COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT-2

Syllabus: Physical Layer – Fourier analysis – Bandwidth Limited Signals – The Maximum
Data Rate of a Channel - Guided Transmission Media, Digital Modulation and Multiplexing:
Frequency Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing, Code Division Multiplexing

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Information can be transmitted on wires by varying some physical property such as voltage or
current. By representing the value of this voltage or current as a single-valued function of time,
f(t), we can model the behavior of the signal and analyze it mathematically.

Fourier analysis

In the early 19th century, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier proved that any
reasonably behaved periodic function, g(t) with period T, can be constructed as the sum of a
(possibly infinite) number of sines and cosines:

Where f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency, an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the
nth harmonics (terms), and c is a constant. Such decomposition is called a Fourier series. From
the Fourier series, the function can be reconstructed. That is, if the period, T, is known and the
amplitudes are given, the original function of time can be found by performing the sums of
above Eq.

The an amplitudes can be computed for any given g(t) by multiplying both sides of Eq. 1 by
sin(2πkft) and then integrating from 0 to T.

Since:

 Only one term of the summation survives: an.

 The bn summation vanishes completely.
 By multiplying Eq. 1 by cos(2πkft) and integrating between 0 and T, we can derive bn.
 By integrating both sides of the equation as it stands, we can find c. The results of
performing these operations are as follows:

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Bandwidth-Limited Signals

 How is all of this relevant to data communication?

 Real channels affect different frequency signals differently.
 Let us consider a specific example:
 The transmission of the ASCII character “b” encoded in an 8-bit byte.
 The pattern that is to be transmitted is 01100010.
 The Fourier analysis of this signal yields the coefficients:

 These values are of interest because their squares are proportional to the energy
transmitted at the corresponding frequency.
 No transmission facility can transmit signals without losing some power in the process.
 If all the Fourier components were equally diminished, the resulting signal would be
reduced in amplitude but not distorted.
 Unfortunately, all transmission facilities diminish different
 Fourier components by different amounts, thus introducing distortion.
 Usually, for a wire, the amplitudes are transmitted mostly undiminished from 0 up to
some frequency fc [measured in cycles/sec or Hertz (Hz)].
 All frequencies above this cutoff are attenuated.
 The width of the frequency range transmitted without being strongly attenuated is called
the bandwidth.
 In practice, the cutoff is not really sharp.
 So often the quoted bandwidth is from 0 to the frequency at which the received power has
fallen by half.
 The bandwidth is a physical property of the transmission medium.
 It depends on the construction, thickness, and length of a wire or fiber.

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  Filters are often used to further limit the bandwidth of a signal.
 IEEE 802.11 wireless channels are allowed to use up to roughly 20 MHz.
 So 802.11 radios filter the signal bandwidth to this size.
 An example, traditional (analog) television channels occupy 6 MH each, on a wire or
over the air.
 This filtering lets more signals share a given region of spectrum.
 This improves the overall efficiency of the system.
 It means that the frequency range for some signals will not start at zero.
 But this does not matter.
 The bandwidth is still the width of the band of frequencies that are passed.. And the
information that can be carried depends only on this width and not on the starting and
ending frequencies.
 Baseband signals: Signals that run from 0 up to a maximum frequency.
 Passband signals: Signals that are shifted to occupy a higher range of frequencies, as is
the case for all wireless transmissions.

The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

 Even a perfect channel has a finite transmission capacity (Henry Hyquist, 1924).
 Claude Shannon: The case of a channel subject to random (that is, thermodynamic) noise.
 Nyquist proved that if an arbitrary signal has been run through a low-pass filter of
bandwidth B, the filtered signal can be completely reconstructed by making only 2B
(exact) samples per second.
 Sampling the line faster than 2B times per second is pointless because the higher-
frequency components that such sampling could recover have already been filtered out.

If the signal consists of V discrete levels, Nyquist’s theorem states.

maximum data rate = 2Blog2Vbits=sec

So, a noiseless 3-kHz channel cannot transmit binary (i.e, two-level) signals at a rate exceeding
6000 bps. This result is for noiseless channels. Situation deteriorates rapidly if random noise is
present.

