
i n
cl r at closed at n d = 0 00 1 d
.
Pi t s on ea a nce o en
Wr i st p i (hollow ) O uts ide d iam = 0 3 4 i ns ide d iam =
. .
ns :
d iam O verall l g t h = 0 95d; d iam of boss (out ide ) =
. . .
X t id ou s e en s
d iam of p i n ) + 0 2 5 i ; we igh t f p i l h = 0 2 76d
. . .
X t id ou s e n o n, s
W r ist p i bear i ng
. . . . .
n f pi o n
c t i g r ds (PI sect ion ) Th i ckness f web and flang at
.
C onn e n o j mt t -
o es o o
i ; th ickness of flanges at dg = fi i all s iz s A rea of
.
w h= e
f a f e es a or e
leas t sect ion (ne r p is to n pi end ) i q W idth of flange
i ; . .
. .
a n n s
D epth of web t to out f flanges at p is ton p i end =
.
2
0 03 6d ou o n
w d th ept at crank end wh ich
.
h = 1 3 X fl g i D h an p i h e = h (3 3 — 0 4 l) n i
‘
in
stroke n Co nnect ng length f rod
. . .
= 1 7 51; wt
a zb
f i °
t h n i n i o d ro o
g g s . .
R e i pr c t i g p r t s we igh t i n l b = 4 4 5d
c o a n a s
Cr k sh f t (four throw th ree bear i ng type generall used O verall
, . .
an a s ) -
length i D iam of all crank p i = d = 0 53 Lengths

.
,
n i ns n
of beari n g length center front end bear
.
x . .
s: l a
i ng —d 1 1gin ( f another type = 1 6 7d + 0 55 g t h rear bear ng
or or 1 en i
(flywheel in
, . . .
Cr k w b s Th i ckness f each f the four webs at r gh t angles t o sh aft =

.
an e : o o i
i ; th i ckness f the t w i ncl i n d w b = 0 5d “idt h ’
0 4d a o o e e s
f webs at righ t angles to h f t = 0 3 83 d i ; W dth f ncl ned webs =
. . .
.
o s a .
, n . i o i i
i 0 6 6 6d
ns “
F l y wh l s ( 1 2 to 2 1 i ns d iam for 4 and 6 vl eng i nes ) O ut i de d am

. .
1 .
ee -
e : s i
f crank arm ) D iam c f g of im
. .
. .
,
Xl gt h en i t t o n ou o o r se c
t ion d = fly wh l d iam — l i (avg for 3 0 t yp s ) Flywheel we igh=t
. . . .
ee ns e
in A rea f mm sect ion
2 . . . .
q o in s . i ns .
C yl d r w ll s in Th ickn ss = § i n (giv i ng fi ber stresses from 2 80Q t

e a : e o
per sq i n for a max expl s ion pressure of per
. ,
lb s 3 50 l b q o s s
J ck t s W idth of jacket S pace = 0 6875 —0 03 7 5d; th ickn ss f j acket
. . . . . .
a e : e o
wall c s t i ; sheet met l to f i
. .
'
s: a ro n . 9 n a n
Cyl i d r h d th i k = t hi k cyl w ll + § to f
3, .
, f, .
n e ea c ness c ness 0 a in
Cl r (avg t o g i ve 7 6 l b compre s ion pressure ) Clearance
i
.
g ? .
ea a nc e . s . s .
in i = 0 24 1 d — O l 3
ns
V l s D is tance i i between valve and cyl cent r l i = 1 3 3 d
. . . .
a ue n ns e n es
Pract ically all automob ile en i v lves are of the poppet type
. . . .
ne a
w i th e i ther flat or 4 5 seats V alve ; valve l ft
.
‘
°
ia i
Th ckness f valve
. .
i o
V l c i ty f G e o Fl w i per m i n = d l N /2 4 d l “ i wh ch
o as o ns 2
a n i
t ms length 6 t 8 i
, . .
'
l l a ve s e . . o ns .
Va l ve wei ght (disk + st em) i n oz .

= 2 03 d32 .
A PP E N D I X .
Aer o pl n a e s — Su pport i ng f = l gt h or span f pl X h d (or su r a ce en o

'
a ne c or
w dt f p l nes A spec t r t io ( = pan 6 av g 5
.
i h) x N o o t a a a -z
o
made by chord t l ne of fl igh t var e from 3 t generally lm t
. . .
,
°
A ng l e or o i i s o a u
Di t s ance between pl = h d Camber or arch i g of l = h of a n e1 c or n a n es
chord avg From 2 5 t 4 l b per q ft of plane area can 8 supp rt d
.
o s s 0 o e
when mach i ne i i fl ight
. . .
. .
s n
L if t i n g nd P r p lli g S cr ws Forward thr t (or vert i cal l i ft ) l b =
.
a o e n e . us s .
C N l fl i n wh i ch
2 2
and D = di m f screw i ft C = 9 5 to 1 1 a o n
or propellers and 1 9 to 2 2 for l ift i n screws A x ial p it ch f screw or
, . . .
o
advance per rev = 0 5 X d i m avg a D i g t Feb
, .
,
a n es
M t rs — G asol i ne eng in s for aeronaut ical work w h from 2 } t 6 l b

. . .
, . .
, .
,
’
oo e e o s.
er r p m about gasol ne per E H h 1 lb
,
t i -
r o
wh ch veloc i ty of fl igh t i ft per and
. .
. . . .
, .
P q i d = R /
re 50 i =
u re v o n i v n se c
i n lb R = W tan + 2f A i wh ich A = t t l area f plane
. . , . .
,
R= i t
res s a n ce s ct n o a o s
i sq ft and f = fr ict ion per ft f plane area W = wt l we igh t
. .
5 o a su
of—plane i n ft pf
n
ported wh ch
. . . .
W =
.
( /L ) i L p v1 -35 in s an
i i m i es per hour i ns tead f O Squ e
. .
v s n G use o eo i r,
paper D ec 09 Follow i ng are values calcul at d for f
. . .
’
in , .
, . e .
FR I I O o CT N , LB S PE R s . FT
UL IC S AN D H Y D R A ULI C M A CH I N E R Y
H YD R A .
F ri c t i o n i P ip e a n d C ha n n e l — L o f H e d — I Z n J une s s ss o a n
2 7 and J l 4 0 8 D r R B iel g iv s a w formula for determ i n i ng the loss of
. .
’
u e ne
head app i b l t li qu ids f var ious dens i t ies a es compressed i
, . . .
o o a r,
s team etc flow i ng i both p ipes d (i the ca e f giq id ) Open channels
, ca e , s ,
n an n s o u s
i n wh ich account i take n f both the buess f the i nner p ipe surface
, .
, ,
s o r ou o
and the v iscos i ty f t h flu i d Th is f m a i o e . or u s:
H f = 4k L v2/D
D )l (1 )
in wh ich H = l f head feet L = l gt p pe thousands
oss o f fee t in en of i in o
it y of fl w i ft per D = p ip d iameter i ft Z = m d l of
¢ , ,
v = l
ve oc o n se c e n o u us
v is cos i ty b = f t depend ing the v iscos i ty f = f t depend g on
. .
,
ac o r on ac o r in
the b uess of the nner p pe surface and The
, ,
ro u i i
value Z vary w i th the t emperature and are fo l lows
,
s 0 as :
32 F 62 F 1 50 F 2 1 2 F 2 1 92 F
° ° ° ° °
. . . . .
Water 0 177 5 01 1 1 004 6 003 1

A i steam vapor
. . . .
137r, 1 574 21 23 , . . . .
(68 F ) 23 (approx ) °
G l oa as
D r B i cl s ifi es the var ious degree of rough ne s (or rugos i ty ) of p i pe
. . .
e as s s
and —channel surfaces follows
.
as :
I D rawn brass tubes ; smooth lead p i pe ; gla s tubes ; smoothly pl ed s an
a d varn ished wood surfaces
.
.
n
II —P ipes or ducts f rolled sheet metal ; wrough t iron g p ipe ; r ive t ed
.
o as s
s teel p ipe ; wood stave p ipe when very smooth ; good w c st i ron ip
.
ne a e,
carefully la id w i th cement jo i nts ; rectan gu lar fl m of planed b fi u es OM C
[ I L — O rd inary w ca t i ron p i pe wood— stave p ipe ; m vent il t i
.
ne s or ne a
shafts covered w ith coal dus t (5 yea l d about ) ; cement mortar an rs o
evenly— compacted concrete s rfac s
. ,
u e
Unpl ned boards well la id br ickwork ; ord nary concrete
.
IV a - i
V — Common br i ckwork hewn ma onry
. .
.
: s
~
V I — Corr gated i ron i duct badly corroded ; p l l l br ckwork

