2B-Aeronautics

Group:
1. Dimas Prayoga (181221037)
2. Muhammad Ridwan Firdaus (181221052)

CHISELS AND FILES

1. CHISELS
1.1 Definition
A chisel is a hard steel cutting tool which can be used for cutting and chipping any metal
softer than the chisel itself. It can be used in restricted areas and for such work as shearing rivets,
or splitting seized or damaged nuts from bolts.

The size of a flat cold chisel is determined by the width of the cutting edge. Lengths will
vary, but chisels are seldom under 5 inches or over 8 inches long.
Chisels are usually made of eight sided tool steel bar stock, carefully hardened and
tempered. Since the cutting edge is slightly convex, the center portion receives the greatest shock
when cutting, and the weaker corners are protected. The cutting angle should be 60° to 70° for
general use, such as for cutting wire, strap iron, or small bars and rods.
When using a chisel, hold it firmly in one hand. With the other hand, strike the chisel head
squarely with a ball peen hammer.
When cutting square corners or slots, a special cold chisel called a cape chisel should be
used. It is like a flat chisel except the cutting edge is very narrow. It has the same cutting angle
and is held and used in the same manner as any other chisel.
Rounded or semicircular grooves and corners which have fillets should be cut with a
roundnose chisel. This chisel is also used to recenter a drill which has moved away from its
intended center.
The diamond point chisel is tapered square at the cutting end, then ground at an angle to
provide the sharp diamond point. It is used for cutting B-grooves and inside sharp angles.
1.2 History
Flint ancestors of the present-day chisel existed as far back as 8000 bc; the Egyptians used copper
and later bronze chisels to work both wood and soft stone. Chisels today are made of steel, in
various sizes and degrees of hardness, depending on use.
Stone chisels were used by Neolithic man; bronze chisels were cast in stone by his descendants.
From the time of the Romans of classical antiquity up through the nineteenth century, chisels were
made of iron, eventually with a thick layer of steel heat-welded onto the working surface. But
whenever and wherever your time machine delivers you, you’ll probably find chisels of
recognizable form that were intended to be used for shaping much as we use chisels today.

1.3 Woodworking

Woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to
remove big sections of wood, in 'roughing out' the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in
woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools to finish the
detail. One of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden
shipbuilding. There are many types of woodworking chisels used for specific purposes, such as:

1.3.1 Firmer chisel

The definition of a firmer chisel has changed over the years.
It seems that "firmer" once referred to the way in which the
chisels were made. Firmer (as the name suggests) meant any
chisel blade that was made from a solid steel construction, as
opposed to a steel laminate (iron with a steel coating). These
chisels typically had square edges and hardwood handles and
were used for heavy-duty woodworking tasks.
 In later years, as nearly all chisel blades became
manufactured from a solid steel construction, the definition
"firmer" became synonymous with a flat blade with square
edges (without a bevel). This is generally considered the
oldest type of modern chisel and it is particularly adept at
creating joints where you need to maintain sharp, 90-degree
corners.

1.3.2 Bench chisel

Bench chisels are the first port of call with wood chisels. They
are the all-rounders of the family; the general-purpose chisel.
They typically consist of a medium length blade with either
bevelled or straight edges (ones with bevelled edges tend to
be more common as they have a wider range of applications)
and an impact-resistant handle. Bench chisels may have a
tang- or socket-style fitting and usually have a cutting edge
angled between 25 and 30 degrees.

1.3.3 Butt chisel

Butt chisels are so named because of their primary
application: installing butts and hinges to doors. They are
easily recognised by the distinctive shortness of their blade.
Traditionally, a butt chisel may have been a bench or firmer
chisel that has been resharpened so much that only a few
inches of its blade remains. Carpenters found these shorter
chisels so useful with certain applications that they became
manufactured in their own right. There are both bevel-edged
and straight-edged varieties.

1.3.4 Paring chisel

Paring chisels typically have a long thin blade connected to
its handle via a tang. They are designed to be manipulated by
hand (never struck) and pushed across a work surface to
remove small amounts of wood when finishing or neatening
up joints. Their cutting edge is usually at an angle between 20
and 25 degrees and they are available with both bevelled and
straight edges.
1.3.5 Mortise chisel

A mortise chisel has a thick blade that is designed to

withstand prying. They get their name because they are
chiefly used to cut mortise joints. They are typically capped
or have a steel hoop on their handle to withstand repeated
mallet blows. The cutting edge of a mortise chisel is usually
ground to an angle between 30 and 40 degrees.