Moreover, there is always random (thermal) noise present due to the motion of the molecules in
the system. The amount of thermal noise present is measured by the ration of the signal power to
the noise power.

 This is called SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio).

 Signal-to-noise ratio is S/N.
 Where is S is the signal power and N is the noise power.

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  Usually, the ratio is expressed on a log scale as the quantity 10 log10 S/N, because it can
vary over a tremendous range.
 The units of this log scale are called decibels (dB).
 An S=N ratio of 10 is 10dB, a ratio of 100 is 20dB, a ratio of 1000i s 30 dB, and so on.
 Shannon’s major result is about a noisy channel. The result is that the maximum data rate
or capacity of a noisy channel whose bandwidth is B Hz and whose signal-to-noise ratio
is S=N, is given by:

maximum number of bits/sec = Blog2(1 + S=N)

This tells us the best capacities that real channels can have. Repeaters.

GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another. Various
physical media can be used for the actual transmission. Each one has its own niche in terms of
bandwidth, delay, cost, and ease of installation and maintenance. Media are roughly grouped into
guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics, and unguided media, such as terrestrial
wireless, satellite, and lasers through the air.

A transmission medium (plural transmission media) is a material substance (solid,

liquid, gas, or plasma) which can propagate energy waves. For example, the transmission
medium for sound received by the ears is usually air, but solids and liquids may also act as
transmission media for sound.
A transmission medium can be classified as a:

 Linear medium, if different waves at any particular point in the medium can be
superposed;

 Bounded medium, if it is finite in extent, otherwise unbounded medium;

 Uniform medium or homogeneous medium, if its physical properties are unchanged at

different points;

 Isotropic medium, if its physical properties are the same in different directions.

The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called transmission or
communication media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
communications.

 GUIDED MEDIA

 UNGUIDED MEDIA

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1. GUIDED MEDIA:

Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These
are also called guide media. Bounded media are made up o a external conductor (Usually
Copper) bounded by jacket material. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high
speed, good security and low cast. However, some time they cannot be used due distance
communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These
are:

 Coaxial Cable.

 Twisted pair cable.

 Fibre optics

COAXIAL CABLE:

Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For example TV wire is
usually coaxial. Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel
to each other. The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a
solid wire or stranded martial. Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is
usually white, plastic material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor.
The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the cable form
EMI.Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. The actual data travels through the
center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by outer copper mesh. There are
different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance.

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 Fig.: Cross-section of a coaxial cable

Here the most common coaxial standards

 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet

 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television

 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

CHARACTERISTICS :

 Low cost

 Easy to install

 Up to 10Mbps capacity

 Medium immunity form EMI

 Medium of attenuation

ADVANTAGES :

 Inexpensive

 Easy to wire

 Easy to expand

 Moderate level of EMI immunity

DISADVANTAGE :

 Single cable failure can take down an entire network

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TWISTED PAIR CABLE :

The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install, inexpensive
and support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of 100 mps. Twisted pair
cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along each other. The number of
pairs in the cable depends on the type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as
measured on the American wire gauge standard.

Fig.: Twisted pair wire

There are two types of twisted pairs cabling

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition.
UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP and easily
available.There are five levels of data cabling

Category 1: These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.

Category 2: These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.

Category 3: These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.

Category 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.

Category 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4
pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

UTP
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CHARACTERISTICS:

 Easy to install

 High speed capacity

 High attenuation

 Effective to EMI

 100 meter limit

ADVANTAGES :

 Easy installation

 Capable of high speed for LAN

 Low cost

DISADVANTAGES :

 Short distance due to attenuation

Shielded twisted pair (STP)

It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that’s protects it from EMI which allows for higher
transmission rate. IBM has defined category for STP cable.