. .
'
u a r s. OO I V aI C i
and rubble ma onry ; earth canals : brooks and r ivers ; wat rcou se w it h
'
.
s e r s
v get t i on or ough st ny beds etc
e
a
, r o , .
l __
A PP E N D I X .
val ue of b and f for wat r

T he s e a ir , steam and g are follows as as :
D egree f R o ghness II
,
1 o u 1 11 IV V
R ugos ity factor ] 003 53 0 0994 0 1 98 7 02 98 1 0397 5
V sco ty fac t or b
. . . . .
i sil 72 1 1 2 86 83 3 4 89 489
bZ for water at 53 6 F
. .
(Z = 0 2 1 37 0 1 5 94 0 1 03 3 00 58 00 58
bZ for wat r at 2 1 2 F
. . . . .
°
e .
(Z = 003 98 00 2 57 00 1 5 2 00 1 5 2
for i at normal
. . . .
bz i a r
t emperature (68
°
1 90 6
.
p p p p p
[ N ote — For a i r ,
compre sed i steam g t Z = 1 4 2 2 Z /p i n wh ic h s a r, as , e c i
pr ss re l b per q ; Z i t aken f m t h prev i ou table )
, .
, .
p = ab s . e u in s. s . ia . s ro e s .
To fi d the loss of he d i n lbs per q

n for water mult i l value b a s in p y o
tamed f r ] ! by for free ai r (at 68 mult iply 11 by
. .
,
°
o
E mp l Calculate the loss f head i n 500 f t of 1 2 i ri veted ste l

x a e. o -
n e
p e w ith wa t er f ord i nary temperature (6 2 F flow i ng at the r te of

. .
°
i o a
3 t per I n th is ca e L = O S ; D = 1 ; and v also
, .
sec b s
and Z = 0 0 1 1 1 Subst tut ing i n i t i found that
. . .
.
ft = i s
lb p q i
. . .
. er s . n .
For p i e runn i ng l than fu ll fl m condu i ts ewers canals r i vers t

Loss ophead
s ess , u es, , s , , , e c .
,
in
(L / R x romss (N i / i ) (bZ / u / i
z
in wh i ch R i the hydraul ic i = sf cross sect ion f flw sq ra us a re a o -

o o in
g t h of the wetted per imeter i ft Z i taken from t h fi rs t table

.
ft l + en n s e
g ive wh le I d b have t h f ll wmg values
. .
n, i an e o o :
D egree of
R oughness
ough masonry eart h c n ls w i th wall ed

R a a
ba ks pl st red slopes
,
n or a e
E arth canals brooks ri vers
.
W ater cour es obstructed by weeds

, , .
d s an
stone s
W ater courses obstructed by many s tones

Water cou ses very badly obstruct d 58 5 r e
(V al ues of b belo w V are negl igi ble ) .
T b i n e A ll m dern A meri can t u b i n are pre sure t rb i ne of the

— ur s. o r es s u s
rad ial nward flow type i wh ich h wa t er ent at the per phery of the
i -
n t e e rs i
r nner and flows th ro gh it u nder a cert in s t t ic pre s re the whole
,
u u a a s u as
ava il able h d i t turned i n t o S peed at the e t ran ce ; t h ent a nc peed
1
ea s no n e r e s
i s le s than the spou t i ng

s l ea i ng part of the pressure v
he d t accelerate the rel t ive wat r stream i the runner R egulat on
.
a o a e n i
for a fl w e i ther w i th or w i thou t pr ssure head i poss ible by a proper

.
o e s
cho ice f bucket and gu ide vane ngl
o a es .
T rbi n D e i g u A ab olut cri t ri on for tu rb i ne i n ference t o t h

e s n n s e e s re e
de iderat —m h ighes t s peed and h ighes t capac ity comb i ned w i t h good
.
s u :
eff c iency i an ex pr s on called the type character is t ic ( Germany
i s es i
“ ”
in
the spec ifi c speed Th is charact r ist i c the spe d i r m of a turb ne
,
’
e is e n i
d im in ished i all d i mens ions to such an ex tent to deve D 1 H P W k "

. . .
n as O ?
work i g under a he d f 1 ft E xp re ed m th emat i cally type hame

n a o . ss a , c
i n wh i ch H = h d i ft and N ea n
The t of runner for var ious v lues of K are follows For Kw 1 2
.
a as :
to 2 8 w speed =l w capaci ty ; for to 4 4 med i m sp d med um
, .
o o u ee i
flP it l fi for K 4 4 to 8 7 h i gh speed h i gh capac ity (all ba ed on a hy

, . . .
C aC i . , s
A PP E N D I X .
draul i o ffi c iency of 80% 1 The ty pe be i ng de t rm i ned the runner d i am

e . e , .
D l I / N i n wh i ch K ==8 7 t o 99 f l w speed 99 for med ium or o

speed and 99 to 1 34 for h igh peed
, ,
, s .
For l w peed l w capac i ty turb i ne the bucke t angle 5 ( F ig 4 D

o -s o -
s s ee
and the vane gl less ; for med um speed med i m
, .
= 60 t °
o an e oc or i u
capac i ty fl= 90 for h i gh speed h igh capac i ty fi = 90 t

,
= 25 t ,
°
, or
°
o , ,
°
o
or = °
3 0 to
The bread t h of r nner B (i n ft ) ra nges from D /3 0 t D /2 i good p u o n ra c
t i ce For h igh heads B = D /3O t D /8 ; for med ium heads B = D /8 t D /4 ;
.
o o
for l w h eads B = D /4 t D /2
. ,
o , o .
Th ere are t h ree d i ame ter to be co ns i dered D t entrance of bucket s : a s

D at ex i t i t of ru nner bucket and D at t h neck of draf t
”
( Pi
’
n e
tube he ir rat ios (D bi i g known ) depend on the value of B W hen
see ,
n
when B = D /8 when B = D /4 D = D >
. .
B = D /3 0
'
nd when B = D /2
, , .
’
D ; a ,
Th mb f bucke t on runner = n = l i / d i n wh i h d = d i am of runner

e nu er o s e c
i n i nches and k 7 3 and 2 2 respect vely for l w med i um and h igh
.
,
i o
sp ed The number f g id e vanes should be greater than t h num ber
, , , . .
’
e s . o u n e
of buc ket n ; and i n wh i ch k = 2 5 3 and 3 5 re pect i vely

__
s n i s
where gu id e vane a g le i 2 0 le It i
.
, , ,
° ° °
2 0 to d 30 t n or s or s s, an o s
b t account of mechan ical reasons t have an u neven number of

es on o
and that the n mber of gu ide vanes be d iv is ible by 2 (or p ib llb uckets
,
u 4) i o ss n
order t avo id hav ing more th an one bucket edge co i nc ide w i th vane
,
o e
t ip t t he ame t ime
a s .
The gu i de ca e hould so be de i gned th at the sharp edge f t h i nter s s s o e

sect ion f the su rface of a ggu ide vane when produced falls ou ts ide t h
o e
runner F ig 4 1 ) and a good clearance left be tween t h
, ,
ip h y (
t i ps f per ipher Th is w ill all ow enter i g streams wat r t j o in
er er see . e
a nc y
n or e o in
a sol id ri n g and null ity the e ff ect f edd i s on the capac ity B uckets when
.
o e
made of steel plate should be from (for D = 1 ft ) to i i (for D = 7
.
1 in n
to 8 ft ) t h i ck ; c a t i ron bucket m t o i i n th i ck bet ween ame l i m it
. . .
1
. s s, . . s s .
to t h e d af t t ube d i ame t er at D the veloc i ty i n ft Iper ”

