HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE

PROBLEM STATEMENT

By Rod Morgan
5 COMMENTS
1
Continuous improvement specialists are challenged to solve problems for their
organizations or clients. They have acquired a wide array of tools, methods and
techniques for that purpose.
If continuous improvement practitioners are able to establish the winning conditions for
change, they can look forward to successful outcomes. However, the devil is in the
details, making continuous improvement jobs interesting and challenging.

One of those “little devils” that often gets overlooked is the need to construct an
effective problem statement at the start of any improvement project.

What Is a Problem Statement?

Adapted from an article by Alan Bryman in the International Journal of Social Research
Methodology: A problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be
improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in theory
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.
Why Is It So Hard to Write an Effective Problem
Statement?
One of the challenges in writing a great problem statement is the distractions that can
come from a variety of sources.
 Symptoms associated with the problem add to the confusion when trying to describe a
problem. For example, arriving at the physician’s office and stating, “Doctor, I am
experiencing pain in the back of my thigh down to the lower part of my leg! I need you to
‘fix’ my leg!” It is only after a thoughtful evaluation that the doctor concludes that your
problem lies with your sciatic nerve and originates in your lower back.
 Solutions are often an early consideration when wrestling with a problem. When one is
faced with a problem, alleviating that pain as quickly as possible is a natural, almost
reflexive, action. It is, however, extremely important to avoid jumping to solutions until a
profound understanding of the current state is achieved.
 The search for causes of your pain is a natural reaction that also needs to be avoided
when first describing a problem. Establishing root cause will be a part of the ensuing
investigative procedure but should be reserved for the appropriate time in the lifecycle
of the problem-solving method.
 Blame is also a natural reflex when one is afflicted with a problem. A quote attributed to
John Burroughs, American naturalist and nature essayist, may be all that needs to be
said on this subject: “You can get discouraged many times, but you are not a failure
until you begin to blame somebody else and stop trying.”

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In short, a great problem statement must be free of causes, solutions and blame, and
careful consideration must be given to ensure symptoms do not become a distraction.

What Is in a Problem Statement?

A problem statement should describe an undesirable gap between the current-state
level of performance and the desired future-state level of performance. A problem
statement should include absolute or relative measures of the problem that quantify that
gap, but should not include possible causes or solutions!

Key elements of an effective problem statement include:

 Gap: Identify the gap (pain) that exists today.

 Timeframe, location and trend: Describe when and where the problem was first
observed and what kind of trend it is following.
 Impact: Quantify the gap (cost, time, quality, environmental, personal, etc.)
 Importance: To the organization, the individual, etc. to better understand the urgency.
What Method Can I Employ to Author a Great Problem
Statement?
 The ability to articulate an effective problem statement is not simply a business skill – it
is a life skill. How can children, youth and adults begin to solve problems if they haven’t
been able to adequately describe them? This holds true for continuous improvement
specialists.

The 5W2H (what, when, where, why, who, how, how much) method is deceptively
simple. Ask the right questions in the right order and let the answers lead you to a great
problem statement.

Example of Developing a Problem Statement

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Let’s walk through the 5W2H method for manufacturing and call center examples.
Question 1: What is the problem that needs to be solved?
 Manufacturer: Window frames and parts are ending up in the assembly department
missing required weep holes or slots.
 Call center: The assessment call is too complex, time consuming and administratively
heavy, resulting in a diminished experience for the client as well as the staff member
performing the work.

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Question 2: Why is it a problem? (highlight the pain)

 Manufacturer: If identified (visual inspection), the affected parts must be sent back for
rework, thereby increasing the overall cost of manufacturing, creating higher inventory
levels (WIP) and increasing risk since some of the defects may not be detected until
later in the process, or worse, they may end up being incorrectly shipped to the job
sites.
 Call center: This results in higher variability and length of call handling time, clients
having to repeat their “story” as the move through the assessment and downstream
case worker (meeting) process, clients providing more information than may be
required, increased workload for the assessment worker and increased wait times in the
(telephone) queue. The overall impact is reduced service levels as well as diminished
client and assessment worker experience.
Advertisement

Question 3: Where is the problem observed? (location, products)

 Manufacturer: This problem is observed in the assembly department, downstream
departments as well as ultimately in the field with customer complaints and costly field
repairs and replacements.
 Call center: This problem is observed in all assessment calls but will vary in magnitude
depending on the client (needs and circumstance), assessment worker (experience)
and other factors that contribute to variation in the handling of assessment calls.
Question 4: Who is impacted? (customers, businesses, departments)
 Manufacturer: This problem affects the assembly department that is tasked with trying
to inspect for the error and react accordingly, rework occurring in the department/work
cell responsible for weep holes and slots, the company as a whole in terms of cost,
brand and reputation, and, most importantly, the customer who is affected by this
problem if it makes it to the field.
 Call center: This affects the client associated with the call, clients waiting in the queue,
client’s families, and the organization and employers in the community being served.
Question 5: When was the problem first observed?
 Manufacturer: This has been an ongoing issue going back as far as memory serves in
the long-term employees, but with increased volume and more customization and
higher complexity in design, the impact and severity of this problem has increased
rapidly over the last two years.
 Call center: This is a latent problem that has always existed but has become more
evident with recent changes, including changes in funding, legislation, demand for
services, client demographics and recent integration efforts in the organization as part
of their ongoing commitment to continuous improvement of service pathways and client
experience.

Handpicked Content: Is Six Sigma Just For Large Companies? What About Small
Companies?

Question 6: How is the problem observed? (symptoms)

 Manufacturer: Customer (in-field installation and service) complaints, increased
warranty costs, manufacturing non-conformance reports (NCR), complaints from
assembly department team and increased costs in fabrication.
 Call center: This problem is observed in the variation in call-handling times, wait times in
the telephone queue, call abandon rates, increased stress in front-line staff (workload
and client anxiety/dissatisfaction) and ambiguity in call handling protocols.
Question 7: How often is the problem observed? (error rate, magnitude, trend)
 Manufacturer: There is an observed 62,000 parts per million (PPM) for this specific
defect, taking into consideration rework completed in-house and observed defects in the
field. The PPM is derived from the number of weeping holes and slots required per unit
assembly versus the actual number of deficiencies overall observed for the same
number of units.
 Call center: This is a daily operational occurrence but increases in call complexity
related to changes in the knowledge base – multiple programs and changes in the
environment (client demographics and needs/circumstances, legislation, etc.) – have
resulted in an increase in severity and stress on the system.
Your Turn!
Think of a problem you have encountered in your personal or professional life, or a
problem you are currently tasked to solve. Employ the preceding method of asking
seven simple questions and see where it takes you.
Teach this simple and effective method to your friends, colleagues and family. Writing
problem statements truly is a life skill and, when employed correctly, will place anyone
in good stead to start solving the problem.