1.3.6 Dovetail chisel

Dovetail chisels are designed specifically for the finishing of

dovetail joints. They typically have a long thin blade with
bevelled edges and a honed cutting edge of between 20 and
30 degrees. These types of chisel are particularly useful when
cleaning out and sharpening up the edges of the interlocking
parts of a dovetail joint.

1.3.7 Corner chisel

Corner chisels typically have a medium length blade that has

a cross-section shaped like a right-angled "V". These types of
chisel are used for cutting grooves and tidying up square
corners.

1.3.8 Framing chisel

A framing chisel is essentially a wider, longer and thicker-
bladed firmer chisel. These chisels are available with bevelled
and straight edges and are more commonly found with
sockets and sturdy capped handles to withstand repeated
strikes from a mallet. They typically have a cutting edge of
between 25 and 30 degrees and are chiefly used in boat
building and timber framing applications.
 1.3.9 Slick chisel

Slick chisels are essentially oversized paring chisels. They are

recognisable by their size and distinctive baseball-bat shaped
handle. The slick chisel is used to pare off thin slivers of wood
from a workpiece and typically has a long, wide, straight-
edged blade and a cutting edge of 20-25 degrees.

1.3.10 Chisels with cranked

handles

Some chisels have what is known as a cranked handle. This

means that the handle is offset from the line of the blade. This
offset angle allows you to hold the entire blade flat on a work
surface without your fingers getting in the way.

Cranked handles are most often found on paring and bench

chisels. This design is beneficial to making shaving motions
where the blade of the chisel needs to be flat against the
workpiece, commonly seen when finishing joints and
creating flush surfaces (typically were the use of a plane
would be impractical).

1.4 Lathe Tools

A lathe tool is a woodworking chisel designed to cut wood as it is spun on a lathe. These
tools have longer handles for more leverage, needed to counteract the tendency of the tool to react
to the downward force of the spinning wood being cut or carved. In addition, the angle and method
of sharpening is different; a secondary bevel would not be ground on the tool.

1.5 Metal Working

Chisels used in metal work can be divided into two main categories: hot chisels and cold
chisels.
1.5.1 Cold Chisel

A cold chisel is a tool made of tempered steel used for cutting 'cold' metals, meaning that
they are not used in conjunction with heating torches, forges, etc. Cold chisels are used to
remove waste metal when a very smooth finish is not required or when the work cannot be done
easily with other tools, such as a hacksaw, file, bench shears or power tools.

The name cold chisel comes from its use by blacksmiths to cut metal while it was cold as
compared to other tools they used to cut hot metal. Because cold chisels are used to form metal,
they have a less-acute angle to the sharp portion of the blade than a woodworking chisel. This
gives the cutting edge greater strength at the expense of sharpness.

Cold chisels come in a variety of sizes, from fine engraving tools that are tapped with very
light hammers, to massive tools that are driven with sledgehammers. Cold chisels are forged to
shape and hardened and tempered (to a blue colour) at the cutting edge.

The head of the chisel is chamfered to slow down the formation of the mushroom shape
caused by hammering and is left soft to avoid brittle fracture splintering from hammer blows.

There are four common types of cold chisels. These are the flat chisel, the most widely
known type, which is used to cut bars and rods to reduce surfaces and to cut sheet metal that is
too thick or difficult to cut with tin snips. The cross cut chisel is used for cutting grooves and
slots. The blade narrows behind the cutting edge to provide clearance. The round nose chisel
is used for cutting semi-circular grooves for oil ways in bearings. The diamond point chisel is
used for cleaning out corners or difficult places and pulling over centre punch marks wrongly
placed for drilling.
 Although the vast majority of cold chisels are made of steel, a few are manufactured from
beryllium copper, for use in special situations where non-sparking tools are required.

Cold Chisels are predominantly used in Repoussé and chasing processes for the fabrication
of bronze and aluminium sculptures.

1.5.2 Hot Chisel

A hot chisel is used to cut metal that has been heated in a forge to soften the metal. One
type of hot chisel is the hotcut hardy, which is used in an anvil hardy hole with the cutting edge
facing up. The hot workpiece to be cut is placed over the chisel and struck with a hammer. The
hammer drives the workpiece into the chisel, which allows it to be snapped off with a pair of
tongs. This tool is also often used in combination with a "top fuller" type of hotcut, when the
piece being cut is particularly large.

1.6 Stone

Stone chisels are used to carve or cut stone, bricks or concrete slabs. To cut, as opposed to
carve, a brick bolster is used; this has a wide, flat blade that is tapped along the cut line to produce
a groove, then hit hard in the centre to crack the stone. Sculptors use a spoon chisel, which is bent,
with the bevel on both sides. To increase the force, stone chisels are often hit with club hammers,
a heavier type of hammer.

