Islam

Islam 1
Islam
For other meanings, including people named 'Islam', see Islam
(disambiguation).
[1]
Islam (Arabic: ‫مالسإلا‬‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] ( listen) ) is
the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered
by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: ‫هللا‬‎, Allah),
and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah
collected in the hadith) of Muhammad, the last Prophet of Islam. The
word Islam means 'Submission (to God)',[2] and an adherent of Islam is
called a Muslim (see Islam (term)).
The Kaaba, in Mecca Saudi Arabia, is the center
[3] of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather
Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable. Muslims also
there to pray in unity.
believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial
faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including
through the prophets Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have
been partially changed or corrupted over time,[4] but consider the Quran to be both unaltered and the final revelation
from God. Religious practices include the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five obligatory acts of worship, and
following Islamic law (Arabic: ‫ ةعيرش‬Šarīʿah), which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society,
encompassing everything from banking and welfare, to warfare and the environment.[5] [6]
The Muslims belong to two denominations, with the majority (c. 80-90%) practicing Sunni Islam and approximately
10-20% Shia Islam.[7] [8] [9] About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country,[10] 25% in South
Asia,[10] 20% in the Middle East,[11] 2% in Central Asia, 4% in the remaining South East Asian countries, and 15%
in Sub-saharan Africa.[12] Sizable communities are also found in China and Russia, and parts of the Caribbean.
Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world. With about 1.57 billion Muslims
comprising about 23% of the world's population[12] (see Islam by country), Islam is the second-largest religion and
arguably the fastest-growing religion in the world.[13] [14] [15] [16] [17]
Etymology and meaning

The word islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m, and is derived from the Arabic verb
’áslama, which means "to give up, to desert, to surrender (to God)."[18] [19] Another word derived from the same root
is salaam (‫ )مالس‬which means 'Peace'.[20] [21] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of
the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by worshipping Him,
following His commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various
occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction:
"Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[22] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually
translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon
you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[23] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more
than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[24] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of
islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (ìbādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[25]
Islam 2
Articles of faith
God
The term Allāh is used by Muslims to refer to the one God while ʾilāh is the term
used for a diety or a god in general.[26] Other non-Arab Muslims might use
different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in
Persian.
Islam's fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd. God is
described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[27] "Say: He is God, the One and Only;
God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is
none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the
Allah means God in Arabic
Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism but accept Jesus as a
prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not
expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being
al-rahman, meaning "the compassionate" and al-rahim, meaning "the merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[28]
Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[3] He is viewed as a personal God who states “We
are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein”[29] and responds whenever a person in need or distress calls Him.[7] [30]
There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, between God and thecreation that he brought into being by the sheer
command “‘Be’ and it is.”[7] [31]
Angels
Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (malak) means "messenger", like its
counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and
worship God in total obedience.[32] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God,
recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede
on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God]
adds to Creation as He pleases..."[33]
Islam 3
Revelations
The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were
dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously
revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become
distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] The Qur'an (literally,
“Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal
Word of God and is widely regarded as the greatest literary work in the Arabic
language.[34] [35] [36] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed
to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl). on many occasions
between 610 and his death on June 8, 632.[37] The Qur'an was reportedly written
down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the
prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu
Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman,
the third caliph.
The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236
āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are The first sura in a Qur'anic
manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi
primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras
mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[38]
The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of
Islamic principles and values".[39] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's
life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and
exegesis is known as tafsir.[40]
When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather
than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original
Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the
impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on
the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[41]
Prophets
Hadith collections
Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: ‫يبن‬‎) as those humans chosen by God to be His messengers.
According to the Qur'an [42] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God"
to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to
perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of
Islam—submission to the Will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in
Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[43] Muslims believe that God finally sent
Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the
word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path").
This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his
personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in
Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as
Islam 4
crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century ah (9th century
ace), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group,
the Shīʾah, has its own Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.[7]
Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Qiyamah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sāà, "the
Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown
to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and
also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic
Arabian understanding of death.[44]
The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, riba, and dishonesty. Muslims view
heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to
come. There are also references to ridwān.[45] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the
context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[46]
Predestination
In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full
knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen
to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[47] For Muslims, everything in the world that
occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim
theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between
right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by
God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[48]
Duties and practices
The Five pillars