Framework for identifying research

gaps
A Summary of

Robinson, K.A., Saldanha, I.J., & Mckoy, N.A. (2011). Frameworks for determining research gaps
during systematic reviews. Methods Future Research Needs Report No. 2. (Prepared by the Johns
Hopkins University Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. HHSA 290-2007-10061-I).
AHRQ Publication No. 11-EHC043-EF. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.

Relevance for Public Health

This framework for identifying research gaps from systematic reviews can direct
research agendas to influence future public health policy and practice. Although
primarily developed for clinical settings, this framework could be used to identify
research gaps from systematic reviews on public health interventions and develop
research agendas to address these gaps.

Description

This technical report, developed by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
(AHRQ), outlines a framework for identifying research gaps from systematic reviews.
The framework identifies research gaps by examining Evidence-based Practice Centers
and organizations that conduct systematic reviews. The framework specifies where and
why the current evidence is lacking.

Although there are rigorous methods for conducting systematic reviews, there has not
been a systematic process for identifying research gaps when developing the future
research sections. As part of a process designed to develop guidance for Evidence-
based Practice Centers (EPCs) to use to generate technical reports and evidence
reports for the AHRQ, the AHRQ asked EPCs to respond to seven questions about
meeting research needs.

The developers of this technical report sought to answer the question:

 What are the various frameworks, concepts and principles used to determine research
gaps within a systematic review?

A research gap is defined as a topic or area for which missing or insufficient information
limits the ability to reach a conclusion for a question. A research need is defined as a
gap that limits the ability of decision-makers (policy-makers, patients, practitioners) from
making decisions.

This technical report found that there is no specific process for identifying research gaps
during systematic reviews. Organizations most commonly used variations of the PICO
(population, intervention, comparison, outcomes) framework, which is proposed as a
framework for identifying research gaps from systematic reviews.

Accessing the Method/Tool

Language(s)

English

Format(s)

On-line Access

Cost
Not Specified

Implementing the Method/Tool

Time for Participation/Completion

Information not available

Additional Resources and/or Skills Needed for Implementation

Not Specified

Steps for Using Method/Tool

The proposed framework includes two major components:

 identification and classification of the reasons why the research gap exists

 characterization of the research gap using the PICOS (population, intervention,

comparison, outcomes, setting) elements

A) Identifying reasons for the existence of the research gap:

 Choose the most important reason(s) for the existence of the research gap

 Select the reason(s) that prevent conclusions about the evidence from being made

 Classify the reasons for research gaps, including:

1. insufficient or imprecise information

2. biased information

3. inconsistency or unknown consistency

 4. not the right information

B) Characterizing research gaps:

 Use the PICOS framework to characterize research gaps related to interventions,

screening tests, etc. The framework organizes research gaps as follows:

1. Population (P): information regarding the population that is not adequately

represented in the evidence base (gender, race/ethnicity, age, etc.)

2. Intervention (I): information regarding the specific intervention that is

inadequately included in the evidence base, the duration of the intervention, etc.

3. Comparison (C): lack of information regarding the comparison intervention or

standard intervention

4. Outcomes (O): information regarding outcomes of interest, organized by type

of outcome or timing of outcomes, to delineate where information is lacking

5. Setting (S): information regarding the relevant settings for research gaps

A worksheet is provided on p. 20 to identify and organize research gaps from

systematic reviews.

Who is involved

Individuals and groups involved in conducting evidence reviews and systematic reviews,
or those using the results of systematic reviews, would benefit from the proposed
framework.

Conditions for Use

Not specified
Evaluation and Measurement Characteristics

Evaluation

Information not available

Validity

Not applicable

Reliability

Not applicable

Methodological Rating

Unknown/No evidence

Method/Tool Development

Developer(s)

Karen A. Robinson
Ian J. Saldanha
Naomi A. McKoy

Method of Development
The developers contacted 12 Evidence-based Practice Centers (EPCs) associated with
the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) in the U.S. and Canada, and
64 other organizations internationally that conduct systematic reviews, cost-
effectiveness analyses or technology assessments. Based on feedback from four EPCs
and three other organizations, the authors developed and refined the proposed
framework. In general, there is no specific process for identifying research gaps during
systematic reviews. Organizations most commonly used variations of the PICO
(population, intervention, comparison, outcomes) framework.

The developers used this six-step process to develop a framework to identify research
gaps:

 Step 1: Focused literature review

 Step 2: Review of current practices of evidence-based practices (EPCs), Agency for

Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)

 Step 3: Review of current practices of organizations involved with evidence synthesis

 Step 4: Development of framework

 Step 5: Pilot testing framework

 Step 6: Refining the framework

Writing Effective Purpose Statements

A purpose statement is a declarative sentence which summarizes the specific topic and
goals of a document. It is typically included in the introduction to give the reader an
accurate, concrete understanding what the document will cover and what he/she can
gain from reading it. To be effective, a statement of purpose should be:

 Specific and precise - not general, broad or obscure

 Concise - one or two sentences
 Clear - not vague, ambiguous or confusing
  Goal-oriented - stated in terms of desired outcomes

Some common introductory phrases for purpose statements include:

 "The purpose of this paper/letter/document is to..."

 "In this paper, I will describe/explain/review/etc. the..."
 "My reason for writing is to..."
 "This paper will discuss the..."
 "The purpose of this paper is twofold: to ___ and ___"

Examples of Ineffective Purpose Statements:

(1) "The purpose of this paper is to describe the changes that are occurring in
corporate America."

Critique: too vague and broad. No clear expectation of what the reader will
learn. Questions: What specific changes in corporate America will be
described? What types of changes? What aspects of corporate America will be
discussed? Will this paper also discuss the effects of these changes?

(2) "The purpose of this report is to discuss the eating disorders Anorexia and
Bulimia."

Critique: too vague and broad. It is not clear what aspect of these disorders will
be discussed, or what the reader will learn. Questions: What specific aspects of
these eating disorders will be discussed? The causes of these disorders? The
signs or symptoms of these disorders? The effects of these disorders? If so,
what types of effects - physical, emotional, psychological?

(3) "This article will cover the different ways a company can become
organized."

Critique: obscure and misleading. It is not clear what is meant by "different

ways" or "become organized." These terms are vaguely stated and
ambiguous. Questions: What is meant by "different ways" and "become
organized"? What, specifically, will the reader learn about companies and how
they become organized? Any specific types of organization? Any specific types
of companies?
 Examples of effective purpose statements:

(1) "This paper will describe four common causes of co-worker conflict in
organizations and explain how to use a five-step procedure to constructively
manage this conflict."

