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Every society attaches great cultural, social and personal significance to an individual’s
biological sex, and imposes specific gender role expectations on its
members on the basis of whether they are physically male or female
(Harmatz & Novak, 1983, p.10). Given that these gender roles in Western
society are in many ways quite rigid, and their original social meaning
and significance may no longer be relevant, it is unlikely that every
individual will be able to meet such expectations in every respect. This
raises the possibility that some of modern society’s mental health
problems have their origins in a mismatch between gender role
expectations and what it is actually like to be a man or a woman in the
late twentieth century.
This paper will explore this conjecture through an examination of one mental health
‘problem’ which may bear very closely on gender role expectations, and
that is Male Erectile Disorder. After a brief description of the diagnostic
criteria and usual treatments for this disorder, the paper will argue that
Western cultural expectations of both men and women, including
pervasive assumptions about the ‘proper’ purpose and nature of sexual
interactions between men and women, may contribute significantly to its
incidence. The paper will conclude with a brief consideration of how
approaches to treatment might be modified in response to this claim.1
1
The Appendix contains a handout associated with the class presentation of the topic discussed in
this paper.
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Assignment 1: Essay
Male Erectile Disorder:
Diagnostic Criteria and
Treatments
In the fourth edition of its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSMIV) the American Psychiatric Association (APA) defines Male
Erectile Disorder in terms of the ‘…persistent or recurrent inability to
attain, or to maintain until completion of the sexual activity, an adequate
erection’ (Criterion A), where this causes marked distress or interpersonal
difficulty to the individual (Criterion B), and where it is not better
accounted for by another Axis I disorder (other than another Sexual
Dysfunction) and is not due exclusively to a general medical condition or
the physiological effects of a substance (Criterion C) (APA, 1994, p.504).
Six subtypes allow the clinician to indicate whether the disorder has been
lifelong or acquired, whether it is situationspecific or generalised, and
whether or not substance use or a general medical condition may play a
minor role in the aetiology of the disorder (APA, 1994, pp.494–495).
Male Erectile Disorder is estimated to affect between 3 and 9 percent of men, and
accounts for around half the complaints received from men seeking help
with sexual dysfunctions, increasing greatly among older generations
(Davison & Neale, 1998, p.386).2 It can follow many patterns, but is most
often associated with either the anticipation or achievement of vaginal
penetration (APA, 1994, p.502; Crenshaw, 1984, p.188; Davison &
Neale, 1998, p.386). Many men with the disorder have no problem at all
in maintaining an erection during masturbation or oral sex (Harmatz &
Novak, 1983, p.397).
2
These figures most likely relate only to the United States of America, given that they appear in
an American text book. However, there are no apparent reasons for expecting Australia to be
dramatically different from this.
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Assignment 1: Essay
Treatments for Male Erectile Disorder typically focus on Criterion A—namely, on
finding ways of allowing the individual to maintain an erection until the
completion of sexual activity, where it is normally assumed that
penetration is the primary goal of sexual activity (Davison & Neale, 1998,
p.393; Frude, 1998, p.232; Hite, 1981, pp.414–422). To this end,
approaches to treatment have included systematic desensitisation to help
reduce anxiety associated with penetration, sensoryawareness procedures
such as the ‘sensate focus’ approach introduced by Masters and Johnson,
sex education, cognitive change strategies designed to modify disabling
belief systems regarding sex, skills and communication training, couples
therapy, certain psychodynamic techniques, and medical and other
physical procedures (Davison & Neale, 1998, pp.391–394; Duke &
Nowicki, 1986, pp.369–370; Frude, 1998, pp.228–233; Harmatz &
Novak, 1983, pp.407–417).