The Five Pillars of Islam are 5 simple rules or 5 obligations that every Muslim must satisfy.[9] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53]
They are as follow:

1. The shahadah, which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited wholeheartedly with the statement: "'ašhadu
'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify that there is none worthy of
worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all
other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to
convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[54] Anyone who cannot recite "there is no God but Allah, and
Muhammad is his messenger" is a non-Muslim.[55]
2. Salah (daily prayers)
3. Sawm (fasting during the month of Ramadan every year)
4. Zakat (alms-giving)
5. Hajj (once in a lifetime pilgrimage to Mecca)
Islam 5
Prayers
Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: ‫ةالص‬‎; pl. ṣalawāt), must
be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on
God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses
gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the
specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are
recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the
Qur'an.[56] Shia practice however permits combining 5 prayers into
three daily prayer times.[57]
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by Syrian Muslims performing salah (prayer) at the
its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria.
types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a
distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid
jāmi`).[58] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the
Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of
the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[59]
Fasting
Fasting, called "Sawm" (Arabic: ‫موص‬‎), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to
dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims
should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is
not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed
depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[60]
Alms-giving
"Zakāt" (Arabic: ‫ةاكز‬‎ Arabic pronunciation: [zæˈkæːh], sometimes "Zakāh/Zekat"[61] ) is giving a fixed portion of
accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is
considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their
wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an
act of voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah).[62]
Pilgrimage
The pilgrimage, called the Hajj (Arabic: ‫جح‬‎ Ḥajj) during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca.
Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.
Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or
running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[63]
Law and Jurisprudence

The Sharia (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic
scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and
"constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[64]
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily
living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation
of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain
Islam 6
laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer.
However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars
(known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[65] Over the
years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri have since died out.[66] [67]
Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists
use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic
legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah
(actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas).
For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the
jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including
the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[68]
Jurists
There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned
positions of Islam but generally refers to the educated class of
Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic
studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the
body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training
and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or
muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village
mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest
rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say
that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulema.
Ottoman miniature painters
Some Muslims pratcise ijtihad whereby they don't accept the
authority of clergy.[69]
Etiquette and diet

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu
àlaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right
hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and
health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat
al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are
restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from
an animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has
hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[70]
Family life
The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members.
The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division
of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a
portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is
generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[71] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which
consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is
required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[72]
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one
husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by
Islam 7
pronouncing the word "divorce".[73] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices
such as veiling and seclusion (purdah).
Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in
Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with
modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to
continue traditional law as applied to women.[74]
Government
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars
function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a
parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into
contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a
secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a
mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[75]
Military
Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of
Sunni Muslim authorities.[76] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power,
efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a
visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.[77] Jihad, when used
without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[78] [79] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious
and moral perfection.[80] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the
"greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[81]
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the
defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic
community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of
offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of
warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups,
and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[82] [83] Most Muslims today interpret
Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies
conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[84]
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some
individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad
become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[83]
For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and
as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[85] occultation in 868 AD.[86]
History
Muhammad (610–632)
Islam 8
Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was

a trader later becoming a religious,
political, and military leader. However,
Muslims do not view Muhammad as
the creator of Islam, but instead regard Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the site of
Muhammad's tomb.
him as the last messenger of God,
through which the Qur'an was
revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam,
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in
a series of prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.[87] For the last 22 years of his life,
in 610, beginning at age 40, Muhammad started receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations,
known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[88]
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although
some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12
years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly
known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun),
Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against
Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended
inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or
death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as
Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[89] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly
bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he ruled over the Arabian
peninsula.[90]
Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750)

Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia
into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who
would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of
Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support
and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or
Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as
the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[91]
His death in 634 resulted in the succession
of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman
ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These
four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn
("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them,
the territory under Muslim rule expanded
deeply into Persian and Byzantine
territories.[92]
When Umar was assassinated in 644, the

election of Uthman as successor was met
The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE
with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman
was also killed, and Ali assumed the
Islam 9
position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by
Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad
dynasty.[93]
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The
majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed,
and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[94] After Mu'awiyah's death in
680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad
dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula,
former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul) in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and
the fringes of Central Asia.[95] One of the best preserved architectural examples of Islamic conquest, is the Great
Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) founded in 670 by the Arab conqueror and Umayyad general Uqba ibn Nafi [96]
and considered as the ancestor and model for all the mosques in the western Islamic world [97] · .[98] The muladies
(Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by
the end of the 10th century.[99] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to
question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based
on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a
movement that would evolve into Sufism.[100]
For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;[101] the economy of the Umayyad
empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of
Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe.
Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs.
The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and
some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim,
inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[102]
Golden Age (750–1258)

Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic
Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[104]
The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni
Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the
efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to
establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of
dispute among Islamic scholars.[105] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic
The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in
theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid
[106] 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the
al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed. Sufism best architectural examples of Islamic
became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism [103]
civilization.
and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to
disagreements over the succession of Imams.[107] The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among
medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new
Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist
and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.[108]
Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the
modern sense of the word[109] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[110] [111] The
Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university
in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[112] The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa
Islam 10
'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in madrasahs which taught law.[113] The first institutions for the
care of mentally ill people were also established in the Muslim world.[114] During this time, standards of
experimental and quantification techniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between
competing theories as well as the tradition of citation.[115] [116] Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the
modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist."[117] Legal institutions introduced
in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[118] [119]
Fragmentation and invasions

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as
various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North
Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces
broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more
religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids
contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. In the 10th
century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Afghan-Persian region
and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the name of Islam. They
were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. In 836, Caliph The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, one
of the finest examples of Ummayad architecture
Al-Mu'tasim moved the capital of the Caliphate from Baghdad to the
in Spain.
new city of Samarra, which would remain the capital until 892 when it
was returned to Baghdad by al-Mu'tamid. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks
had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular
authority.[120] During this time, expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful
proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central
Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[19]
The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to
the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series
of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former
Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states,
these acquisitions were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in
1187.[121]
In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran
the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising
in 1250[122] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Over the next
century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of
Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian
subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th
century.[123] The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century,[124] probably brought by
merchants making use of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica.[125]
New dynasties and colonialism (1030–1918)

In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these "Ghazi
emirates" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western
Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which
succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser
extent, cannonry.[126] The Ottomans launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in
1529.[127] Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim. Around the 18th century, despite
Islam 11
attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military
advantages.
From the 14th to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was
experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty. In the early 16th
century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a
Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids
remained in power for two centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in
the early 18th century.
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a

result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He
developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim
students.[128] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra,
collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The India.
Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought;

to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.[129]
After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most
important cultural centre of the Muslim east.[130] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent
starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and
the Mughal Empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early 18th
century the Hindu Maratha Empire was becoming the pre-eminent power in northern India until they were weakened
by the Durrani Empire in the mid-18th century.
It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn
Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of
saints as un-Islamic.[131] In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.
By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,[132] and overthrew the
Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and
winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the
Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly
India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[133]
Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and
spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[134] The Ottoman
era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[135] [136]
Modern times (1918–present)

By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into
the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also
parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these
European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of
Israel have assumed prominence.[137]
The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in
September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[138]
Islam 12
Islamic revival and Islamist movements
The 20th century saw the Islamic world increasingly exposed to