Critique: Very specific about what aspects of conflict will be discussed. Very
precise about how much information will be given. Very clear about what the
reader will learn.

(2) "This report will explain how supervisors can use four planning strategies to
improve employee productivity in the workplace."

Critique: Very specific about what will be discussed (planning strategies), and
what the outcome will be for the reader (how to improve employee
productivity).

(3) "This purpose of this report is to describe the main causes of traffic
congestion in Seattle."

Critique: Leaves no doubt about the report's main purpose. Specific about the
focus of the traffic congestion (Seattle).

The American Heritage Dictionary defines a hypothesis as, "a tentative explanation for an
observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation." This
means a hypothesis is the stepping stone to a soon-to-be proven theory. For a hypothesis to be
considered a scientific hypothesis, it must be proven through the scientific method. Like anything
else in life, there are many paths to take to get to the same ending. Let's take a look at the different
types of hypotheses that can be employed when seeking to prove a new theory.

Types of Hypothesis
First, we must take a moment to define independent and dependent variables. Simply put, an
independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect. The independent variable
can be changed whereas the dependent variable is what you're watching for change. For example:
How does the amount of makeup one applies affect how clear their skin is? Here, the independent
variable is the makeup and the dependent variable is the skin.
The six most common forms of hypotheses are:
 Simple Hypothesis
 Complex Hypothesis
 Empirical Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
 Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")
 Logical Hypothesis
 Statistical Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the independent
variable and the dependent variable.
 Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.
A complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more independent variables and
two or more dependent variables.
 Overweight adults who 1) value longevity and 2) seek happiness are more likely than other
adults to 1) lose their excess weight and 2) feel a more regular sense of joy.
A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship between the two
variables, or there is a lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis. This is something to
attempt to disprove or discredit.
 There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green tea only or root
beer only.
This is where the alternative hypothesis (H1) enters the scene. In an attempt to disprove a null
hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an alternative hypothesis.
 My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as opposed to root beer only.
A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally, you want to
turn a logical hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or postulations to the
test.
 Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until we're able to test plant
growth in Mars' ground for an extended period of time, the evidence for this claim will be
limited and the hypothesis will only remain logical.)
An empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a theory is being put to the test,
using observation and experiment. It's no longer just an idea or notion. It's actually going through
some trial and error, and perhaps changing around those independent variables.
 Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with liquid Vitamin E.
(Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)
A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population.
 If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Savannians, you would want to
examine every single resident of Savannah. This is not practical. Therefore, you would conduct
your research using a statistical hypothesis, or a sample of the Savannian population.

Parameters of a Good Hypothesis

In order for a hypothesis to be sound, hold tight to these tips:
Ask yourself questions.
 Brainstorm. Define the independent and dependent variables very specifically, and don't take on
more than you can handle. Keep yourself laser-focused on one specific cause-and-effect theory.
Be logical and use precise language.
 Keep your language clean and simple. State your hypothesis as concisely, and to the point, as
possible. A hypothesis is usually written in a form where it proposes that, if something is done,
then something else will occur. Usually, you don't want to state a hypothesis as a question. You
believe in something, and you're seeking to prove it. For example: If I raise the temperature of a
cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased.
Make sure your hypothesis is testable with research and experimentation.
 Any hypothesis will need proof. Your audience will have to see evidence and reason to believe
your statement. For example, I may want to drink root beer all day, not green tea. If you're going
to make me change my ways, I need some sound reasoning and experimental proof - perhaps
case studies of others who lost weight, cleared up their skin, and had a marked improvement in
their immunity by drinking green tea.

State Your Case

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: A STEP BY

STEP GUIDE ON HOW TO MAKE ONE
JANUARY 5, 2015 REGONIEL, PATRICK 12 COMMENTS

What is a conceptual framework? How do you prepare one? This article defines the meaning of
conceptual framework and lists the steps on how to prepare it. A simplified example is added to
strengthen the reader’s understanding.
In the course of preparing your research paper as one of the requirements for your course as an
undergraduate or graduate student, you will need to write the conceptual framework of your
study. The conceptual framework steers the whole research activity. The conceptual framework
serves as a “map” or “rudder” that will guide you towards realizing the objectives or intent of
your study.
What then is a conceptual framework in the context of empirical research? The next section
defines and explains the term.

Definition of Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework represents the researcher’s synthesis of literature on how to explain a
phenomenon. It maps out the actions required in the course of the study given his previous
knowledge of other researchers’ point of view and his observations on the subject of research.

In other words, the conceptual framework is the researcher’s understanding of how the
particular variables in his study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables required
in the research investigation. It is the researcher’s “map” in pursuing the investigation.
As McGaghie et al. (2001) put it: The conceptual framework “sets the stage” for the presentation
of the particular research question that drives the investigation being reported based on the
problem statement. The problem statement of a thesis presents the context and the issues that
caused the researcher to conduct the study.
The conceptual framework lies within a much broader framework called theoretical framework.
The latter draws support from time-tested theories that embody the findings of many researchers
on why and how a particular phenomenon occurs.

Step by Step Guide on How to Make the Conceptual Framework

Before you prepare your conceptual framework, you need to do the following things:

1. Choose your topic. Decide on what will be your research topic. The topic should be within your field
of specialization.
2. Do a literature review. Review relevant and updated research on the theme that you decide to work
on after scrutiny of the issue at hand. Preferably use peer-reviewed and well-known scientific journals
as these are reliable sources of information.
3. Isolate the important variables. Identify the specific variables described in the literature and figure
out how these are related. Some abstracts contain the variables and the salient findings thus may serve
the purpose. If these are not available, find the research paper’s summary. If the variables are not
explicit in the summary, get back to the methodology or the results and discussion section and quickly
identify the variables of the study and the significant findings. Read the TSPU Technique on how to
skim efficiently articles and get to the important points without much fuss.
4. Generate the conceptual framework. Build your conceptual framework using your mix of the
variables from the scientific articles you have read. Your problem statement serves as a reference in
constructing the conceptual framework. In effect, your study will attempt to answer a question that
other researchers have not explained yet. Your research should address a knowledge gap.

Example of a Conceptual Framework

Statement number 5 introduced in an earlier post titled How to Write a Thesis Statement will
serve as the basis of the illustrated conceptual framework in the following examples.
Thesis statement: Chronic exposure to blue light from LED screens (of computer monitors and
television) deplete melatonin levels thus reduce the number of sleeping hours among middle-
aged adults.
The study claims that blue light from the light emitting diodes (LED) inhibit the production of
melatonin, a hormone that regulates sleep and wake cycles. Those affected experience insomnia;
they sleep less than required (usually less than six hours), and this happens when they spend too
much time working on their laptops or viewing the television at night.