Type 1: STP features two pairs of 22-AWG

Type 2: This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs

Type 3: This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG

Type 4: This type of STP consists of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG

Type 5: This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire

STP

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CHARACTERISTICS:

 Medium cost

 Easy to install

 Higher capacity than UTP

 Higher attenuation, but same as UTP

 Medium immunity from EMI

 100 meter limit

ADVANTAGES :

 Faster than UTP and coaxial & Shielded

DISADVANTAGES :

 More expensive than UTP and coaxial

 More difficult installation

 High attenuation rate

FIBER OPTICS :

Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable light
only moves in one direction for two way communication to take place a second connection must
be made between the two devices. It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is responsible for
one direction of communication. A laser at one device sends pulse of light through this cable to
other device. These pulses translated into “1’s” and “0’s” at the other end. In the center of fiber
cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this glass to the other
device around the internal core is a reflective material known as CLADDING. No light escapes
the glass core because of this reflective cladding. Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2
gbps (Gigabytes per Second).

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1. Core: 8 µm diameter. 2. Cladding: 125 µm diameter.
3. Buffer: 250 µm diameter. 4. Jacket: 400 µm diameter.

Fig.: Structure of fiber optic cable

CHARACTERISTICS:

 Expensive

 Very hard to install

 Capable of extremely high speed

 Extremely low attenuation

 No EMI interference

ADVANTAGES:

 Fast

 Low attenuation

 No EMI interference

DISADVANTAGES:

 Very costly

 Hard to install

2. UNBOUNDED MEDIA:

Unguided transmission media are methods that allow the transmission of data without the use of
physical means to define the path it takes. Unguided media provide a means for transmitting
electromagnetic waves but do not guide them; examples are propagation through air, vacuum and
seawater. For unguided media, the bandwidth of signal produced by the transmitting antenna is
more important than the medium in determining transmission characteristics. One key property
of signals transmitted by antenna is directionality.

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Examples of Unguided media are:

 microwave

 radio waves

 infrared waves

 Satellites

Microwave:

Electromagnetic radiation beyond the frequency range of radio and television can be used to
transport information. Microwave transmission is usually point-to-point using directional
antennae with a clear path between transmitter and receiver.

ADVANTAGES:

 No cables needed

 Multiple channels available

 Wide bandwidth

DISADVANTAGES:

 Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new buildings, are in the way

 Signal absorption by the atmosphere. Microwaves suffer from attenuation due to

atmospheric conditions.

 Towers are expensive to build

Radio

Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with

frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of
oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space. Information
is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as
amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves pass an electrical conductor, the
oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This can be detected and
transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.

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CHARACTERISTICS:

 Directed Waves

 Noise Concurrency

 Radio Wave's Directness

 Unlimited Range

 Interference

ADVANTAGES:

 Can carry a message instantaneously over a wide area.

 Aerials to receive them are simpler than for microwaves.

 Wires are not needed as they travel through air, thus, a cheaper form of
communication.

DISADVANTAGES:

 The range of frequencies that can be accessed by existing technology is limited, so there
is a lot of competition amongst companies for the use of the frequencies.

 Travel in a straight line, so repeater stations may be needed.

Infrared

Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 300
micrometers, which equates to a frequency range between approximately 1 and 430 THz.

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IR wavelengths are longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of terahertz radiation
microwaves. Bright sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea
level. Of this energy, 527 watts is infrared radiation, 445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is
ultraviolet radiation.

ADVANTAGES:

 Many things are controlled by infrared.

 Sensors are invisible to the naked eye.

 They are very reliable.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Most infrared sensors must be lined up or they will not work

Satellites

`When used for communications, a satellite acts as a repeater. Its height above the Earth means
that signals can be transmitted over distances that are very much greater than the line of sight. An
earth station transmits the signal up to the satellite. This is called the up-link and is transmitted
on one frequency. The satellite receives the signal and retransmits it on what is termed the down
link which is on another frequency

Using a satellite for long distance communications

Advantages of satellite communication :

Availability

The biggest advantage of satellite Internet access is its availability compared to other Internet
connection types. Satellite Internet access is a way for those who do not have access to terrestrial
broadband connections such as cable or DSL to have access to high-speed Internet access.
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Satellite also is one of the only ways to receive Internet service in areas where telephone lines
are not available.