outside cultural influences, bringing potential changes to Muslim
societies. In response, new Islamic "revivalist" movements were
initiated as a counter movement to non-Islamic ideas. Groups such as
Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt
advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political
ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values
as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every
public and private question of importance.
The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque in
In countries like Iran, revolutionary movement replaced secular regime Srirangapatna, India.
with an Islamic state, while transnational groups like Osama bin
Laden's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to
reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there
are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on
religious matters".[139]
Modern criticism of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard
on apostates from Islam. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify
the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.[140] Many authors have
criticised Islam (as well as other religions) as being sexist, intolerant, and warlike. Thinking that Islam is at odds
with modern science, and more particularly evolutionary biology, Richard Dawkins wishes to popularize "evolution
in the Islamic world."[141] In his book titled God Is Not Great, which criticizes all religions, Christopher Hitchens
expresses his opinion by stating that Islam is "dogmatic," and "the fact remains that Islam's core claim – to be
unimprovable and final – is at once absurd." Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and
writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[142] Syed Ameer Ali,[143] Ahmed Deedat[144] and Yusuf Estes.[145] In 2006,
the first global Islamic TV channel (Peace TV) was established by Zakir Naik in Mumbai, India. It is watched by
many million viewers worldwide in which all topics relating to religions are discussed, including criticism as well as
differences between Islam other religions.
Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a
danger they feel has been ignored.[146] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the
product of old myths and polemics.[147] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the
negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.[148] In contrast, Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman have
entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by
Western scholars who idealize Islam.[149]
Islam 13
Denominations
Sunni
Sunni Muslims are the largest group in
Islam, comprising the vast bulk (up to 90%
or nine-tenth[7] [150] ) of the world's 1.5
billion Muslims, hence the title Ahl
as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah (people of the
principle and majority). In Arabic,
as-Sunnah literally means "principle" or
"path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the
Distribution of Islamic schools and branches in areas where large Muslim
example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in
population are found
hadith are the primary foundations of Sunni
doctrine. According to Sunni Islam, the
"normative" example of Muhammad's life is
called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path").
This example is preserved in traditions
known as hadith ("reports"), which recount
his words, his actions, and his personal
characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist
ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the
importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law,
and Muslims are encouraged to emulate
Muhammad's actions in their daily lives.
The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding
interpretation of the Qur'an.[151] Two major
hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and
Sahih Muslim. Sunnis believe that the first Movements in Islam
four caliphs were the rightful successors to
Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis
believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.[150] [152]
There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the
validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.[153] The Salafi (also known as
Ahl al-Hadith, or Wahhabi by its adversaries) is a ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation
of Muslims as exemplary models.[154]
Shi'a
The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[9] [12] They believe in the political and
religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who according to most Shi'a are in a state of
ismah, meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was
his rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim
caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among
Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shias regard Ali as the prophet's true successor and
believe that a caliph is appointed by divine will.[155] Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the
Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya) which the label Shi'a generally refers to. Although the Twelver Shi'a share many core
Islam 14
practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of
hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.[156] Other smaller groups include the
Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.[157]
Sufism
Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and
knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more
spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by
making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to
use.[158] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary,
although Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an
unjustified religious innovation. Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as
Sufi whirling dervishes in Istanbul,
either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.[159] [160]
Turkey
Other
• Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded towards the end of the 19th century, originating with the
life and teachings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908). He claimed that he was the Mujaddid (divine reformer)
of the 14th Islamic century, the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ") and Mahdi awaited by
Muslims.[161] [162] [163] [164] [165] Ahmadi emphasis lay in the belief that Islam is the final law for humanity as
revealed to Muhammad and the necessity of restoring its true essence, which had been lost through the centuries.
Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam.[166] There exists legal
restrictions against the Ahmadis in various Muslim countries, in particular Pakistan.[167]
• The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is
Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an
important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his
knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman, with a number of
diasporic communities in Northern Africa.[168] [169]
• There are also Muslims who generally reject the Hadith, often called Quranists.
Other religions
The Alevi, Yazidi, Druze, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim movements either emerged out of Islam or came to
share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though
controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims.
Demographics
Islam 15
A comprehensive 2009 demographic study