Fig.
1 The research paradigm illustrating the researcher’s conceptual framework.

Notice that the variables of the study are explicit in the paradigm presented in Figure 1. In the
illustration, the two variables are 1) number of hours devoted in front of the computer, and 2)
number of hours slept at night. The former is the independent variable while the latter is the
dependent variable. Both of these variables are easy to measure. It is just counting the number of
hours spent in front of the computer and the number of hours slept by the subjects of the study.

Assuming that other things are constant during the performance of the study, it will be possible
to relate these two variables and confirm that indeed, blue light emanated from computer screens
can affect one’s sleeping patterns. (Please read the article titled “Do you know that the computer
can disturb your sleeping patterns?” to find out more about this phenomenon) A correlation
analysis will show whether the relationship is significant or not.

e-Book on Conceptual Framework Development

Due to the popularity of this article, I wrote an e-Book designed to suit the needs of beginning
researchers. This e-Book answers the many questions and comments regarding the preparation of
the conceptual framework. I provide five practical examples based on existing literature to
demonstrate the procedure.
So, do you want a more detailed explanation with five practical, real-life examples? Get the
52-page e-Book NOW!

REFERENCE

McGaghie, W. C.; Bordage, G.; and J. A. Shea (2001). Problem Statement, Conceptual
Framework, and Research Question. Retrieved on January 5, 2015 from http://goo.gl/qLIUFg

©2015 January 5 P. A. Regoniel

Cite this article as: Regoniel, Patrick (January 5, 2015). Conceptual Framework: A Step by Step Guide on
How to Make One [Blog Post]. In SimplyEducate.Me. Retrieved
from https://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/05/conceptual-framework-guide/

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 12 THOUGHTS ON “CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: A STEP BY STEP GUIDE ON
HOW TO MAKE ONE”
1. Dejene Abebe

Sample theoretical framework of a

dissertation
Date published October 14, 2015 by Sarah Vinz. Date updated: May 24, 2019

The theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, proposes relations between
them, and discusses relevant theories and models based on a literature review.

A strong theoretical framework gives your research a sound scientific basis, demonstrates your
understanding of existing knowledge on the topic, and allows the reader to evaluate your guiding
assumptions. It gives your research direction, allowing you to convincingly interpret, explain and
generalize from your findings.

Table of contents

1.
2.
3.

Your problem statement, research questions and literature review will serve as the basis for preparing
your theoretical framework.

Sample problem statement and research questions

Company X is struggling with the problem that many online customers do not return to make
subsequent purchases. Management wants to increase customer loyalty and believes that
improved customer satisfaction will play a major role in achieving this goal.

To investigate this problem, you have identified and plan to focus on the following problem
statement, objective, and research questions:

Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.

Objective: To increase customer loyalty and thereby generate more revenue.

Research question: ‘How can the satisfaction of company X’s online customers be improved in
order to increase customer loyalty?’
Sub-Questions:

1. ‘What is the relationship between customer loyalty and customer satisfaction?’

2. ‘How satisfied and loyal are company X’s online customers currently’
3. ‘What factors affect the satisfaction and loyalty of company X’s online customers?’

As the concepts of “loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” play a major role in the investigation
and will later be measured, they are essential concepts to define within the theoretical
framework.

Below is a (simplified) example of how you can describe and compare definitions as well as
theories from the literature. In this example, we focus on the concept of ‘customer satisfaction.’

Sample theoretical framework

2.1 Customer satisfaction
Thomassen (2003, p. 69) defines customer satisfaction as follows: “the perception of the
customer as a result of consciously or unconsciously comparing his experiences with his
expectations”. Kotler & Keller (2008, p. 80) build on this definition, stating that customer
satisfaction is determined by “the degree to which someone is happy or disappointed with the
observed performance of a product in relation to his or her expectations”. Performance that is
below expectations leads to a dissatisfied customer, while performance that satisfies expectations
produces satisfied customers. Expectations being exceeded leads to a “very satisfied or even
pleasantly surprised customer” (Kotler & Keller, 2003, p. 80).

The definition of Zeithaml & Bitner (2003, p. 86) is slightly different from that of Thomassen:
“Satisfaction is the consumer fulfillment response. It is a judgement that a product or service
feature, or the product of service itself, provides a pleasurable level of consumption-related
fulfillment.” The emphasis of Zeithaml & Bitner is thus on obtaining a certain satisfaction in
relation to purchasing.

The definition of Thomassen will be used in the current study, given the importance of
perception. This meshes well with the offerings of company X, which fall into the luxury
category. Although Zeithaml & Bitner (like Thomassen) say that customer satisfaction is a
reaction to the experience gained and focus on a certain satisfaction, there is no distinction
between conscious and unconscious comparisons in their definition. Company X claims in its
mission statement (see Chapter 1) that it wants to sell not only a product, but also a feeling; as a
result, unconscious comparison will play an important role. The definition of Thomassen is
therefore more relevant to the current study.

Thomassen’s Customer Satisfaction Model

According to Thomassen, both the so-called value proposition and other influencers have an
impact on final customer satisfaction. In his satisfaction model (Fig. 1), Thomassen shows that
word-of-mouth, personal needs, past experiences, and marketing and public relations determine
customers’ needs and expectations. These factors are compared to their experiences, and this
comparison between expectations and experiences determines a customer’s satisfaction level.
Thomassen’s model is important in this study, as it can reveal both to what extent company X’s
customers are satisfied and where improvements are necessary.

Fig. 1: Customer satisfaction creation (Thomassen, 2007, p.30).

Of course, you could analyze the concepts more thoroughly and compare additional definitions
to each other. You could also discuss the theories and ideas of key authors in greater detail and
provide several models to illustrate different concepts.

It is just critical that you correctly cite all of your sources sources throughout the theoretical
framework; the APA Style can guide you on how to do this.

If you do not cite your sources you risk committing plagiarism. Read more about
the consequences of plagiarism and how to avoid plagiarism.

Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

Here are the tips that may be helpful when writing the significance of the study.
These tips will tell you the basic components expected to be seen in the
significance of the study content.

1. Refer to the Problem Statement

In writing the significance of the study, always refer to the statement of the
problem. This way, you can clearly define the contribution of your study. To
simplify, your research should answer this question, “What are the benefits or
advantages of the study based on the statement of the problem?”