1.7 Mansory Chisel

 Masonry chisels are typically heavy, with a relatively dull head that wedges and breaks,
rather than cuts. Often used as a demolition tool, they may be mounted on a hammer drill, jack
hammer, or hammered manually, usually with a heavy hammer of three pounds or more. These
chisels normally have an SDS, SDS-MAX, or 1-1/8" Hex connection. Types of masonry chisels
include the following:

 Moil (point) chisels

 Flat chisels
 Asphalt cutters
 Carbide bushing tools
 Clay spade
 Flexible chisels
 Tamper

A plugging chisel has a tapered edge for cleaning out hardened mortar. The chisel is held
with one hand and struck with a hammer. The direction of the taper in the blade determines if the
chisel cuts deep or runs shallow along the joint.

2. FILES
2.1 Definition
A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It is common in
woodworking, metalworking, and other similar trade and hobby tasks. Most are hand tools, made
of a case hardened steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with one or
more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth. A narrow, pointed tang is common at one
end, to which a handle may be fitted.
Most files are made of high grade tool steels that are hardened and tempered. Files are
manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are known either by the cross section, the
general shape, or by their particular use. The cuts of files must be considered when selecting them
for various types of work and materials.
Files are used to square ends, file rounded comers, remove burrs and slivers from metal,
straighten uneven edges, file holes and slots, and smooth rough edges.
Files have three distinguishing features: (1) Their length, measured exclusive of the tang;
(2) their kind or name, which has reference to the relative coarseness of the teeth; and (3) their cut.
Files are usually made in two types of cuts, single cut and double cut. The single cut file
has a single row of teeth extending across the face at an angle of 65° to 85° with the length of the
file. The size of the cuts depends on the coarseness of the file. The double cut file has two rows of
teeth which cross each other. For general work, the angle of the first row is 40° to 45°. The first
row is generally referred to as "overcut," and the second row as "upcut"; the upcut is somewhat
finer and not so deep as the overcut.
2.2 History
Early filing or rasping has prehistoric roots and grew naturally out of the blending of the
twin inspirations of cutting with stone cutting tools (such as hand axes) and abrading using natural
abrasives, such as well-suited types of stone (for example, sandstone). Relatedly, lapping is also
quite ancient, with wood and beach sand offering a natural pair of lap and lapping compound. The
Disston authors state, "To abrade, or file, ancient man used sand, grit, coral, bone, fish skin, and
gritty woods,—also stone of varying hardness in connection with sand and water."

The Bronze Age and the Iron Age had various kinds of files and rasps. Archaeologists have
discovered rasps made from bronze in Egypt, dating back to the years 1200–1000 BC.
Archaeologists have also discovered rasps made of iron used by the Assyrians, dating back to the
7th Century BC.

During the Middle Ages files were already quite advanced, thanks to the extensive talents of
blacksmiths. By the 11th century, there already existed hardened files that would seem quite
modern even to today's eyes. But although they existed, and could even have spread widely, in a
geographical sense, via trade, they were not widespread in the cultural sense of the word—that is,
most people, and even many smiths, did not have them. For example, in the 13th century,
ornamental iron work at Paris was done skillfully with the aid of files, but the process was a secret
known only to a master craftsman. The Disston authors state, "It was not until the fourteenth
century, however, that those who practiced art in ironwork began to use other tools, besides heat
and the hammer, regularly." This statement could mislead in the sense that stoning (with
sandstone) and lapping (with wood, sand, and water) have never been rare activities among
humans, or especially smiths. But the point is that modern iron or steel files, with teeth and
hardening, and the material culture of intricate filing that would lead to locksmithing and
gunsmithing, for example, are what took time to become common. But by the late Middle Ages,
the transition was extensive. The Disston authors mention Nuremberg, Sheffield, and Remscheid
(they use the Reimscheid spelling) as leading centers of production for files as well as tools in
general. The activity in Remscheid reflects the metalworking spirit of the Rhine-Ruhr region in
general (including Essen, Düsseldorf, and Cologne) rather than representing a single village of
geniuses in isolation. (Considering the Disston authors' mention of the blacksmith guilds of 13th-
century Florence and 15th-century England, coupled with their mention of Nuremberg, Sheffield,
and Remscheid, the region that sweeps from Florence through Nuremberg, the Rhine-Ruhr, the
Netherlands, and up to Sheffield, can be compared to the modern economics notation of the Blue
Banana.) Most files of the period were smithed by hand in a sequence in which the iron was forged
(heated and hammered), then the teeth were cut with a chisel (some of this action was just as much
upsetting/swaging as it was cutting), and then the piece was hardened (by heating and then
quenching), followed sometimes by tempering. Among the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci is a
sketch of a machine tool for the cutting of files (the chisel would make one strike, swaging a tooth,
then automatically advance into position for the next tooth, and strike again).