Speed

Satellite Internet access is much faster than dial-up, with entry-level service tiers typically
providing approximately 1 mbps download speeds--nearly 18 times faster than a dial-up modem.
Faster speeds are generally available at higher service tiers. In general, the highest speeds
available to home satellite Internet customers are slightly slower than the highest speeds offered
by cable and DSL providers. Additionally, many satellite providers limit the amount of data that
can be downloaded during short time periods to curb frequent large file transfers.

Latency

Satellite Internet connections are high-latency, meaning that a great deal of time is required for
packets of information to travel to the satellite and back. The total delay can amount to about one
second from the time that you send a request to the Internet to the time that a reply is received.
Satellite Internet providers use various technologies to make this delay less noticeable to the end
user and create an acceptable experience for browsing the Web. However, the latency makes a
satellite Internet connection unsuitable for high-speed gaming.

Reliability

Home-based satellite Internet connections are generally no less reliable than terrestrial
broadband. However, all satellite communication is subject to interruption during periods of
heavy snow or rainfall. Talk to other customers about their experiences if you live in an area
where either of these are common. The likelihood of weather-related interruptions is lessened
with a larger satellite dish, which some providers offer.

Cost

The cost of entry for a satellite Internet connection is quite high. The equipment costs several
hundred dollars to purchase, and some types of installations incur additional fees. Additionally,
the monthly cost for satellite Internet tends to be slightly higher than the cost of cable or DSL.
There are ways of reducing the up-front cost. The equipment can be leased rather than
purchased, and discounts or rebates may be available. Sometimes, installation fees are included
in the lease price.

Disadvantages of Satellite communication

 Communication through satellite is highly costly.

 Security measures are required to prevent the unauthorized tapping of information

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Traditional Transmission Media Characteristics

Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical Error Rate

Twisted-pair for analog voice applications 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5)

Coaxial cable 1GHz Good (10–7 to 10–9)

Microwave 100GHz Good (10–9)

Satellite 100GHz Good (10–9)

Fiber 75THz Great (10–11 to 10–13)

DIGITAL MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

MODULATION

- Modulation is the process of changing some characteristics of a carrier wave in

proportion to the signal to be transmitted.

- A general equation for a sine wave is:

e(t )  EC Sin(2f C t  Q)
Equation 1.

Where e(t ) is instantaneous amplitude of the sine wave as a function of time.

EC
: peak amplitude of the sine wave.

fC
: frequency of the sine wave in hertz.
t : time in seconds.

Q : phase in radians.

- Equation one suggests that there are only 3 ways, the sine wave can be changed:

EC
a. The amplitude .

fC
b. The frequency .

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 c. The phase Q .

- It is also possible to change more than one of these quantities simultaneously. In

digital communications, it is common practice to change both the amplitude and
the phase angle to obtain higher data rates.

- It should be noted that once a carrier is modulated, it becomes a complete

waveform containing more than one frequency components and therefore would
require an appropriate channel that can carry all frequency components of this
complex modulated signal.

- This gives use to the concept of bandwidth. The signal now occupies a BW and
the channel must have sufficient BW.

2. INFORMATION CAPACITY

- Hartley’s Law states that:

I  k  BW

Where I is the information capacity in bits.

k : constant that depends upon the modulation scheme and the signal to noise
ratio.

BW : Bandwidth of the system in hertz.

- Note that Hartley’s law is an extremely important law and applies to the operation of all
communication systems.

Wires and wireless channels carry analog signals such as continuously varying voltage, light
intensity, or sound intensity. To send digital information, we must devise analog signals to
represent bits. The process of converting between bits and signals that represent them is called
digital modulation.

In baseband transmission, in which the signal occupies frequencies from zero up to a maximum
that depends on the signaling rate. It is common for wires.