I n r 01 ) sec
should e about the sam e the fl w veloc i ty the d ischarge area f the
, . .
as o in o
runner Th i represents a d irect loss wh ich i part ially recovered b t h
s s
gould
p
con ical low r p t f draft tube Th i s d is ha loss
. ,
e ar o o s
not exceed the follow i ng percentages of the he d l w speed l w cap
.
it a o -
o -
ac
runne s O 04 to med ium speed med ium capac ty 0 05 t O 08 h gg
.
r i o i
S peed n d capac i ty 0 08 t o 0 1 5
, .
. , . .
,
E mm H = I GO f t ;
.
, . .
x a e N = 2 5O p m A ssum i ng 80 % r
8 0 X 1 00 ) — 2 7 5 cu per
. . . . .
e fly Q = H P ft se c
water per cu ft ) From t hese values K = 3 9 55 consequently runner
" . . . . .
i s
of t he m d ium eed m d capac ty type w h Ther fore
. ” . .
,
p i m e i i t fi = s , e u , e
D = 96 y ) 4 f t No f and for sa o
c st i ron th ickness t = i Take No of gu ide vane = 2 0 and de ign
, . .
a i n. s so s
th m that t he ir th ickness (produced ) at per iphery of runner = 0 l h
, .
,
'
e en ,
free i mf m= 1 2 1 6 ft A K = 3 9 55 i near t h upper
.
c r cu= D ere n ce 1r s s e
l im it 4 4 t k B = D /4 = l f t Then free entrance area = 1 X 1 2 1 6 = 1 2 1 6 q
. .
. .
a e s
ft and t h rad ial c mponen t of th entrance veloc i t
, . . .
e = Q/1 2 16 o e y ar .
Wh en B
ence assum i ng the hydr ul ic EH X t an or
.
X S i n or . c, = H a
= 0 84 and g = or = 23
,
e ffi cie n c — 32 1 6 t e T h upper an 0t e
draft tu e area ( neglect i g sect ional rea of sq ft
. .
, , .
x 4 = n 2
a
Th erefore d ischargegveloc ity = 2 7 5/ 1 2 5 7 = 2 1 86 ft per sec and the di
.
cr s
cha ge loss p wh ich i sat isfactory i t l ie
. . . .
,
r t g = /2 H = e r ce n a e Ci
z
Q s as s
between the pec ifi ed l i m i t f 0 05 and 0 08 s s o . . .
I f the value of K for a g i ven t f valu for H P H and N ex eeds se o es c

8 7 a mult iplex turb i ne must be bu ilt For example if K = (say ) 1 7 4 or
, .
t W ll be cons truct a q d m pl t urb ine each runner

. .
, ,
2 X 87 ti i n e cessa r o ua
of wh ich i des igned for fi 87 If K works ou t t be l ss than 1 2 and
ex .
s o e
i t doe not seem adv isable t make B smaller than D /3 0 an i mpulse wheel
.
,
s o
mu t be u ed
,
s s .
A PP E N D I X .
If now four nozzl s are used 1 wheel (or tw w heels each w i th t w e 9 1 o ne o , o
nozzles) K per B oth solu t ions are po s ible the s

fi t g mg a m ler and cheaper un i t but of lower effi c iency the second
, , .
rs iv s a
cost n g more and tak ng up more space b t be g more effi c ient Tak i g t e
,
_ .
i i , u in . n i i
second case (4 nozzle ) or for each noz s

zle = 0 06 94 5 ; d fro m formu la above = 4 4 i and D = 64 8 i
,
A ns ns s
or
. . .
. . .
N f t o . o an
I t i poss ible by s i g four s ingle nozzle wheels

s a s i ngle wheel w i th u n -
or
fou nozzles to equal t h m in imum l im i t f 1 2 for K of r d ial i nward fl w
.
°
r e o a o
turb ines and the ent ire fi eld or t for wat r turb i nes can there
, ,
i m u re en s e
fore be sat isfact r ily covered by t classe alon —C ondensed by
.
tw o ese o s e
of S J Z w k i from h i copyr igh ted art icles i E g N ws
.
r mi i ss o n o s s n n e
an 6 and Feb 1 0 1 9 1 0 t wh ich the reader i referred for further part i culars
. . . . ,
o s
S h f ts For vert ical shafts d iam i i t re i t buc k li g =

. .
, . .
T bi ur ne a . . . n ns . o ss n
P L / 1 1 i n wh i ch P = t t l we igh t of shaft runner etc i n lb and
4
d= 2 o a s
g t h f shaf t i n f t W th the same value of P calcu l at a t h

, . , .
, .
,
L= en o i g i e s e ea r n
a pre e f from accord i ng to e speed
.
f
or tssur lb p q o o s . er s . ln .
, .
For af e t y aga i n t heat i ng make dZ PN /m i n wh i ch

s sand ,
m= 22 5 000 t to if bear i ngs are submerged )

o
— I ng Ta chenbuch
. .
. s .
CTR O TE CHN I CS EL E .
W a t er R h eo ta t — A ti fl l a l L oa d —I tes t i ng electr i cal mach i nery

s s r c n
art ifi c ial loads may be i d i the c ircu i t by connect i g i a water
.
nse : e n n n re
f iron sheets suspended i vat barrels suppl ied w i th
.
i t
s s a n ce co ns s i ti n o n s or
runn i ng wat r t h d is t anc b ween the sheet be i g capable of dju t
e e e s n a s
ment I n hydroelectr ic plants the plat s may be attached t a wo de
, e t ~
e o o n
frame lowered down i nt the race and used cont i nuously E ach plat
.
o e
should have an area f from 4 t 5 sq i per am pere and the vat or t ank
, .
o o ns
should have a capac i ty f from 3 ga ls For the hydro
. .
.
t KW o o
parea per ampere for each
er
electr i c plant arrangement
. . .
t i o s ns 0
late i suf fi c ient Three 1 2 x 1 2 i p tes 4 to 6 i apart wi ll serve
, .
s n ns
or a load f 500 K W current at vol ts For h igh
. .
. .
,
th o ph on r ee ase
voltages the wat r should be fed t the vat or barrel th rough rubber ho e
~
. . .
e o s .
Ca n dle P ower a n d V ol tag e o f I n a n de ce n t La mp

- c s s.
D ecrea e i voltage s 1 2 n
D ecrease i candle power
,
n -
:
Carbon fi l ment l amps 3 5 7 a
M etal
.
2 13
T u n g s t e n L a m ps are made for vo l tages up to 2 50 They requ ire about

1 watt per and ma i nta th is effi c ency up t about hours
.
p c .
-
.
, in i o .
A L a
rc m p s — A pprox i mate Candle Power and E ffi c ienc i es
.
-
s .
Am p V olt hem ispher i cal p per s c -
candle—power watt
. . . .
O pen a re
1 83 0
E nclosed r
a e
2 3 60
Long are
3
Flam ing a r e4
M ercury r va
(Cooper wit t ) 3 5 1 10 800 e 2 08
l
N globe o O palescent i nner and clear outer globe 2
Uses soft co ed 3 -
r
carbon Uses carbons impregnated W th m neral salt
. .
,
‘ i i s
s . .
B he
ru s C n t D e n s i t ie
s, i u rre s n.
A mperes per V olts d rop at
sq i curren t . n i n ax . .
Co pper
B ra s (very th i n l aves )
.
s e
Carbon very s ft o
hard
, .
.
A PP E N D I X .
c n e T oo ls El ect ri c D ri v e for Ma h i .
A v rag L oa d Fac to —L t h
e
g 1 0 t 2 5 % (car wheel lathe
e rS c a e o 30 to
bor g m il ls 1 0 t dr l l ng mach ne 2 5 % (small ) t
s.
in o i i i s, o 4 0 95
(large dr lls ) ; m ll ng mach ne 2 5 % (slab m ille
,
'
10 t i 30 t i i i s. o rs o
1 0 t 20 7 (heavy work up t Standard mot r s iz P
,
pl a ne ts , o , , o o es . H .
i , 5 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5, H , 1 0 , 1 5. 20 , 2 5, 3 0, 50 .
e t d d
T pe s o t M o tors B s A a p te to D i f f e re n t T y pe of M a h i n e T oo l s c
—T c cla s cat on here g ven aken from a paper read by C h arles Fai r
s ifi i i is t
s.
be ore the
f The d iff erent t ype of moto
A pr 1 2 1 9 10 i s rs are
at fol ows shunt compound wound ; C 40 % m
. , .
n~
d ica te d l : A ; B , 20 %
pound wound compound wound ; E se ie ; F qu i rrel
, , co
rotor nduct on mot r G same F but w ith h igh s t art ing t rque ; fl
; D 80 % , , r s , s
i i o ; as o
sl p r nduct on mot r W th ext rnal rotor res is tance ; J 3 0 % compoun d
, ,
i - i ng i i o i e
wound C and are d rect current motors ; F G and H
.
J
.
A, B D E i -
t r at g c rent mot rs
, . , , , ,
al e n in ur o
t
.
U se Fo r
A, F olt cutters bor ng mach inery cent r ing and chuck ing
B i e
mach ne dr ll g and m ill ing mach ine t ol g inde
, .
,
i s i in s. o r rs ,
m l ng or broach ng k y t small rotary s ws
,
i li i e se a e rs , a
screw mach nes tap ers p ipe cutters i
,
B C F G B olt and ri vet bend ing and sh ari ng