Male Erectile Disorder? The answer to this question is hinted at in
DSMIV itself, which points out that the disorder is frequently associated
with ‘…sexual anxiety, fear of failure, concerns about sexual
performance, and a decreased subjective sense of sexual excitement and
pleasure’ (APA, 1994, p.503). By contrast, DSMIV makes no mention of
fear of failure and concerns about sexual performance in the parallel
disorder in women, Female Sexual Arousal Disorder (APA, 1994,
pp.500–502), and other discussions of this disorder give no indication that
such phenomena are typically involved (Davison & Neale, 1998, pp.385–
386; Duke & Nowicki, 1986, p.367; Harmatz & Novak, 1983, pp.403–
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Assignment 1: Essay
405).3 This suggests that men and women typically expect each other to
play very different roles in their sexual encounters, and that a part of this
differentiation is an expectation on both sides that a man will ‘perform’—
that is, that he will get an erection, penetrate the woman’s vagina, and
bring both parties to orgasm (Crenshaw, 1984, p.10; Hite, 1981, pp.338–
340).4
Sam Keen points out that this emphasis on the erect penis is not new:
Glance through a collection of erotica and pornography from various
nations and times and you will be looking at one large phallus after
another. Erection after erection, towering triumphant. (Keen, 1991,
p.70)
Keen goes on to claim that while
largerthanlife erections are monuments to exuberant masculinity …
our focus on erection is also a compensation for our feelings that the
penis, and therefore the self, is small, unreliable, and shamefully out of
control. Rebellious, private, it does what it wants, and that includes
going AWOL, refusing to stand and deliver, and ignoring the orders
issued from general headquarters. It retreats from flowery combat in the
erogenous zones as frequently as it engages the enemy. (Keen, 1991,
p.70)
He argues that male sexuality has been so strongly influenced by our historical roles as
warriors and workers that we are unable to separate our sexuality from the
mood of performance and conquest in these other spheres (Keen, 1991,
3
Davison and Neale point out that female arousal problems are generally thought to be linked
with a woman’s lack of knowledge about her own anatomy and about what she finds sexually arousing,
as well as such factors as communicative shyness about her sexual needs and an aversive reaction to her
partner’s sexual behaviour (Davison & Neale, 1998, p.386).
4
The recent phenomenal success of the anti‘impotence’ drug Viagara is testimony to the fact that
the achievement of a strong, reliable and lasting erection is still a preoccupation and source of concern
for many men. This gives some indication of the extent to which men’s approach to sex continues to be
erection and penetrationcentred. By contrast, modern feminism has probably influenced many women
(and some men) to cast off this conception of the man’s role in heterosexual sex. For a fascinating
feminist analysis of female ‘sexual dysfunction’ which sheds much light on our present concerns, see
Frude (1998) pp.234–235.
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p.72). This has been intensified by the role men have traditionally played
in impregnating women through sexual intercourse (p.76).
However, the demands of modern Western society are very different from the social
conditions that shaped the expectations that Keen draws attention to. For
example, the historically important link between penetrative sexual
intercourse and impregnation has been greatly weakened by the
emergence of invitro fertilisation and readily available birth control, and
the imperative to procreate has been dramatically tempered by global
overpopulation. Also, the slowly increasing economic empowerment of
women, together with the increasing marginalisation of the ‘warrior’ role
in modern society, are challenging men’s need—and opportunities—to
‘perform’ in these other areas. Nevertheless, as Keen observes, for many
men the erogenous zones appear to have replaced the battlefield as the
arena for the testing of manhood:
The messages we get from culture—from our parents, teachers, bosses,
advertisements, films, TV—tell us that “A man is only as good as his
performance,” “A man makes it happen,” etc. It is psychologically naive
to expect that somehow men are supposed to be able to strip themselves
of all this conditioning when they leave the office and enter the
bedroom. (Keen, 1991, pp.75–76)
Steve Biddulph echoes this diagnosis, pointing out that, as a result of such
expectations, and the absence of any ‘deep training’ in masculinity, most
boys grow into ‘phony men’ who are acting out a role—‘…a complete
facade which does not really work in any of life’s arenas’ (Biddulph,
1995, p.3).
Biddulph does not link these role expectations directly to men’s erectile problems.
However, Keen notes that male identity revolves around the penis in a
way that female identity does not revolve around her genitals (Keen,
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1991, p.71). Also, there is ample anecdotal and clinical evidence to
support the view that men readily associate erectile insufficiency prior to
or during penetration with personal failure (see, e.g., Crenshaw, 1984,
p.183; Hite, 1981, pp.63, 338–353). It seems, then, that the distress and
interpersonal difficulty which transform mere erectile failure into a
diagnosable case of Male Erectile Disorder may at least sometimes arise
because of the unrealistic expectations generated by this anachronistic
association between a man’s historical role as impregnator, warrior and
worker, and his modern, more egalitarian5 role as lover and lifepartner.