of 232 countries and territories reported that
23% of the global population or 1.57 billion
people are Muslims. Of those, an estimated
80–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shi'a,[7]
[8] [9]
with a small minority belonging to
other sects. Approximately 50 countries are
Muslim-majority,[170] and Arabs account for
around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.[171]
Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim Muslim population by percentage worldwide
community grew from 200 million to 551
million;[172] between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion.
The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[173] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with
over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[174] [175] In the Middle East, non-Arab
countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the
most populous Muslim communities.[176]
Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to
2% of the population).[177] [178] [179] [180] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International
Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[181] Islam is the
second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[182] and is slowly catching up to that status in
the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to
the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[12] [183]
Culture
Art
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim)
who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[184] It includes fields as varied as
architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.
Architecture
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly
that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle).[185] Through the edifices, the
effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North
African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine
elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and
porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[186] in the Alhambra
palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.
The Sultan Ahmet Mosque in
Istanbul, Turkey.
Islam 16
Calendar
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE,
which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment
of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was
reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary
years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle.
Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years:
allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to
only 97 years in the Christian calendar.[187]
Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they The Islamic calendar is based on the
occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most lunar cycle.
st
important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: ‫ )رطفلا ديع‬on the 1 of
Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: ‫ )ىحضألا ديع‬on the 10th of Dhu
al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[188] Similar to the Jewish calendar, days in the Islamic calendar
last from sunset to sunset.[189]
See also
• Dhikr • Islamism
• Islamic studies • Lists of Muslims
• Islam and animals • List of Muslim empires and dynasties
• Islam and children • List of notable converts to Islam
• Islam and science • Timeline of Muslim history
• Islamic jurisprudence • Prisoner rights in Islam
• Islamic ethics • Criticism of Islam
• Islamic art • Criticism of Hadith
• Islamic economics • Quran alone
• Islamic literature • Islam and other religions
• Islam and secularism • Divisions of the world in Islam
• Al-Aqeedah Al-Waasitiyyah
• Islam and modernity
References
Citations
[1] There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is English
pronunciation: /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/ as in father, /æ/ as in cat, or (when the stress is on the i) /ə/ as in the a of sofa
(Merriam Webster). The most common are English pronunciation: /ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm, ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random
House) and English pronunciation: /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary).
[2] "USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts" (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ notislam/ misconceptions. html#HEADING1). Usc.edu. .
Retrieved 2010-05-16.
• Qur'an 51:56
• Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence (http:/ / www. patheos. com/ Library/ Islam/ Beliefs/
Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence. html)
[4] See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims
will grant the veracity of most of it. * Esposito (1998), pp.6,12* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9* F. Buhl; A. T. Welch.
"Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.* Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[5] Esposito (2002b), p.17
[6] See: * Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118* "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
Islam 17
[7] "Islām" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 295507/ Islam). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2010-08-25.
[8] "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population" (http:/ / pewforum. org/
Muslim/ Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population(6). aspx). Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. . Retrieved 2010-08-24.
[9] "Religions" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2122. html). Central Intelligence Agency. The World
Factbook. 2010. . Retrieved 2010-08-25.
[10] Miller (2009), pp.8,17
[11] See:* Esposito (2002b), p.21* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43 * Miller (2009), pp.9,19
[12] Miller, Tracy, ed (10 2009) (PDF). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim
Population (http:/ / pewforum. org/ Muslim/ Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population. aspx). Pew Research Center. . Retrieved 2009-10-08.
[13] "Islam Today" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithtoday. html). PBS. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Islam, followed by more than a
billion people today, is the world's fastest growing religion and will soon be the world's largest..."
[14] "No God But God" (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ articles/ news/ religion/ 2008/ 04/ 07/ no-god-but-god. html). Thomas W. Lippman. U.S.
News & World Report. April 7, 2008. . Retrieved 2010-08-25. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least
complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of
Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."
[15] "Understanding Islam" (http:/ / www. usnews. com/ articles/ news/ religion/ 2008/ 04/ 07/ understanding-islam. html). Susan Headden. U.S.
News & World Report. April 7, 2008. . Retrieved 2010-08-25.
[16] "The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions" (http:/ / www. foreignpolicy. com/ story/ cms. php?story_id=3835). Foreign Policy. May
14, 2007. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.
[17] "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents" (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ Religions_By_Adherents. html).
Adherents.com. . Retrieved 2007-07-03.
[18] "Lane's lexicon" (http:/ / www. studyquran. org/ LaneLexicon/ Volume4/ 00000137. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2007-07-03.
[19] L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[20] Harper, Douglas. "Islam" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=Islam). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved 2007-11-22.
[21] L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.; "Lane's lexicon" (http:/ / www. studyquran. org/ LaneLexicon/ Volume4/
00000137. pdf) (PDF). .
[22] See:
• Qur'an 6:125, Qur'an 61:7, Qur'an 39:22
• L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[23] Qur'an 5:3, Qur'an 3:19, Qur'an 3:83
[24] See:
• Qur'an 9:74, Qur'an 49:14
[25] Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 192
[26] See:
• "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
• L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[27] See:
• Qur'an 112:1–4
• Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
• Esposito (2004), p.22
• Griffith (2006), p.248
• D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
[28] Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library.
ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
[29] Qur'an 50:16
[30] Qur'an 2:186
[31] Qur'an 2:117
[32] Qur'an 21:19–20, Qur'an 35:1
[33] See:
• Qur'an 35:1
• Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
• W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
• Gisela Webb. "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
[34] Alan Jones, The Koran, London 1994, ISBN 1842126091, opening page.
[35] Arthur Arberry, The Koran Interpreted, London 1956, ISBN 0684825074, p. x.
[36] Maurice Bucaille, THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE, 1978, ISBN 8172311613, p. 125
[37] Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21
Islam 18
[38] See:
• "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
• "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
[39] Esposito (2004), p.79
[40] See:
• Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
• "Tafsir". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
[41] See:
• Teece (2003), pp.12,13
• C. Turner (2006), p.42
• "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different
theories about this term and its formation.
[42] "The Koran" (http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/ cgi/ k/ koran/ koran-idx?type=proximity& q1=Imran& operator1=Near& amt1=80&
q2=Ibrahim& operator2=Near& amt2=80& q3=& size=First+ 100). Quod.lib.umich.edu. . Retrieved 2009-12-12.
[43] See:
• Momem (1987), p.176
[44] See:
• "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
• "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
• L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
[45] Qur'an 9:72
[46] See:
• Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
• "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
• Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
• "Paradise". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
[47] See:
• Qur'an 9:51
• D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book'
before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' "
• Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it
is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
[48] See:
• Farah (2003), pp.119–122
• Patton (1900), p.130
[49] "Pillars of Islam" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 295625/ Pillars-of-Islam). Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. . Retrieved
2007-05-02.
[50] "Five Pillars" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ islam/ faithpillars. html). PBS. . Retrieved 2010-11-17.
[51] Hooker, Richard (July 14, 1999). "arkan ad-din the five pillars of religion" (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ GLOSSARY/ 5PILLARS. HTM).
Washington State University. . Retrieved 2010-11-17.
[52] "The Five Pillars of Islam" (http:/ / people. ucalgary. ca/ ~elsegal/ I_Transp/ IO5_FivePillars. html). University of Calgary. . Retrieved
2010-11-17.
[53] "The Five Pillars of Islam" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ islam/ practices/ fivepillars. shtml). BBC News. . Retrieved
2010-11-17.
[54] See:
• Farah (1994), p.135
• Momen (1987), p.178
[55] "Shahadah: the statement of faith" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ islam/ practices/ shahadah. shtml). BBC News. . Retrieved
2010-11-17.
[56] See:
• Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
• Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
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• Qur'an 2:177
• Esposito (2004), p.90
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• "Zakat". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
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Islam 20
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Islam 21
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Islam 22
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Islam 23
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Footnotes
Books and journals

• Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An
Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1). ISSN 0959-6410.
• Adil, Hajjah Amina; Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2002). Muhammad:
The Messenger of Islam. Islamic Supreme Council of America. ISBN 978-1930409118.
• Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris.
ISBN 978-1860642579.
• Armstrong, Karen (2006). Muhammad: A Prophet for our Time. HarperCollins. ISBN 006059897-2.
• Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina
press. ISBN 1570034710.
• Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern
Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195133986.
• Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional.
ISBN 978-0813819464.
• Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. Rutgers University Press.
ISBN 0-8135-2614-0.
• Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North
Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4.
• Esposito, John; John Obert Voll (1996). Islam and Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510816-7.
• Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195112344.
• Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1.
• Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195107999.
• Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0195168860.
• Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
• Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
• Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0195182668.
Islam 25
• Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series.
ISBN 978-0812018530.
• Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series.
ISBN 978-0764-12226-2.
• Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-5125800.
• Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994.
• Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
• Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview
Press. ISBN 978-0813342757.
• Griffith, Ruth Marie; Barbara Dianne Savage (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge,
Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883709.
• Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge.
ISBN 0415240735.
• Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing.
ISBN 978-1553698425.
• Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0521291364.
• Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521291372.
• Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition.
ISBN 978-0674010178.
• Humphreys, Stephen (2005). Between Memory and Desire. University of California Press. ISBN 052-0246918.
• Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People.
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Islam 28
Further reading
• World Muslim Population: 1950 -2020, by Dr. Houssain Kettani (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/
a5/IJESD2010.pdf)
• Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684825076.
• Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.).
Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960740799.
• Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse
University. ISBN 978-9652240408.
• Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004038132.
• Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195090611.
• Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0195102833.
• Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications.
ISBN 978-1591440710.
• Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440345.
• Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press.
ISBN 978-0253216274.
• Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
• Tausch, Arno (2009). Muslim Calvinism (1st ed.). Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-9051709957.
• Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the
“World Values Survey”. Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science
Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
• Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers.
ISBN 978-0720610383.
Minorities in Islam:
• A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB
Tauris, 2006).
External links
Academic resources
• Patheos Library – Islam (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam.html)
• University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts (http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA)
• Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions) (http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam)
• Ethical Democracy Journal (http://www.ethicaldemocracy.org/) views on Islam, other ethical systems and
democracy
Online resources
• Islam (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam), article at Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Islam (http://www.friesian.com/islam.htm), article at Friesian.com
• Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies (http://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4459.
html), article at Repec/Ideas, University of Connecticut and IZA, Bonn, on Islam and global value change
Directories
• Islam (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam//) at the Open Directory Project
• Islam (Bookshelf) (http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_(Bookshelf)) at Project Gutenberg
• Islam (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/islamus.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Islam 29
• Islam and Islamic Studies Resources (http://www.uga.edu/islam/) from Dr. Alan Godlas, Professor, University
of Georgia
bjn:Islam
Article Sources and Contributors 30
Article Sources and Contributors