, . .
lld u o z ers ,
corrugat g roll
, , , . e
m hi n er in
fi
ac s
C D E H B end i g
.
,
n ro s
B F Gri nder f cast g rec procat ng k y t cold bar
.
, , , 0
or i n s. i i e se a ers .
and I beam saws hot sa ws shaper l t t tumb
, .
-
s, B o e rs,
l i g m ills
, ,
n
Gear cutters hea vy lab m i ll er otary pl
.
s s, r a n ets
hammers
. .
D ro
Lat
.
a
s
Lathe carr ges ia
Punch presses
.
B F G P laners swagi g mach ine

.
, , . , n s .
S i e n d S peed o f M otor — (D irect current or 60 cycle induct i n

z s a s s -
o
mot rs f cons tant S peed W t ad j u table speed rat o of 1
o o , i h s i
E ngi n L th e L ight duty a H ea vy duty

es . . .
Sw i ng in HP R p m H P R pm , s . . . . . . . . . . .
14 2 5
16 3 5 1 2
00
‘
75 7
20 3 l 00
24 5 10
30 7% 15
3 6—
48 75 20 900
Wh l L t h —
ee 51 l 1 5 H P ; 79 i a 2 5 H P ; 1 00 i
es n n n 50 H P (5 H P
ta il st ck —
. . . .
.
, . . .
, , , . . .
f
or o
B i g Mi or n 30 i 5 H P ; 42 7 5 H P ; 90 10 H P ; 1 00 i n in in n
at
. . . .
. . . .
, , .
,
—
, .
15 H P ( ll 1 0 12 ft
a 20 H P ; 1 4 ft 25 H P ; 1 6 ft
11 ) H P ( 1 0 ft and above at 900 R a l mot for s ize 90 i and
.
, ,
.
. . . .
. . .
,
i o rs s n
above = regul —r mot r H P
. . . .
a o
4 ft 6 ft 5 H P
. .
R di o D i ll 3 HP r s . . . .
1 0 ft HP
U p ;L Fr ct ion } rpm
.
.
,
D ill — 15 m
'
ri r s . i ,
. . .
26 i n 1 H P 34 i 2 H P (1 2 50 3 H h ih
r
.
.
,
. . .
, . .
, .
(1 2
M il l i g M chi s — 2 4 i n (t ble feed ) x 8 (cross feed)
.
H i a
-
zo n a ne a in
3 6 t 50 x 1 2 l n
. . . ,
3 H P . . 30 10 i 5—7 5 H P x n .
, . . o .
,
7 h—1 5 P
l M i ll i n g M chi — 2 8 i ( t ble d i am ) 4 i n (sp ndle d am
. .
0
V t er i ca a nes n a x i i
40 x 4 } l
. . .
5H P . . 10 H P 70 6 i 20 H n .
, . . x n .
. .
(il l )
S l b M ill i g M ch i n
a — 2 4 30 i w i dth of t ble 1 0 H P ( l
n a es - n a
r p m 60 i l igh t or 3 6 i he vy 25—H P
. .
.
. .
15 H P
'
36 ih n n a
H ri s indle
. .
.
, . . . . . . . .
t l M i g d D ill i g M k h m 3 } l
'
o B i g zon a or n n an r n ar a ll p
4 in
. .
.
3 H P 5 H P 10 H P 15 H P
.
6 l 7 ’
n in
(speed
. . . . . . . .
s.
2 10 A PP E N D I X .
P l rs Med ium D t y —2 4 2 4 i 5 H P : 3 6 x 3 6 i n 1 0 H P
a ne ii x n
For heavy duty mult iply H P by
, . .
, . . . .
5 6 x 56 i 15 H P
n A l l t 90 0 p a r iii
and take next lar er s ize of motor Heavy frog and sw t ch for i ;
.
, . . . . . . .
i nf
1 x 1 0 ft 6 0 H P ( 1 0 for ra il ) ; 1 4
.
pla ne ts (7 2 0 12 ft 75 P x
( 1 2 for ra il )
. . . .
Sh p r
.
a e s 1 4—2 O
. 3 H P
-
24 i 5 H P ; 36 i
in . 7} H P
, . . n .
, . . a .
, . .
Cr k S l a
an o t t i
n ei inche o ze n s
C ld S ws 2 H P
.
o a 12 “ i -
x 18 i 3 H P n x 1 n
3, 1;
“in
. .
, . . .
, . .
24 x in .
, 5 H P . . 36 x 1 .
, 10 H P . .
r r — 1 0 i n 5 H P ; 1 8 i 10 H P at
G i nd e s r p m for med —m
i um work n
heavy work take next larger s ize (7 h and 1 5 H P paper
. . . . . . . .
For
by Charle R obb i n b fo e the
. .
.
s Ap s, 1 2 1 91 0 e r r. , .
P owe =R e i d b y M a c h i n e =Too l — L t d= di m i p iece

r u re mach i ned ; s. e a o
feed p rev : f l nche feed per stroke ; f = i h table
.
in m ; j i
s nc es er i s z nc es
feed per m ; N = p m N = N of cutt ing strokes per m i ; = d p t h
. .
in r i o n s e
of t i i : l = t k i i : D = d ill d i am i n i : and b = widt h of
. . . . .
cu n ns s ro e n ns r ns
m i ll i cutter i i Then for
. . . .
n ns
L fi d B r i g M il l s H P
.
,
a es a n 3 14 Kd
o n ; s
r S h p r S l tl H P
, . . .
Pl a ne s, a Kl N f ;
e s, o er s, i is
D ri ll feed p
. .
s, H P = 1 57 KD N f (N = i 2
ns er
M i lli g M hi s hor izontal H P m i 1 steel )
. . . .
n ac 1 6 5 f (f
ne 3 2 or (
vert ical H P b f
, , . . . .
s
V alues f K B r s d s im ilar all y ca t i ron
, . .
z
o : t as t
an O s, o s o
wrough t iron m ild steel hard
,
t o
very hard t ire steel 1 5 0 —Charl s R obb n A S M E
, 0 O
to e i s in
paper A p
. . . . .
, 12 1910 r. , .
2 12 I N D EX
ru es d namo 1 3 9 203
B sh Compress ion st am 63 e
ul n eng ine 9 7
. , , , ,
B i di g t i l a er a s : g as
bre ng s tresses of 1 9 Compress ive tr s 2 1
,
i s es
we g i Of 1 2 Compr sso
, ,
i s e i 1 80 rs a r,
Concret ompr ss ive stre gth of
, ,
e, c e n
Calor i e 57
,
1 63
C l ifi value f fuel s 9 1 20 1 re i forced 36
,
a or c s o n
f gas C ndensat ion in it ial 62
, , ,
o 96 —9 7 es, o
Capac i t ie f conduct rs 1 59 C ndensers 59 —93
, ,
s o o o
Capac i ty 1 30 1 4 7 electr ical 1 4 7 1 48
, , ,
Carbon d iox ide i furnace gases 2 0 1 Conduc t ance 1 3 1