Prior to the industrialization of machining and the development of interchangeable parts during
the 19th century, filing was much more important in the construction of mechanisms. Component
parts were roughly shaped by forging, casting, and by primitive machining operations. These
components were then individually hand-fitted for assembly by careful and deliberate filing. The
potential precision of such fitting is much higher than generally assumed, but the components of
such hand-fit assemblies are decidedly not interchangeable with those from another assembly.
Locks, clocks, and firearms (flintlocks and earlier) were manufactured in this way for centuries
before the Industrial Revolution.

Machining in the mid-19th century was heavily dependent on filing, because milling practice was
slowly evolving out of its infancy. As late as the early 20th century, manufacturing often involved
filing parts to precise shape and size. In today's manufacturing environment, milling and grinding
have generally replaced this type of work, and filing (when it occurs at all) usually tends to be for
deburring only. Skillful filing to shape and size is still a part of diemaking, moldmaking,
toolmaking, etc., but even in those fields, the goal is usually to avoid handwork when possible.

2.3 Files - Care and Use

Files and rasps are cataloged in three ways:
Length. Measuring from the tip to the heel of the file. The tang is never included in the
length.
Shape. Refers to the physical configuration of the file (circular, rectangular, or triangular
or a variation thereof).
Cut. Refers to both the character of the teeth or the coarseness; rough, coarse and bastard
for use on heavier classes of work and second cut, smooth and dead smooth for finishing work.

2.4 Types of Files

2.4.1 Diamond files

Instead of having teeth cut into the file's working surface,

diamond files have small particles of industrial diamond
embedded in their surface (or into a softer material that is
bonded to the underlying surface of the file). The use of
diamonds in this manner allows the file to be used effectively
against extremely hard materials, such as stone, glass or very
hard metals such as hardened steel or carbide against which a
standard steel file is ineffective.
2.4.2 Needle files
A needle file set depicting various shapes, from top to bottom:
pillar, half round, barrette, square, round, triangular. Needle
files are small files that are used in applications where the
surface finish takes priority over metal removal rates but they
are most suited for smaller work pieces. They are often sold
in sets, including different shapes.

2.4.3 Riffler files

Riffler files are small to medium-sized files in an assortment of

cross sectional shapes and profiles. The varying profiles and
shapes enable them to be used in hard to reach, or unusually
shaped areas. They are often used as an intermediate step in die
making where the surface finish of a cavity die may need to be
improved, e.g. in plastic injection moulding or die casting.
2.4.4 Machine files

Files are produced specifically for use in a filing machine, which

is similar in appearance to a scroll saw with a vertically
reciprocating file mounted in the middle of a table. A workpiece
is manipulated around the file's face as the shape requires.
2.4.5 Hand files
These are parallel in width and tapered in thickness. They have one safe edge (smooth
edge) which permits filing in corners, and on other work where a safe edge is required. Hand
files are double cut and used principally for finishing flat surfaces and similar work.
2.4.6 Flat files
These files are slightly tapered toward the point in both width and thickness. They cut on
both edges as well as on the sides. They are the most common files in use. Flat files are double
cut on both sides and single cut on both edges.
2.4.7 Mill files
These are usually tapered slightly in thickness and in width for about one-third of their
length. The teeth are ordinarily single cut. These files are used for drawfiling and to some
extent for filing soft metals.
2.4.8 Square files
These files may be tapered or blunt and are double cut. They are used principally for filing
slots and key seats, and for surface filing.
2.4.9 Round or rattail files
These are circular in cross section and may be either tapered or blunt and single or double
cut. They are used principally for filing circular openings or concave surfaces.
2.4.10 Triangular and Three square files
These files are triangular in cross section. Triangular files are single cut and are used for
filing the gullet between saw teeth. Three square files, which are double cut, may be used for
filing internal angles, clearing out corners, and filing taps and cutters.
2.4.11 Half round files
These files cut on both the flat and round sides. They may be single or double cut. Their
shape permits them to be used where other files would be unsatisfactory.
2.4.12 Lead float files These are especially designed for use on soft metals. They are single
cut and are made in various lengths.
2.4.13 Warding file
Rectangular in section and tapers to narrow point as to width. Used for narrow space filing
where other files cannot be used.
2.4.14 Knife file
Knife blade section. Used by tool and die makers on work having acute angles.
2.4.15 Wood file
Same section as flat and half round files. Has coarser teeth and is especially adaptable for
use on wood.
2.4.16 Vixen (Curved tooth files)
Curved tooth files are especially designed for rapid filing and smooth finish on soft metals
and wood. The regular cut is adapted for tough work on cast iron, soft steel, copper, brass,
aluminum, wood, slate, marble, fibre, rubber, etc. The fine cut gives excellent results on steel,
 cast iron, phosphor bronze, white brass, and all hard metals. The smooth cut is used where the
amount of material to be removed is very slight, but where a superior finish is desired.