If you ask the question “How has the new packaging affected the sales of the
product?” then the contribution of your research would probably a packaging
style or technology that can help the store increase its sales. Your study should
demonstrate that the product’s packaging really influences the buyer’s
perception and affects their purchase decision.

2. Write it from General to Particular

Determine the specific contribution of your thesis study to society as well as to

the individual. Write it deductively, starting from general to specific. Start your
significance of the study broadly then narrowing it out to a specific group or
person. This is done by looking into the general contribution of your study, such
as its importance to society as a whole, then move towards its contribution to
individuals as yourself as a researcher.

You may also read: How to Make a Conceptual Framework

Significance of the Study Samples
Here are some samples to help you draft your own introduction:

Title: Number of Clinical Internship Hours: A Determinant of Student’s

Effectiveness and Skill Acquisition in the Hospital Area for Velez
College Students
Significance of the Study
The results of the study will be of great benefit to the following:

College of Nursing Dean. Data given will provide the dean with information
on how the number of duty hours in a week affects the student’s academic and
RLE performance. The results will enable the dean to improve the scheduling of
RLE and different academic subjects. Data gathered will help the dean initiate
collaboration among faculty and chairpersons to help plan the advancement of
nursing education in relation to the new curriculum.
Clinical Instructors. The results of the study will help the clinical
instructors evaluate the quality of care rendered by the nursing students,
academic performance, attitude and skills acquired in relation to the number of
hours given in a week. Results would also develop the clinical instructor’s
teaching-learning and evaluating strategies in enhancing knowledge, skills and
attitude to the students in the time frame given.
Students. This study will provide information regarding which time
arrangement is effective: 8-hr of clinical internship from the 5-hr clinical
internship with additional academic classes. This study will evaluate the
academic performance, the student nurse’s attitude and approach, the skills
learned in the clinical area and the quality of care rendered in the given time
frame. Data gathered will also help the students improve both academic and
clinical performance.
Velez College. This study will improve the school in the development of
nursing education. This study will foster new ways of enhancing knowledge,
skills and attitude, thus preparing globally-competitive nurses in the future. This
study will also help in the advancement of school management, clinical
leadership and teaching-evaluation approach.

Background of the Study

In relation to the goal of Philippine political and economic development and social
cohesiveness, there is a growing clamor to revisit and revive nationalism. In the
Philippines, it has been recognized that the issue of nationalism is important in
education. One of the goals of the Education Act of 1982 that serves as a guideline for
elementary education, is to “promote and intensify the child’s knowledge of
identification with, and love for the nation and the people to which he belongs”
(Department of Education, 2002, p.2). This objective is also hinged on the 1987
Constitution Article XIV, Section 3 (2) that states that the school “shall inculcate
patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,
appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country,
teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values,
develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative
thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and promote vocational
efficiency” (1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Department of
Education, 2002, p.2).

As agents of patriotism and nationalism, the school is mandated to cultivate pagka-

Filipino in children. In compliance with the1987 Constitution and the Education Act of
1982, the Department of Education came up with the following objectives for the
elementary education formal curriculum: (1) inculcation of spiritual and civic values and
the development of a good Filipino based on an abiding faith in God and genuine love
of country; (2) training of the young citizen in his rights, duties and responsibilities in a
democratic society for active participation in a progressive and productive home and
community life; (3) development of basic understanding about Philippine culture, the
desirable tradition and virtues of our people as essential requisites in attaining national
consciousness and solidarity (Department of Education, 2002, p.1-2).

Moreover, the K to 12 Philippine Basic Education Curriculum also reflects the

significance of teaching pagka-Filipino based on the Department of Education’s
curriculum guide. One of the desired outcomes of the implementation of the Mother
Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) is to develop learners who take pride
in their cultural heritage and are proud to be Filipinos. In the National Early Learning
Framework (NELF), the Filipino child is considered as the most important asset of our
county. The NELF firmly believes that the Filipino child is “a human being who loves
God, parents, and country, is proud to be a Filipino, honors the customs, traditions and
good values of the people, knows his/her basic rights, respects other cultures and is able
to live in peace and harmony with all” (Department of Education, 2012, p.3). As early as
kindergarten, pagiging maka-Filipino or a national consciousness of being a Filipino is
cultivated in the children, with the hope that this will lead to ardent nationalism, love of
country and pride as a Filipino.

The importance of teaching nationalism and national identity in the early grades has
been established and promoted by the state and state institutions such as school and
the Department of Education. However, a study on national identity among urban
school children by Doronila (1986) showed that Filipino children favor other countries
over their own, and this preference deepens as they mature. A similar study was also
conducted among 3rd year High School students in Baguio City by Herrera and Robias
(2010), and the findings revealed that although “respondents exhibit a positive
preference for things Filipino, these preferences have not yet been lifted to a level of
consciousness that would make their manifestation of such personal preferences as
expressive of their identity as Filipino, or as charters of national identity” (Herrera &
Robias, 2010, p.67). This suggests that national identity among Filipino youth is
superficial. According to Yacat (2002), there are two kinds of pagka-Filipino: Filipino by
name which is shallow and Filipino by heart which is deeply-rooted. He further stressed
the importance of the family where culture and Filipino identity take root and of the
school which nurtures the idea of pagka-Filipino.

Koh (2010) emphasized that it is during childhood that an individual starts to identify
with the nation. She declared that “childhood experience is commonly taken to be the
bedrock upon which self-identity is built, and national consciousness is regarded by
many as a key foundation of a modern person’s identity” (Koh, 2010, p.1). Furthermore,
she saw the need for studies on how children perceive national identity. She stated
“children should be central to the study of national feeling, place-belonging, and
citizenship. And yet, we do not know a great deal about how school-age children
actually do relate to the idea of nation” (Koh, 2010, p.2).

The assertion of Koh (2010) and the studies by Doronila, Herrera and Robias, and Yacat
presented two crucial issues: (1) superficial national identification among Filipinos and
(2) lack of studies on national identity and childhood.

This research seeks to address these two problems by focusing on early graders and
their perspectives of “pagka-Filipino.” In Vygotsky’s social development theory (Ormrod,
2011), the child learns concepts through language and action. He asserts that
development is connected to social context and that the child’s developmental level
should complement his learning. Hedges (2012) explained further that “during the early
childhood years, Vygotsky believed that everyday concepts were most prominent.
According to Vygotsky, “Everyday concepts emerged from children’s thinking about
their daily experiences; that is, they occur spontaneously in the context of normal
participation in family and community practices and activities” (Hedges, 2012, P.145). By
probing how children in the early grades perceive and construct their identity as
Filipinos in the context of their everyday experiences, policy makers, teacher educators,
curriculum developers, and early grades teachers will gain greater insight into how the
concept of national identity and nationalism take root in every Filipino child. The
children’s perspectives will improve the K to 12 Philippine Basic Education Curriculum
and its implementation.