, , ,
n
Carborund m 1 2 2 Conduct ion f heat 56
, ,
u o
Carneg—ie structu al s teel tabl s Conduc t ors electr ic l 1 54
, ,
r e a
resi stance f 13 1
, , , ,
3 1 36 o
Carry ing c pac i ty of conduct rs Cone 8
,
a o
Cone pulleys 52
, ,
1 59
Con ic frustum 8
,
ase- h arde n i 1 18
Ca t i sh i age of 1 1 7 Con ical spr ings 23
,
s r
we ig t f 1 1 7 Connect ing d ends 4 6 1 68
, ,
o
-
ro
Cas t—iron col m ns 3 1 Connect ing rods 4 5 7 4 1 68 1 74 1 98
, , ,
-
u
p ipe 1 3 Cont i uous beams 2 6
, , , , , ,
n
propert i s of 1 1 Convect ion of heat 57
. .
e
Cathode 1 3 1 Conveyo belt 1 28 1 84 1 96
, ,
rs ,
Cement 1 2 3 6 1 63 fl ight 1 96
, , , ,
Cen t er f grav ity g aph i cally 2 4 sp ral 1 96

, , , .
o r i
pos i t ion f 2 5 1 6 2 Cool i g t we 20 1
, , ,
o n o rs ,
Center f osc illat ion 43 l i g water f condensers 59
, ,
o oo n -
or
f pr ssure 1 06 for g eng ines 97 1 6 1
, , ,
o e as-
Cent igrade thermometer 5 7 Copper propert ies of 1 1—
, , ,
Centr ifugal fans 1 02 Copper w ire tables 1 54 1 55

, , ,
force 2 1 ; i d isks 1 88 Cork in ert pulleys 1 95

, , .
n s
force i fl y wheels 73 Corl i s valves 70 1 72
, , ,
-
n s
pumps 1 1 3 1 82 Corros ion 95 1 7 6
, , ,
Cha ins crane 1 6 Corrugat d i ron wt of 1 3

, , , ,
e
stren t h f 20 ; (l i nks 1 90) Cotter jo int 2 2
, , , .
,
o -
s,
Channe steel 33 Cotton covered w i res 13 7
, ,
-
8,
Chem ical data 1 0 tra sm iss ion r pe 53
, ,
n o
Ch imney draft 92 Coulomb 1 30
, ,
g e 92 Coupl ing bolts flang 2 2

, ,
as s , e
Ch im neys st el 1 67 Coupl in 1 69
, ,
e
Crane c ga i s 1 6
s,
Chords of c ircles 5
, ,
n
Chrome st el 1 1 hooks 2 9
, .
e
and c i c mference f Cranes electr i c 1 2 8
, ,
Ci l s, a eas r u s o
g3 r
rc
hydraul ic 1 1 6
, , ,
5
C i rcu its calculat ion f 1 57 Cra k arm 4 6
,
o n -
s,
C ircular p it ch 4 9 fi t d iag rams 7 1
, ,
'
-
e or
C irc lat i ng p mm 94 1 7 5 — p ins 47 7 5 1 98
, ,
u -
u
C ircumferences f c ircles 2 3 shafts 4 6 7 5 1 66 1 74
, . , , ,
o
Clearance i cyl inde 6 3 75 97 throws 1 00 1 74
. , , , ,
n rs ,
Clu t ches 1 6 9 1 92 Cr i t ical speeds f shaft 1 94
, , , ,
o s,
Coal analyse of 9 1 Cube roo t 3
, ,
s
calor ifi c value f 2 0 1 Cubes f numbe 2 —3
, , ,
s o o rs ,
Cupola 1 1 7
,
co nsu r
C i
oc s ,
é i
1 09
pt i 85 on,
C p
ii n ickel steel 1 89
ro -
,
Current electr ical 1 3 0 —s,

,
Coeff c ient f fri ct ion 53 speeds f t ols 1 1 8 1 23

,
i s o C tti o o
C y l ig 6
u ll
Coll pse 3 1 1 66
, ,
a c o
Collar bear ings 4 7 54 1 93 Cyl inder 8
, , ,
Col mns and struts 3—0 1 65 lubri cat ion —55

, , , ,
u
Comb ned stresses 2 9 3 1 1 66 1 9 1 Cyl inders g eng ine 99 1 78
, , ,
i as
Combust ion 90 1 7 5 2 0 1
, , , , ,
'
hy d i 1 16
ra u c,
t of 93 st am 66 1 7 4 1 98
, , ,
ra s e
Commutator 13 9
, , , ,
Compo it ion of subs t ances 1 0 D sh po t s 1 72

,
s a -
Compound intere t 3 D e d en t er t place eng ne on 7 1

, .
s i -
c o i
Compress ed i 1 0 1 180 2 03 D e flect ion of beams 2 6
, , ,
-
a r,
Compress o n and bend i g 3 0 allowable 29
, , ,
i n
and to on 3 1 D el t a me t al 1 2
, ,
o
rs i , .
I N D EX
D em ag net i za t i on 1 4 1 E ng ine t sts s t a m 1 1 5 e
D enatured alcohol 1 7 7
e
ng ines steam c sumpt ion of
, ,
E on 67
D ens i ty of saturated steam 59
, , , ,
L00
D iagram fac t r 64
,
o E n t rO PY 7 6 1 9 7 2 00
D iagr m Z valve 68 p cyclo dal t eth
, . , ,
’
eu n e r s E i i e 49
D iam ete of eng ine cyl i nders 6 6 from and
a , , ,
“
rs E va p o ra t io n 2 12
at
°
D iametral p itch 4 9
, ,
s9
D ies 1 1 8 heat of
,
59
D iesel e gine 82 99 vaporat ve conde se
, ,
n E i n rs , 93
D ifferent al p ha s t steam turb ne
, ,
45 i Ex -
i s , 83
D irect ion t ulley
u
currents and l ines of xpa on
,
0 E ns i 57
force 1 3 3 c ef c ents of l near
,
o fi i i , 18
D isks s tresses i n rotat ing 1 88 gase

,
of s 57
D ist illates calor ifi c values of 92 bars
, , ,
E y e- 21
D is tr ibut io cons t an t 1 50
, , ,
n
D iv ided c ircu i ts 1 3 1 Fact of safety 1 9
,
o rs
D raft ch imney 92 Fahrenhe it thermomet r 57
, ,
e
i ntens i ty f 92 Farad 1 3 0
, , ,
o
pressur s 92 Faul t s i ind i cat r cards 64
, ,
e n o
tub s 1 1 2 Feeder current safe 1 60
, ,
-
e s,
D r ills tw is t 1 1 9 Feed water heat ing 93 1 7 5
, ,
D r iv ing cha in 5 1 1 70 F ield co il calculat ion of 1 42

, , , ,
s,
D rop valve 2 00 magnets 1 3 8
, . ,
s,
D uty f pump i ng e g i ne 1 1 4 F ire box plates 87
,
o n s, -
D ynamomet r 55 F i ts i g force shr i k tc 1 2 5

,
1é
e r i nn n n e
cont inuou current 1 3 6
, . , , ,
1é
,
Dy n ar i s- s
g
s,
Flagg ing 1 3
, ,
d s ign of mult i polar 1 4 0 Flange coupl ing bolt 22

.
e -
s.
Fla t plates strength of 2 9 1 90
,
e ifi m i f 136
e n c es o
D yne 1 3 2 Fl ight con eyo 1 96
, , , ,
v rs
Floors loads on 1 6
, ,
E ccentr i c load i ng of colum s 3 0 we ight of 1 6

, ,
n
E ccentr i cs 4 6 Flow of i 1 0 1 1 6 1 203
, ,
a r,
E conom ical steam e g i n s 6 7 2 00 of s team 7 0
, , ,
- n e
E conom izers 93 2 02 of stea m i p ipe 70 2 00
, , ,
n s
E ddy current of steam through nozzle 83
, , , ,
1 3 7 1 40 s, -
s
E ffi c iency bo iler 87 of water i open channels 1 09
,
n
of dy amos 1 3 6 of water over we i 1 08
, , , ,
n rs ,
of g eng in 97 of water through or ifi ces 1 07
,
ases,
thermal 6 1 of wat r through p i p s 1 09 204
,
e e
E la t ic i ty 1 8 1 63 Flue 90
, , ,
s s,
modul of 1 8 Flux ma net ic 1 3 2
, ,
’
i
E lbows 1 09 Fly whee 2 1 73 75 1 00 1 64
, , ,
-
E lectr ic c ircu i t cal cu lat i on 1 57 Force 43

, , , , ,
s, s,
cran s 1 2 8 Forg ings allowance ma h n ng
,
e in c i i
current 1 3 0
, , .
s, 1 18
dr ive for mach i ne to ols 2 09 Form fact r 1 50 o
energy 13 0 Foundat ions for gi a 100
, ,
en n
l ight ing 1 59 208 Foundry data 1 1 7
, ,
locomot ive 1 6 1 Framed structu 39