2.5 File Teeth

The size and spacing of a file’s tooth corresponds to the file’s coarseness. Fine files have
small, frequently spaced teeth which don’t remove a great deal of material per stroke. Alternately,
coarse files have larger teeth with fewer teeth per inch. These larger teeth remove more material
per stroke and therefore cut material quickly. Typically there are three levels of coarseness: bastard
(coarsest), second-cut (medium), and smooth (finest).
Along with the size of the tooth is the pattern of the teeth. The pattern directly affects the
character and is referred to as the cut of the file. The character gives special properties to the file
such as making a file cut faster or slower independently of its coarseness. There are four standard
types:

Single-cut files have a single row of diagonal teeth. These teeth run parallel to each other and
extend the length of the file’s face. These files are good for both soft and hard materials.

Double-cut files have two sets of diagonally-cut teeth. The interlaced teeth create a diamond-like
pattern which allow the file to cut twice as fast as a single-cut file. They are good for quickly
cutting hard materials. The teeth will clog if used with soft materials.

Curved-cut files have teeth cut in a curved contour across the working surface of the file. They
are used for smoothing and blending.

Rasp-cut files have a pattern where each tooth is individually formed. They are separate,
disconnected, and typically stand much taller than other cuts. They are used for very large
removal of soft materials such as wood or plastic. The teeth will dull when used against hard
materials.

2.6 File Technique

Below are some common techniques for how to use a file. As a general rule of thumb,
using two hands are preferred. This gives the user the most amount of control.
2.6.1 Heavy Filing (Speed of material removal)
This technique as seen in image is used when a lot of material needs to be removed quickly.
Hold the file by its handle with your dominant hand. With your opposing hand place your
palm onto the tip of the file. Your palm is used to help press down while your dominant hand
is used to guide and control the direction of the file. Rather than press hard for aggressive cuts
switch to a more aggressive (coarse) file. Pressing too hard will dull the file more quickly.

2.6.2 Light Filing (Light removal or increasing surface finish)

This technique is used when material must be removed slowly. It uses the same general
technique as before but rather than applying pressure with your palm you apply pressure
with your thumb only. With practice your thumb can vary the pressure to precisely control
the amount of material which is removed.

2.6.3 Draw Filing (Surface finish refinement)

Draw filing is a modified technique which should only be used with single and double-
cut files. In this technique the file is turned sideways and is grasped on both ends, see Figure
6. The file is then sawed back and forth to remove material. The reason sawing back and
forth is acceptable in this case has to do with the diagonal teeth of the single and double-cut
files. As the file is drawn back and forth newly cut material forces the material off the teeth.
With the double-cut variety of file both strokes of the file are cutting into the material
reducing the chance of dulling.
2.7 Care of Files
There are several precautions that any good
craftsman will take in caring for his files.
1. Choose the right file for the material and
work to be performed.
2. Keep all files racked and separated so they
do not bear against each other.
3. Keep the files in a dry place - rust will
corrode the teeth points.
4. Keep files clean - Tap the end of the file
against the bench after every few strokes, to
loosen and clear the filings. Use the file card to
keep files clean - a dirty file is a dull file.
Particles of metal collect between the teeth of a file and may make deep scratches in the material
being filed. When these particles of metal are lodged too firmly between the teeth and cannot be
removed by tapping the edge of the file, remove them with a file card or wire brush. Draw the
brush across the file so that the bristles pass down the gullet between the teeth.
 References
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https://disher.com/2016/08/12/filing-away-use-hand-file/
GMF Aeroasia. 2015. “Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual: Modul 7-Maintenance
Practice”. Tangerang: Garuda Indonesia Group
Tikkanen, Amy. TT. Chisel. Diakses [29 Agustus 2019]
https://www.britannica.com/technology/chisel
Wikipedia. TT. Chisel. Diakses [29 Agustus 2019] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chisel
Wikipedia. TT. File (tool). Diakses [29 Agustus 2019] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_(tool)
Wonkeedonkeetools.com. TT. What are The Different Types of Wood Chisel
Diakses [29 Agustus 2019] https://www.wonkeedonkeetools.co.uk/wood-chisles/what-
are-the-different-types-of-wood-chisel/