This study also investigates the perspectives of “pagka-Filipino” of early graders, based
on locally-published picture books. This will hopefully add another dimension to the
pedagogical aspect that can be gained from the children’s perspectives. Hillman (2003)
described the picture book as the child’s gateway to the world, the first step outside the
child’s immediate environment. “The precise combination of art and words is a powerful
experience because it triggers the imagination & introduces concepts for cognitive and
language development” (Hillman, 2003, p.89). Aquino (2009) said that children’s
literature activates the schema of the child and presents vicarious experiences that
encourage cognitive processes such as assimilation and accommodation. Piaget’s stages
of cognitive development (Ormrod, 2011) show that as a child matures, he/she
assimilates and accommodates knowledge, acquiring schemas through experience. Like
building blocks, a child can create a castle by adding a block with every bit of
information learned. The existing blocks are used to widen the child’s body of
knowledge. These blocks form the child’s schema and schema can be influenced by
social and cultural experiences and interactions with text and illustrations found in
picture books.
Children learn by constructing their own knowledge. Carlsson-Paige (2001) states that
“children actively construct meaning for themselves. These meanings, unique to each
child, are embedded in family and culture and are built over time” (Carlsson-Paige, 2001,
p.17). She further claims that through stories, children can build new meanings by
referring to their personal meanings and experiences. Picture books are effective
material to find out in concrete terms the “pagka-Filipino” of early graders. How the
children perceive the words and images in the picture book that depict “pagka-Filipino”
will enrich the concept of “pagka-Filipino” itself. The Filipino icons in the text and
illustrations in picture books are concrete items that children can identify with. Through
this study, early graders specifically Grade 1 and Grade 2 children will be engaged in
defining “pagka-Filipino” according to their perspectives and in their own words. By
sitting down and talking with the children themselves, knowledge will be gained on how
they shape and restructure the concept of national identity.

This research attempted to fill the gap of the study on national identity and perspectives
of early graders based on picture books and their experiences. Drawing from Koh’s
statement that it is through “everyday living experiences that the children experience
the nation” (Koh, 2010, p. 174) and following Vygotsky’s claim that “everyday concepts
emerged from children’s thinking about their daily experiences; that is, they occur
spontaneously in the context of normal participation in family and community practices
and activities” (Hedges, 2012, P.145), it can be deduced that the everyday arena is
important in the child’s formation of the concept of “pagka-Filipino” as supported by
Almario and Almario (2009) specifically on Filipino games and further, by Koh (2010) on
habituated routines. Therefore, it can be assumed that everyday experiences and
concrete materials surrounding the child’s routines such as games, food, clothes,
animals, famous people, things commonly used and activities often engaged in, are
important domains to investigate in this study.

Cook, G. and Cook, J. (2009) also stressed “that socialization and differential experiences
play roles in gender differences” and this affects children’s perspectives (Cook, G. &
Cook, J., 2009, p. 362). Comparing the similarities and differences in the early graders’
responses by gender and grade level will provide new layers on the children’s insights
on “pagka-Filipino.”

Research Objectives

 The objectives of this research were:

 To probe how children in the early grades perceive and construct their identity as
Filipinos in the context of their everyday experiences.
 To investigate the perspectives of “pagka-Filipino” of early graders, based on the text
and illustrations of locally-published picture books.
  To broaden way of understanding the children’s construction and definition of “pagka-
Filipino” according to their perspectives and in their own words.
 To compare the early graders’ perspectives of “pagka-Filipino” by gender and grade
level.
 Statement of the Problem

Specifically, this research sought to answer the following questions:

 What are the urban low-income children’s perspectives of pagka-Filipino based on their
experiences?
 What are the urban low-income children’s perspectives of pagka-Filipino based on the
text of picture books?

Significance of the Study

The results of the study will hopefully aid the Department of Education’s curriculum
division and the National Commission for the Culture and the Arts in developing a
National Cultural Education Plan that will bring about appreciation of our culture,
genuine love for our county and our pride in being a Filipino.

It is also the hope of this study to raise the consciousness of publishers, writers, and
illustrators to inculcate nationalism and Filipino pride in their published stories and
other forms of literature for the early grades.

This study of young learners’ perspectives of Pagka-Filipino and its depiction in picture
books may be useful to our early grades teachers as a benchmark or yardstick on
national identity formation and the corresponding interventions. Hopefully, it will also
help educators in modifying their curriculum and teaching strategies based on what
children know about our nation and their perspectives of being a Filipino.

The research will also provide new directions for further studies that can be explored
related to this topic.

Furthermore, the study aims for the enhancement of the Teacher Education Instruction,
especially Teaching in the Early Grades, Early Childhood Education, and other related
programs, through growing emphasis on nationalism in their curriculum so that our
future teachers will inculcate love of country in Filipino children as early as the early
grades.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study is descriptive in nature and focused on early graders belonging to low-
families as identified by the National Statistical Coordination Board. The research sample
is composed of forty (40) Grade 1 and Grade 2 students residing in two barangays in
Quezon City. The primary data gathering method used was interview to determine the
children’s perspectives of Pagka-Filipino based on their experiences and through their
interactions with ten (10) locally-published picture books written by Filipino authors.
This research used purposive and convenience sampling in which an equal
representation for gender and grade level among the respondents was applied. The
gathered data were analyzed using frequency distribution and coding. Verbatim quotes
from the respondents were used.

The research data was based on interview of early grades children based on their
experiences and interaction with selected picture books. It focused on gender and grade
level as variables in interpreting their perspectives of pagka-Filipino.

The study is delimited to a group of Grade 1 and Grade 2 children coming from a
socially-disadvantaged group in an urban area. Perspectives on “pagka-Filipino” is
delimited to early graders’

everyday experiences on games Filipino children play, food Filipino children eat, clothes
Filipino children wear, animals in the Philippines they know, famous Filipinos they know,
things Filipino children use and activities Filipino children engage in;

interactions with the text and illustration of selected picture books.