, , ,
res.
power 1 3 0 Frequency 1 4 5
,
ra ilroad ing 1 60 F i t i 53
, ,
r c o n,
tract ion 1 60 clutche 1 92
,
s
weld in 1 1 7 coeffi c ien t s f 53
, ,
o
E lectr ica un i t s 1 30 coupl ings 1 69
,
E lectrolys is 1 3 1 ear in 52 1 92
, ,
E lectr magnet i m 13 2 g cup g t h

, , ,
o- s 0 1 16 ea e rs,
1 3 4 ( t ble ) 1 86 of
,
El tm
'
t -r e
a ne s , a l 54o u r na s ,
i n ball bear i n
ec g
E lectro m t i ve fo rce 1 30 1 86
,
- o 48
E lement of mach nes 44 i compresse
, ,
.
s i n 203
E levato i n steam p ipe 2
,
1 28 rs , s
E ll ipse 5 i wat r p ipe
,
n 1 08 2 04e s,
E ll ipso id 8 locomot ive 85
, ,
E mery whee l Fuels 9 1 92 97

. ,
1 22 s,
E nergy 44 Furnace gase C0 i n 20 1
, , ,
s, 2
E ng i ne mpmt n au t Furnace 90
, ,
2 02 '
io s, 0 s,
gas gg 1 7 8 Fu es 1 59
s
team 74 F ib l plug 94
o
, ,
s us e s,
2 14 I N D EX
F s ing po int 1 1 1 2
u s, H ydraul ic cyl i nde rs
power tran m iss ion 1 16
,
s
Galvan i zed iron w i re 1 6 -
ram 1 1 6
,
t el w ire 1 6
. ,
-
s e Hyd li 1 06
ra u cs ,
Gap mach ine frame 1 67 H ydromet r B
,
s, m é 189 e eau
coal London 8 1 H ydros tat ic
, ,
G as . 1 06 r
eng ine d ta 80 1 6 1 H yperbola 8pressu e
, ,
- a
des ign 99 1 78 2 02 H yperbol ic logar i thm 66
, . ,
e n i ne
fuefi £ 1 75
, , , s,
H yste re
12 , s is 1 3 3 1 40 , ,
1 9 31 3 0.
G as produce 1 76 rs , I- beams st el tab le f 32 e s o
tu b i ne 1 79 I llum i at ion 1 60
, . ,
G as r s, n
G se we igh ts f 1 0 Impact 4 3
,
a s, o
Gauss 1 3 2 Impedance 1 4 6 1 4 8
, ,
Gay L Impulse wheels 1 1 1 2 07

, , ,
l w 58
’
-
u ssac s a
Ge ri ng 4 8 1 93 I ncandescent lam p 1 60 2 08
, , ,
a s,
fri ct on 1 92 I ncl ined p lane 4 5
, , ,
i
tra in of 4 5 I ncrustat ion 95 1 76
, .
Gear proport i ons of 5 1 I nd icated horse p wer —64

, , ,
-
s, o
G ometr ical p gress ion 4 I nd icat r d i agrams 63 6 5
, ,
e ro o
G ilbert 1 3 2 I nductance 1 4 6 1 58
, ,
Gla s 1 2 1 3 t i d iag am
, , ,
s ne r a 71 r s,
G rdon s formu l as 3 0 moment of 2 3 —2 4
, ,
'
o
G verno 68 1 98 I n i t i al conden at i on 6 2 63
, ,
-
o rs , s
Graph it 55 I n j ect 94
, ,
e, o rs ,
Grate area 85 I nsulat ion arma t ure 1 3 7
Grav i ty cent r f 2 4 2 5 d ielectr ic streng t h f 1 86
, , ,
e o -
o
force of 4 3 heat 56 1 97
, , ,
Gr ind ing wheels 1 2 2 res istance 1 59

, , ,
Gr inds tones 1 2 2 ity f d aft 92

, ,
t
n e ns o r
of m g net i c fi eld 1 3 2
, .
G roo v i 95 a
Guest s w 1 9 1 I nt rest compound 3
,
’
e
Gun metal 1 1 I nt rnal mb t i
, , ,
gi 95 1 7 6
-
e -
co us on en n es ,
Gyrat ion rad i f 24 entro y di g m for 7 9
, ,
us o a ra s
I t p at ion 4
, , ,
n er o
H ammers I nte les 1 87
.
w 1 84 1 97 er ,
H ardness material 1 9 t t eth 4 9 1 93
, . ,
0 s, I nv o u e e
H aulage rope 1 6 I ron ca t and w b gh t 1 1
, ,
s r u
H ead 1 07 ; lo s f 204 malleable 1 63
, , r ,
s o
H eat 56 rod and ba wt of W I 1 2
, , ,
s rs , s
i nsu l ato rs 56 197 W ire 1 5
. .
, .
,
l t nt 58 Isoth ermals 6 1
, , ,
a e
sens ible 59
. ,
t tal 59 J acke t s steam 6 2 63

,
o
tra sm iss ion i n bo i lers 201 J t c ndense
, , , ,
n e o 93 rs ,
un it 57 J oule 1 3 0
,
s,
H eat ing f conductors 1 59 J oule s l w 1 3 1
,
’
o a
and vent ilat ion 1 04 1 8 1 J o rnals 4 6 1 68 1 93 1 98
, ,
u
surface 8H 7 bear i g pressu e f 1 94
, , , , ,
n r s o
H el ical spr i ngs 2 2 1 64 fri ct ion of 54
, ,
gears 50 1 70 1 93
, , ,
H enry 1 4 7 st eng t h of 2 2 1 90
, , ,
e y s, r
H err ingbone gea t i energy 4 4
, , ,
1 93 rs , i ne c
H igh S peed tool st el 1 2 2 1 82 of s team 83
,
-
e
tw ist dr ills 1 2 5 Ki h fi laws 1 3 1
, , ,
'
- re o s
H o ist ing drums 1 95 Knuckle jo i nt 1 95
, ,
s,
eng ines 1 28
,
speeds 1 1 6 Lac ing 52

,
H ollow sphere 1 90 Lag screws 1 5

, ,
-
s,
H orse power calculat i on of 64 Lam inated spri ng 2 9 1 65
,
-
s,
Lap steam 68
, , . ,
1 73
of bo iler 87 ; metr ic 1 62 Lat nt heat 58
, .
s, e
of locomot i ves 84 Lead 1 62
, ,
H t i heat i g 1 8 1 Lead of val v 68

, ,
o -
a r n es,
H ydraul i c cyl i nders 1 1 6
,
crane 1 1 6
.
grad ient 1 09
,
d ipe r i eted 1 3 Leath er belts

,
,
v , . 51
YM h D V
I N D RX
P ower hamme rs, 44 1 84 , 1 97 R oof loads 1 ?

measurement of tr sses 4 1
, , ,
55 u
p lan t s os t of R oo fi ng mat r ial
, ,
c 127 13 e s,
presse slate 1 3
, ,
s,
P ower requ red by u tt g t ools i c in 12 5 R ope haulage 1 6
,
M an ila 53
, , , ,
2 10
Power d by mach nery strength of 2 0
.
u rre 126,
1 83 g
re i
transm iss ion 1 6 53 1 95

, ,
10
tra sm ss on h draul 1 1 6 w ire ho is t ing 1 6
, , , ,
n i i i o,
e t i 1 57
,
e c r c,
Presses power 1 97 R ubber belt 51 s.
Pr m ng 95 R upture modulus of 3 1
, ,
i i
P oduce g 1 7 6
, , ,
r rs , as ,
Prony brake 55 Safety fact r of 1 9 2 2 o
Pulley blocks 1 7 1 valv s 4 5 94 2 0 1
. , , .
-
e
P lleys 4 5 52 1 70 Sand 1 1 7
, . , ,
u
cone 52 Saturat d s t eam 58—6 0 1 7 2 1 99
, , , ,
e
cork in ert 1 95 Saws metal cutt ing c ircu lar 1 2 5
, , , ,
s -
Pulsome t r 1 1 6 Scale 95
, , ,
e
Pump ing e g ines 1 1 4 1 82 Screw 4 5
, ,
n
P mps i 94 onveyors 1 85 1 96
, , ,
u a r, c
centr ifugal 1 1 3 1 82 propeller 1 7—3
, , ,
-
c ir ul t ing 94 threads 1 1 9 1 2 0 1 84
, , ,
c a -
plunger 1 1 4 182 Screws power transm iss ion 1 68