An Alternative Approach to
Treatment
If we accept Keen’s argument, how might this affect approaches to treatment for Male
Erectile Disorder? Keen claims in passing that ‘…impotence is a normal
part of our sexual cycle’ (Keen, 1991, p.72), and anecdotal evidence
supports the view that the majority of men experience erectile difficulties
from time to time—even in the absence of unrealistic role expectations
(Hite, 1981, pp.344–353). If this is so, then it might not always be
appropriate to aim at eliminating the ‘problematic’ erectile response
pattern (Criterion A of the DSMIV diagnostic criteria), for this
perpetuates the erectioncentred, penetrative conception of sexual activity
between men and women. Rather, treatment might often be more
effectively aimed at equipping a man to accommodate his own individual
erectile response pattern into a full and satisfying life without it causing
marked distress or interpersonal difficulty for him (Criterion B).
5
Western society may well have made some progress towards redressing the many inequities that
exist between men and women. However, it is most likely the failure of many social institutions and
many individuals—both men and women—yet to accept the principle that women and men have equal
social, cultural, political and economic rights which helps to perpetuate the myth that men must ‘deliver
the goods’ in their sexual interactions with women.
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Assignment 1: Essay
In therapeutic terms, such an approach might include teaching a man and his partner to
explore and chart the contours of his patterns of desire and arousal, while
paying particular attention to those occasions when he experiences sexual
arousal or stimulation without having an erection.6 Where necessary, both
parties could also be taught specific techniques to enhance their
enjoyment of nonpenetrative sex. The aim of this would be to open the
way towards a less erectioncentred approach to sexual pleasure. Unlike
the ‘sensate focus’ technique mentioned above, this approach would not
have the covert goal of reducing the man’s anxiety sufficiently for his
penis to return to its ‘proper’ penetrative role, but would rather be
providing both him and his partner with ways of enjoying their sexual
encounters even on those occasions when he does not get an erection.
This could be supplemented with educational material which puts the
man’s erectile responses into the normalising context of the experience of
the majority of men. Such material could also explain the impact of
society’s outdated, performanceoriented expectations of male sexuality,
and the consequent ‘catastrophisation’ of erectile difficulties this can lead
to.
Conclusion
This paper has examined the hypothesis that entrenched, but now outdated, gender role
expectations have an impact on the incidence of Male Erectile Disorder in
Western society. In particular, it has explored the claim that men’s
historically important roles as impregnator, warrior and worker have
6
In the literature examined for this paper, the author could find no discussion of male sexual
arousal in the absence of an erection. In fact, male sexual arousal is virtually defined in terms of erection
in many accounts (see, e.g., Davison & Neale, 1998, pp.385–386; Frude, 1998, p.223; Harmatz &
Novak, 1983, p.397), rather than in terms of a man’s subjective sensations. Nevertheless, personal
experience and anecdotal evidence from other men makes it clear that the subjective sensation of sexual
arousal certainly is possible in the absence of an erection, particularly when stimulation of the prostate
gland is involved. It is therefore on the strength of rather limited evidence that this is proposed as a
starting point for an alternative approach to treatment of Male Erectile Disorder.
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bequeathed to us a very performanceoriented conception of heterosexual
sex in which the attainment of an erection sufficient for penetration is of
paramount importance. A corollary of this is that failure to achieve such
an erection may be interpreted by a man as personal failure, which may,
in turn, account for distress or interpersonal difficulty sufficient for a
diagnosis of Male Erectile Disorder. Finally, the paper proposed an
alternative approach to the treatment of Male Erectile Disorder which
attempts to respond to the insights generated by the foregoing
considerations, by encouraging the acceptance of a man’s variable erectile
responses as a natural part of his sexuality, and opening the door to forms
of sexual pleasure that do not require an erection.
Word count (excluding footnotes, reference material, quotations and appendix):
1486
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References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Biddulph, S. (1995). Manhood: An action plan for changing men’s lives (2nd ed.).
Sydney: Finch Publishing.
Crenshaw, T.L. (1984). Your guide to better sex. Watford, Herts: Exley Publications.
Davison, G.C., & Neale, J.C. (1998). Abnormal psychology (7th ed.). New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Duke, M.P., & Nowicki, S., Jr. (1986). Abnormal psychology: A new look. New York:
CBS College Publishing.
Frude, N. (1998). Understanding abnormal psychology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Harmatz, M.G., & Novak, M.A. (1983). Human sexuality. New York: Harper & Row.
Hite, S. (1981). The Hite report on male sexuality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Keen, S. (1991). Fire in the belly: On being a man. New York: Bantam Books.
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