In this research, Filipino icons were delimited to those identified by the National
Commission for the Culture and the Arts’ Essential Knowledge on Philippine Arts,
Culture and Heritage for the Basic Education Curriculum (EKPACHBEC) for Grade 1 and 2
(See Appendix A) and Adarna House’s 101 Filipino Icons Volumes I and II (2007, 2009).
According to Wright (1998), there exists a politicization of “culture” wherein “there is a
political process of contestation over the power to define key concepts, including that of
‘culture’ itself” (Wright, 1998, p.14). In this case, the researcher is aware of the politics
involved in the identification of Filipino icons by a state institution and a commercial
publisher.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter is divided into the review of related literature and studies, the conceptual
framework and definition of terms. The review of related literature discusses Schema
Theory and Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory on which the study is anchored on,
and the pertinent studies on children regarding (1) schema theory/culture schemata; (2)
national identity and pagka-Filipino; (3) national identity among early grades children;
(4) children’s literature, storytelling, and national identity; (5) picture books; (6) picture
books and pagka-Filipino; and (7) gender and picture books.
Schema Theory
Piaget is the proponent of schema theory (Ormrod, 2011). He said that as a child
matures, he/she assimilates and accommodates knowledge, acquiring schemata
through experience. Like building blocks, a child can create a castle by adding a block
with every bit of information learned. The existing blocks are used to widen the child’s
body of knowledge. These blocks form the child’s schema and schema can be
influenced by social and cultural experiences and interactions with text and illustrations
found in picture books. In Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, children from two
to seven years old belong to the preoperational stage and can already express
themselves and describe the world through words and images.

R.C. Anderson (Widmayer, 2003 in Lee & Tsai, 2004), an educational psychologist,
expanded the schema theory which proposes that our understanding or knowledge of
the world is composed of organized network of abstract mental structures. Widmayer
(2003), added that schema is used to interpret and predict situations (in Lee & Tsai,
2004). It was further proposed that each person possesses a unique set of schema which
is built from the individual’s cognitive processes and experiences (Lee & Tsai, 2004).

Based on the schema theory, Lee and Tsai (2004) further suggest that individuals learn
or acquire knowledge in three ways: accretation, tuning, and restructuring. Accretation
involves assimilating new information into existing schema without any changes to
overall schema. Tuning, on the other hand, entails modification of existing schema when
it is inadequate for the encountered new information/knowledge, while restructuring
involves creating a new schema for situations wherein there is inconsistency between
the new information/knowledge and the old schema. Accretion is parallel to Piaget’s
assimilation while tuning and restructuring are similar to accommodation.

McVee, Dunsmore & Gayelek (2005), in a review of schema theory, indicated that
schema theory was particularly prominent in the 1970s especially on the role of schema
in reading, adding that the focus shifted to sociocultural theories in the 80s and 90s. The
authors further pointed out the importance of the schema theory, particularly its utility
in understanding the individual’s prior knowledge and its role in comprehension and in
understanding the reading process.

Social Development Theory

In Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory, engaging in social practice plays a critical role
in the development of the child. Through socialization, children construct their own
knowledge, form concepts, and actively find meaning to make sense of the world. It is a
fundamental form of learning and cognition; consciousness is the result of interaction
with other people within a shared experience.
In this shared socio-cultural context, children use tools within a culture, such as signs,
symbols, and language, to function in the social environment. “Children assimilate
language-a ready-made product of socio-historical development-and use it to analyze,
generalize, and encode experience” (Luriia, 1976, p. 9). Gleaning from Vygotsky’s
semantic and system structure of consciousness, Luriia states that words are the
“fundamental units of consciousness reflecting the external world” (Luriia, 1976, p. 9).

Vygotsky believed that “concept formation is rooted in the use of words which acquire
different meanings at successive stages of development” (Luriia, 1976, p. 50). It is
interesting to note how Vygotsky described the thinking process of a child. At first, the
child thinks by remembering but when he/she reaches adolescence, he/she remembers
by thinking. According to Luriia, this is because an adolescent “no longer generalizes on
the basis of his immediate impressions but isolates certain distinct attributes of objects
as the basis of categorization” (1976, p. 52). This illustrates the movement from social to
individual consciousness, a consciousness that is shaped and enriched by the child’s
participation in the society.

Hedges (2012) explained further that “during the early childhood years, Vygotsky
believed that everyday concepts were most prominent. According to Vygotsky,
“Everyday concepts emerged from children’s thinking about their daily experiences, that
is, they occur spontaneously in the context of normal participation in family and
community practices and activities” (Hedges, 2012, P.145)

Studies on Schema Theory and Culture Schemata

Webster (2001) examines the effect of culture schemata on reading comprehension of
ninety-six 9th Grade students in four honor classes in Maryland. He analyzes the
responses of the students to multicultural stories focusing on cultural awareness along
with its significance to reading, comprehension, and learning. Results reveal varying
response to the stories even for those with the same cultural background because of the
respondents’ unique personalities and experiences. Of note are the responses of some
participants who restructured their schemata to deal with new information. The
respondents eventually assimilated the information from the storybooks which they
initially rejected. Findings show that the participants are culturally aware and that
cultural awareness aids the students in reading comprehension. However, the study is
not clear on whether the similarity between the participants and the story (culture)
helped them in reading it. Still, the results of the research support past studies which
indicate that students tend to learn more information that are complementing or in
congruence with their cultural background.

Webster (2001) recommends a wholistic approach to culture, especially in education

research. He calimed that, it should cover not just ethnicity and race but also extend to
the individual’s age, gender, education, religion, social class, politics, physical condition,
sexual orientation, nationality, and residence. Furthermore, as the students are
becoming more aware of the multicultural nature of their world, teachers are
encouraged to take a multicultural perspective so as to reach out to their students.

Kreishan and Saidat (2011), on the other hand, examine the impact of content schema
on reading comprehension focusing on how religious and cultural schemata affect
Jordanian students’ comprehension of English texts. Respondents are one hundred 10th
Grade Arab Muslim students randomly selected and evenly distributed based on gender.
Four reading texts were used to measure reading comprehension, two of which are of
the participants’ culture and religion whereas the other two are of different or foreign
culture and religion. Based on the results of the tests and interviews, the reading
comprehension of participants tested in the familiar texts, which reflects native religion
and culture, exhibited significantly higher performance. Findings indicate that cultural
background can trigger schemata and improve comprehension. In light of the result, the
authors recommend stimulating prior knowledge first on the subject matter before
reading. Other recommendations were also mentioned such as improving texts to reflect
various aspects of culture, religion, and local problems of the country; making use of the
Internet to further learning and for better comprehension; and Islamicization,
Jordanization, and Arabicization of English materials especially its cultural content.
Further studies suggested include effect of extended time on comprehension and effect
of other variables on reading comprehension such as the font of texts.