, , ,
Punches and d ie 1 1 8 1 84 mach i ne 1 1 9

, , , ,
s,
Pyram id 8 ; frust m of 8 Sect ion modulus 23
, .
u
Pyrometers 57 Sec t or f c ircle 5
, , ,
o
t of c i rcle 5
, ,
e gm en
Q uant i ty f electr i c i ty 1 30 of sphere 8
,
o
Q uarter pha e ge era t or 1 4 9 elf induct ion 1 3 7 1 4 6
, ,
-
s n -
Se s ible heat 59
, , ,
n
R ad iat i on of heat 5 6 1 05 Serve tubes 86
,
R ad ius f gyrat ion 2 4 Sh ft bear in g 1 91

, , ,
o a s,
R a il elevat ion f 1 7 5 colla 1 95
,
s o rs ,
res s t ance f 1 60 1 87 coupl i ngs 4 7
,
i o
R m hydraul ic 1 1 6 governor 1 98
, , ,
a
R ate of combu t ion 93 Shaft ing 4 6
, , ,
s
R at io f expans ion 63 6 6 power absorbed by 127
, .
o
R awh ide gears 50 Shaft armature 1 39
, , ,
s,
R eactance 1 4 6 cr i t ical speeds f 1 94
, ,
o
vol t age 1 43 flex ible 1 95
, ,
R ece iver volume 7 5 st iff ness f 2 2

, ,
o
R eco il 4 4 strength f 2 2 1 95
, ,
o
R evaporat ion 63 turb ine 208
, , ,
e-
R efr ig erat ion mechan ical 1 02 Shape 1 84
, ,
rs
R eheat ing of i Shear legs —
, , , ,
1 02 a r, 42
R e i nf orced concre t e 3 6 1 66 stress 2 1 2 8
.
R eluctance 1 3 2 Shears 1 84
, , ,
R eluct iv ity 1 33 Sheet met l gauges 1 2 1

. ,
-
a
l d cha i n gear 5 1 b ingles p i
. ,
R en o n
R es i l ience 1 8 h p data 1 1 7
, ,
o
R s is t ance 1 30
, ,
e h ri n k fit 125 s,
of conductors 1 3 1 1 55 Shr i kage of cast i gs 1 1 7
,
n n
f ra i ls 1 60 1 87 S il icon bronze 1 1
, , ,
o
spec ifi c 1 3 1 rule 6
, , ,
imp
’
so n s
tr in 84 1 60 in le phase ge erat r 1 4 8
, .
n o
i g
-
a
R esonance 1 48 i g fund 4
, , ,
n n
R heos t ats 1 4 4 ; water 208 condenser 1 7 5
, ,
iph on
R i ngs strength of 1 6 5 1 90 k y l igh t and floor glass 1 3
, , ,
R i vet d hydraul i c p ipe 13 late 1 2 1 3

, , , .
e
jo ints 2 1 1 6 1 1 64 1 90 Solder 1 2
. . ,
Soleno id 1 36
, , , , ,
R iv t i e 22 n
R ivet o iler 88 1 6 1 pace facto r 1 42
,
s,
bridge we ight of 1 5 park ing 1 3 7
, , ,
pr p rt ions of 2 1 ifi grav i t ie of b t noes 1 1 12

, , ,
e o p ec c s su s s
R ods we ight of W 1 1 2 heat 57 1 04

, , ,
s
R oller bear i ngs 4 7 54 1 6 9 he ts of a g 60
.
, , ,
a as ,
i nduct i ve capac ity 1 4 7
, , ,
Rolls, 1 84 ,
I NDEX 2 17
Spec ifi c grav i t i e f res is t ance 1 3 1 s o S t re n t h of ropes 20

volume f s t am 6 1 ia t
, .
,
o e of s i s 2 2 1 95
Sphere stre gth f hollow 1 90 s tayed s rfaces
, , ,
s, n o of u 29
Sp ikes 1 5 Str ss
, ,
e 18
Sp iral conveyors 1 85 1 96 bend ng
, .
i 23
gears 50 1 70 1 93 compress ve
, , ,
i 21
S pri ngs 2 3 ,
d i agram for framed structure 3 9

, , ,
s s,
Spl nes 2 2 due t impuls ive load 1 8
,
i o
Springs lam i nat d 29 hea t 1 8
, ,
e
strength f 23 shear 2 1 28
, ,
o -
Spur gears 4 9 t ns ile 20

, ,
e
Square ro t 3 t ors ional 2 2
, ,
o
Squares f n mbers 2 Stresses break ing 2 0
. ,
o u
S t ay bolts 88 a l lowable 1 63 1 90
, , ,
St y d surface 2 9 comb ined 29 —

, , ,
a e s, '
Steam bo ilers 8 7 89 St uctural s t eel 3 1 36

,
r
consump t i on by eng i ne 6 7 1 72 Stuffi g boxes 1 68
, , ,
s, n
Superheat d steam 58 6 1 62 67
, , ,
'
e
eng ine pmp t i n 74 1 74 1 98 ;
, , , , ,
-
or o s, 1 7 2 1 88 1 97
Steam fl w 70 83 Superheate r s rface 62
, , , ,
-
o u
formula 1 97 Surf ce conden ers 93 1 74
, . ,
'
-
s, a s
h mmers 1 84 Surfaces of sol ids 7
, ,
a
heat ing 105 1 81 Suscept ib il i ty 1 32
, ,
jacket 62 63
, , ,
s
mo is ture i 58 T shap s Carneg ie stee l 3 4
, ,
n, -
e
p ipe coveri ngs 56 1 97 Tantalum l p— 1 60
, ,
-
aru
p ipe 7 5 94 105 2 00 Tap dr il ls 1 1 9 1 20
, , ,
s
ports 7 5 Tapers M o e 1 1 9
, , , , ,
; rs
satura ted 58 60 1 97 1 99 t urn i ng 1 1 9
, ,
—
Temper 1 1
, . , , ,
su h t d 58 6 1 6 2 6 7 1 9 7
r ea e
—
ta l 60 1 99 Temperature 57
, , , , ,
es
turb ines 82 py d iagrams 7 6
, , ,
-e nt r0
Steel propert ies f 1 1 1 —63 Temperi ng 1 1 8
, ,
o
Carneg ie structural 3 1 3 6 Tenac i ty f metals 1 9 1
, , , ,
o
belt 1 92 Tens ile stress 20
, , -
s,
c t i ngs 1 90 Tens ion and bend ing 2 9
,
as
ch me 1 1 Thermal effi c iency 6 1
, ,
ro
cupro n i ckel 1 89 Thermometers 57
, ,
manga nese l 1 Thread p ipe—(wrough t I ron) 1 4

, ,
-
s,
°
n ickel 1 1 1 89 screw 1 1 9 1 2 0
, ,
tungs te n 1 1 Three pha e generat r 1 50

, ,
-
s o
va ad ium 1 62 Thru t b ar i ngs 4 6 1 68
, ,
n s e
Steels alloy propert i es f 1 1 1 89
, , ,
o Ti n, 11
Ste bear i ngs 1 93 late 1 3
, , , ,
Ti n
S t ne s f shaf t 2 2 steel h igh speed 1 2 2 1 82
, ,
'
s o s, Too -
St n we igh ts of var ious 1 2 Tooth den i ty (magnet ic ) 1 40

, , ,
o es , s
St rage batter ies 1 85
, ,
o
tra i 1 8 Torque 1 44
,
n,
tray fi ld 1 38 Tors ion an gl e f 22
,
-
e o
Streng t h of axles 1 9 1 and bend ng 1 6 6 1 9 1
, , ,
i
f bol t s 2 1 and compres ion 3 1
, , ,
o s
of cha in 20 Tors ional str 2 2
, ,
ess,
f cha i l i nks 1 90 Total h at 59
,
o n e
f cha i n r i ngs 1 90 Tract i on f electro magnets 1 3 4
, ,
o o -
of cott r jo ints 2 2 1 64 Tract i ve force 1 60