Islam Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397844515 Contributors: (, *Kat*, *drew, -- April, .c, 0, 05dalesteyn, 09.arif, 130.182.125.xxx, 151.170.240.xxx, 172.147.65.xxx,
1Chunk, 1pezguy, 213.131.76.xxx, 24.12.199.xxx, 24.93.53.xxx, 334a, 4r2emi, 63.109.248.xxx, 64.105.112.xxx, 928s4, 99DBSIMLR, @, A Doon, A Kaffir, A. Parrot, A.Khalil, A3RO, AA,
AAA765, AAhmed, ACSE, AJR, ALM scientist, ATIYAH, AYousefzai, Aaaxlp, Aaboelela, Aadamh, Aaliyah Stevens, Aamkhanmd, Aaron Schulz, Abc.agga, Abd r Raheem al Haq, Abdousi,
Abdul Omar, Abdul Rasheed, Abdullah Geelah, Abdullah Omar, Abdullah Tahir, Abdullah-Omar, Abdullah@xtra.co.nz, Abe.nizam, Abexy, Abhisham, Abid6814, Absar, AbsolutDan, Abtract,
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Islam

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Islam

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Islam 1

Etymology and meaning

Resurrection and judgment

Duties and practices

The Five pillars

They are as follow:

Law and Jurisprudence

Etiquette and diet

Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was

Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750)

When Umar was assassinated in 644, the

Golden Age (750–1258)

Fragmentation and invasions

New dynasties and colonialism (1030–1918)

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a

Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought;

Modern times (1918–present)

Islamic revival and Islamist movements

The 20th century saw the Islamic world increasingly exposed to

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study

[105] Lapidus (2002), p.86

Books and journals

• Mohammad, Noor (1985). "The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction" (http://jstor.org/stable/1051182). Journal

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