The research of Lee & Tsai (2004) explores the impact of stories on young children
particularly, on how children’s schema can be augmented by stories. The authors
present a model to understand how stories affect quality of schemas among seven- year
old children. The model suggests that there are three main sources of stories for the
children: family members, teachers, and friends. The process would then involve
decoding the stories and relating it with their already acquired concepts (accretating or
no change to existing schemas). In cases of new knowledge, the model indicates that
the new information will go through tuning (modification of existing schemas) or
restructuring (forming new schemas). With children who are inquisitive and eager to
learn, the model signifies that there is a higher chance of forming new schemas than
modifying existing schemas among young children. The authors state that stories can
enhance the quality of schemas of children and with it, the children’s level of
interpretation, prediction, and understanding. Thus, there is a proposal that more stories
would increase the children’s schemata of the world. Moreover, the authors further
linked the quality of schemas to problem solving, suggesting that gaining more life
experience would enhance problem solving ability.
Although cognitively, females develop verbal and language skills at a younger age and
are more talkative, Cook, G. and Cook, J. (2009) stressed “that socialization and
differential experiences play roles in gender differences” and this affects children’s
perspectives (Cook, G. & Cook, J., 2009, p. 362).

National Identity and Pagka-Filipino

In their study of national identity among high school students, Herrera and Robias cited
William Bloom’s definition of national identity as a “condition in which a mass of people
have made the same identification with national symbols–have internalized the symbols
of the nation— so that they may act as one psychological group when there is a threat
to, or the possibility of enhancement of, their symbols of national identity” (in Herrera &
Robias, 2010, p.10). This coincides with Doronila’s (1986) research on the meaning of
Filipino national identity conducted among urban school children using a 35-item
National Identity Scale (NIS) for Students. The questions were based on the four value
patterns namely: (1) ethnocentrism; (2) valuing socio-historical aspects reflective of
national identity; (3) loyalty to the national state beyond ethnic loyalties; (4)
commitment to the role requirements of citizenship (Doronila, 1986, p.11-12). Under
each value pattern are a set of orientation or attitudes that serve as defining parameters
for national identity. The 16 attitudes are either essentialist or epochalist in nature, using
Geertz’ forms of national consciousness. Doronila agreed with Geertz that essentialist
aspects of national ideologizing are the initial point of identification. The essentialist
aspects are national symbols, generalized love of country, and appreciation of cultural
aspects. Her findings reveal that Filipino children favor other countries over their own
and this preference deepens as they mature.

Brown (2000) explains the constructivist approach to national identity. He claims that it
is “constructed on the basis of institutional or ideological frameworks which offer simple
and simplistic formulas of identity, and diagnoses of contemporary problems, to
otherwise confused and insecure individuals” (Brown, 2000, p.20). For children, social
institutions like family and school help in shaping their national identity.

Herrera and Robias (2010) adapted Doronila’s NIS to find out the perspectives of
national identity among third year high school students in Baguio City. The results
showed that although “respondents exhibit a positive preference for things Filipino,
these preferences have not yet been lifted to a level of consciousness that would make
their manifestation of such personal preferences as expressive of their identity as
Filipino, or as charters of national identity” (Herrera & Robias, 2010, p.67). This suggests
that even at the age of adolescence, Filipinos are still on the essentialist level of
identifying with our nation. The study also shows that Filipinos are perceived as
industrious and family-oriented people.
In a study on pagka-Filipino, Yacat (2002) claimed that there are two kinds of pagka-
Filipino: Filipino by name which is shallow and Filipino by heart which is deeply-rooted.
He provided several sources of knowledge which he acknowledged as important in the
process of being a Filipino. Among them are family, school, community, and mass
media. He further stressed the importance of the family where culture and Filipino
identity take root and of the school which nurtures the idea of pagka-Filipino. Moreover,
Yacat (2002) elaborates that the consciousness of being a Filipino starts through the
observed external experiences of the people and is imbibed internally only through
teachings and learning through their own experience. Thus, the individual’s sense of
pagka-Filipino depends on the kind and type of information being processed and
accepted.

David (2009) asserts that our consciousness of pagka-Filipino does not come
automatically. Knowing the national symbols is not enough. These should not only
remind us that we are Filipinos but also of our commitment as Filipinos. Being aware
that we are part of one country should be deeper than the mere singing of the national
anthem (David, 2009).

Felipe de Leon Jr., Chair of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts,
emphasizes that pride in being a Filipino leads to national development. He further
claimed that it requires a deep sense of identity to claim what is ours. Moreover, to
achieve national unity, there must be a generalized pride for our country and a genuine
love for the Philippines. Taking to heart this national sense of being a Filipino should be
a collective WE feeling that translates to national unity and economic success (Abueva,
1999).

Sanchez presents a way to achieve these shared aspirations of Filipinos through

education. She states further, “This national consciousness will then help define our
identity as a people and lead us to work towards the attainment of common goals for
our society” (2002, p.2).

Sanchez (2002) explains that Filipinos have a shared schema, knowledge and culture
known as cultural literacy. Her study measured the cultural literacy of high school
students. The study yielded disappointing results: students from private and public
schools do not have adequate knowledge of Philippine art, not one respondent reached
the passing score of 50. Equally worth discussing is the teachers’ performance: only 20%
received a passing score in the same cultural literacy test. The cultural literacy test was
based on a canon/ must know checklist of cultural items that every grade VI and fourth
year high school should know.
According to Wright (1998), there exists a politicization of “culture” wherein “there is a
political process of contestation over the power to define key concepts, including that of
‘culture’ itself” (Wright, 1998, p.14). The National Commission for the Culture and the
Arts (NCCA) is a state institution that defines culture and cultural icons. In 2004, the
NCCA started work on the Philippine Cultural Index Project (PCIP), the key project of its
Philippine Cultural Education Plan (PCEP). The PCIP is a “massive research, database
enrichment, computerization and publication program that would provide a national
database on culture and the arts in the Philippines” (Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for
UNESCO, 2005, p.7). One of the outputs of PCIP is the Essential Knowledge on Philippine
Arts, Culture and Heritage for the Basic Education Curriculum (EKPACHBEC) for
elementary and secondary level (See Appendix A). The EKPACHBEC is a concise list of
important people/institutions, events, places, and objects for each grade level up to high
school.

Adarna House also came out with 101 Filipino Icons Volumes 1 and 2 (2007, 2009).
Virgilio Almario, National Artist for Literature, defined Filipino icons as events, objects,
places, and people significant in Philippine history and valued by majority of Filipinos.
He further stated that these icons can influence our pagka-Filipino and pride in being a
Filipino.

National Identity Among Early Grades Children

The paper “Findings, Theories and Methods in the Study of Children’s National
Identifications and National Attitudes” (Barrett & Oppenheimer, 2011)

Cite This Work