, ,
e -
of crane hooks 2 9 power 84

, , ,
-
of cyl i nde 2 0 1 64 Tra in res is t ance 84 1 60

, ,
rs
f eye bars 2 1 Transforme 1 51
, , . ,
o -
rs ,
of flange coupl ing bol ts 2 2 des ig f 1 5 1
,
-
n o
of fl t p l a tes 2 9 1 90 Tra sm iss i on c irc t (electr c ) 1 57
, ,
a n ui s i
of ear t eth 50 rope 1 6
, , ,
e
ll w S phe s 1 90 Trapezo i d 5
, ,
o f o o re
f hel i cal spr i ngs 2 2 Tr igonometry w th t able 8 9
, ,
o i
f keys 1 90 Truss s 40
, , , ,
o e
f l am i nated r ing 2 9 Tubes bo iler 1 4 88
, ,
o 8 s,
of mat r ials 1 1 63 hol d i ng w of 87
, ,
e er
i pipe Tungs t n p 208
, ,
20
'
o s, e s,
of r ve ted JO1M 21 190
i
0
B, , t eel 1 1
s ,
I ND EX
Turb i ne beari 1 93 W e i gh t of flt w o ught i o n b a s 1 3 a r -r r
T rb i ne ga of gas 1 0
,
u 79
s. s, es,
hyd a l c 1 1 1 205
r u i of plat 1 2 es,
de i n 205 of ri ve t 1 5
, ,
s s,
haft or 208 of ds 1 2
,
s s ro
st am 82 of r und w ugh t o n ba 1 2
, .
ro -ir
e o rs,
Tw is t dr ill 1 1 9 of hee t me t al 1 3
,
- -
s. s s,
h i gh peed 1 25-
s of phe 1 2 s res. ~
of square w o gh t o n b 1 2
,
r u -ir ars ,
Undersho t wheels 1 10 of tube 1 2 s,
of wood 1 2
,
s,
V acuum 64 W h t and mea e 1
'
e s su r s ,
V alve s t em
,
- 46 s, W ] i g 1 17
e n
V alv s e g i ne 68 200 W heel and ax l e 4 5
,
e n
gat W ind pre sure 1 6 7 203
, , , ,
e s
po rme i W i nd i g t ble for magnet 1 86
, ,
n a s,
proport ons of 70 1 78 Wi re galvan i zed i ron 1 6 -
safety 4 5 94 201 galvan i zed t el t an d 1 6

, , . , ,
-
s e s r
V anad ium s t e l mck el 1 62 aug s 1 2 1
, , , ,
e e
V eloc i t y 43
, ,
i ti
o s p 16 n ro e,
V ent ilat ion 1 04 i ron 1 g
,
V ol t 13 0 na ils 1 5
, ,
V olume of o l i ds 7 rope 1 6 53
, ,
s s
steel 1 5
, , ,
‘
W a t r 1 06 ; flow of W ir i ng formu la 1 56
,
e see s,
cons mpt i on 64 W ood calor ifi val ue of 92
, .
u c
hammer i n p i pe l i ne 182 W ood we igh t of 1 2
, , ,
s, s,
p i pe 1 3 ; (fri c t io n ) 204 W ork 1 8
,
in '
rhe s t at 208 W orm ear i ng 50 1 70

, , ,
o s,
wheels 1 1 0 W ro ng t — i n ip 1 4
, ,
ro e,
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PR E F A CE .

T m s boo k is t he res ult of t he w ri t er s end eavor t o co mpact t he grea ter

ca rr i ed i n t he p oc ket w i t hout i n conven i en ce .

I n i t s prep rat i on he has consult ed standard t rea t i ses an d referen ce

u a h l e and t i mely mat t er h as been obta i ned from t he co lum n s of t ec hn i ca l

peri od i cals and a l so from t he ca ta log es wh i ch ma n u fa ct u r crs have cour

W h i le very great ca re has been t aken i n t he prepa rat i on of man uscr i pt

u nder obl i gat i on s t o t hose who wi l l cal l h is a ttent i on t o such e rro rs i n

Suggest i on s i nd i cat i n g h ow su bseq uen t ed i t i ons may be made of great er

A LL mat t er con ta i ned i n t he ﬁ rst ed i t i on has been ca refully scrut i n i zed

t h e i n ac cu ra c i es occ u rred t h rough recopy i ng from n ot es .

A n um ber of altera t i on s have been mad e i n t he t ext cert a i n dat a have .

b ee n replaced by fresher ma t t er a nd t he work has been en larged by t he

of an ap pend i i n wh i c h new subj ec ts are t reat e d some om i s

and m uc h spa ce gi ven t o recen t a nd valuable ma t t er relat

A llowable F i ber S tresses ; Streng th of Cha i n L i nks R i n gs Fl t Pl te s a a

a au u o f Comb i ned S tresses ;

M e t ls a t A b no rmal Tem pe r t res ; G es t s La '

A llowab le B el t Tens i o ns : S teel B el s ; Fr i c t i o n and Ma g ne t i c Clutc h es ;

P is to n R ds ; Cork -I nsert Pulle 8 ; R 0

Fu rna e G as es ; C l i n Towe rs ; Safe ty V al ves : E co nom i ze rs ; A u to mo

H ammer i n P i L i nes ; Ce nt r if u al P m ps ; D es i g n of Tu rb i n es and I m

B uil d i n g M t i l We i ght s an d Di mens i ons f R od s B ars

of Chai ns R opes Cy l i n de rs B o ile rs B olts Fly wheels R i ve t ed

J o in t s Cott r J o i nt s S h f t i n g Keys Spri ngs B eams Flat Plates

St ayed S u f aces Cr an e H o ks Co l umn s an d S t ru ts etc

Diagr ams for Framed St ruct ures et c , .

R oller B eari ngs Geari n g

En gi ne Des i gn and D at a Tem perat u re En t m py Di ag rams .

S team Turb i es Loc omot i ves n

A pp arat us I n te rn al C m bust i on E ngi nes Ai r Co m p re ssed

Ai r Fans an d B lowers H eat i n g an d V en t ilat i on Mech an i cal

R efri ge rat i on etc , .

H yd ra l i cs W ate r W heels Tu rb i nes P m ps Pl un ge r

P mps u d P mpi g M c hi e r H d ra li Power Tr a sm is

an d Sheet -Metal G auges F i ts G ri nd i ng W hee ls

Machi ery Cost of Power and Powe r Pl n ts et

t in u o us-Curren t D namos a n d M otors

Al te rn at in g-(h rren t enerators Tran sfo rme rs El e t ri c Powe r

° A rea i n sq uare i n ches

t B rake horse- po wer .

Larger o r outs i de di amet er 1 n mches

fr fs p oun ds per squ are i n c h (compressi on shear t en

Poun ds i n on e c ub i c _foot of water

a A cce le rat i on of gravi t y in fee t per se on d Grams

I H eig t o head m fee ; t otal heat i n ste am a o ve 3 2 F m

H e i gh t 1n in c hes sen si ble hea t i n the li q i d ab ve 3 F u o

I ng T s hen buc h E n gin ee r 8 Poc ket B ook (H tl t t e ) B e rli

Spec ifi c heat at con stan t volume .

Lengt h i n f ee t ; laten t he t i n B T U pe r l b of ste m a a

M agn et o mot i ve force -

Pi tc h i n i n c hes ( ri vets sc rews ear tee t h )

M ean e ﬂect i ve p ressure i n po un g

Flow of ai r or water in c ub i c feet per mi n te u

R di us in n c hes ; r d s of gy rat on i n i n ches ; rat i of e

S i de o f square in in c hes ; di st an ce i n fee t in ve loc i t y fo rm l s ua

T A sol ute tem pe rat re in degs F ( also r )

0 6 1 as a. D eflec t i on o r st rai n pe r i n c h of len gth (d ue t o com

r (Tau ) A b so lu te tem pe r t re i n degs F ; n o rm al p i t h i n sp i r l ge rs . . .

L e gt h n mi l s = l i n c h ; foot ; 3 fee t = 1 ard 5 5 1 2 i n ch es ==1 y

ards = 1 rod pole o r pe rc h 7 92 i n c hes =

A v o i rd u p ol s W e i g h (The grai n is t he same in all systems ) 2 7 3 4 375 . . .

grain s = 1 d ra ch m = 1lg o u n ce ; 1 po un d = 1 6 oz = 7 000 gr ai n s ; 1 lon g t on .