Then we will consider schemes that regulate the amplitude, phase, or frequency of a carrier
signal to convey bits. These schemes result in passband transmission, in which the signal
occupies a band of frequencies around the frequency of the carrier signal. It is common for
wireless and optical channels for which the signals must reside in a given frequency band.

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 Channels are often shared by multiple signals. After all, it is much more convenient to
use a single wire to carry several signals than to install a wire for every signal. This kind of
sharing is called multiplexing. It can be accomplished in several different ways. We will present
methods for time, frequency, and code division multiplexing.

Baseband Transmission

The most straightforward form of digital modulation is to use a positive voltage to represent a 1
and a negative voltage to represent a 0. For an optical fiber, the presence of light might represent
a 1 and the absence of light might represent a 0. This scheme is called NRZ (Non-Return-to-
Zero). Simply means that the signal follows the data

Once sent, the NRZ signal propagates down the wire. At the other end, the receiver converts it
into bits by sampling the signal at regular intervals of time.

This signal will not look exactly like the signal that was sent. It will be attenuated and distorted
by the channel and noise at the receiver. To decode the bits, the receiver maps the signal samples
to the closest symbols. For NRZ, a positive voltage will be taken to indicate that a 1 was sent and
a negative voltage will be taken to indicate that a 0 was sent.

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More complex schemes can convert bits to signals that better meet engineering considerations.
These schemes are called line codes. Below, we describe line codes that help with bandwidth
efficiency, clock recovery, and DC balance.

Bandwidth Efficiency

With NRZ, the signal may cycle between the positive and negative levels up to every 2 bits (in
the case of alternating 1s and 0s). This means that we need a bandwidth of at least B/2 Hz when
the bit rate is B bits/sec. This relation comes from the Nyquist rate. It is a fundamental limit, so
we cannot run NRZ faster without using more bandwidth.

One strategy for using limited bandwidth more efficiently is to use more than two signaling
levels. By using four voltages, for instance, we can send 2 bits at once as a single symbol.

We call the rate at which the signal changes the symbol rate to distinguish it from the bit rate.
The bit rate is the symbol rate multiplied by the number of bits per symbol.

An older name for the symbol rate, particularly in the context of devices called telephone
modems that convey digital data over telephone lines, is the baud rate.

Clock Recovery

For all schemes that encode bits into symbols, the receiver must know when one symbol ends
and the next symbol begins to correctly decode the bits. With NRZ, in which the symbols are
simply voltage levels, a long run of 0s or 1s leaves the signal unchanged. After a while it is hard
to tell the bits apart, as 15 zeros look much like 16 zeros unless you have a very accurate clock.

A clever trick here is to mix the clock signal with the data signal by XORing them together so
that no extra line is needed. The results are shown in Fig. 2-20(d). The clock makes a clock
transition in every bit time, so it runs at twice the bit rate. When it is XORed with the 0 level it
makes a low-to-high transition that is simply the clock. This transition is a logical 0. When it is
XORed with the 1 level it is inverted and makes a high-to low transition. This transition is a
logical 1. This scheme is called Manchester encoding and was used for classic Ethernet.

If there are frequent transitions, it will be easy for the receiver to stay synchronized with the
incoming stream of symbols. As a step in the right direction, we can simplify the situation by
coding a 1 as a transition and a 0 as no transition, or vice versa.

This coding is called NRZI (Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted), a twist on NRZ.

The popular USB (Universal Serial Bus) standard for connecting computer peripherals uses
NRZI. With it, long runs of 1s do not cause a problem.

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Balanced Signals

Signals that have as much positive voltage as negative voltage even over short periods of time
are called balanced signals

Attenuation:

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a
wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in
the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal.

Decibel

To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel.

The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different
points.

Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.

Variables PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog

signal based on the information in digital data.

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Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation of analog information
by an analog signal. One may ask why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is already
analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is band pass in nature or if only a band pass channel
is available to us. An example is radio. The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each
radio station. The analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass signal, all in the same
range. To be able to listen to different stations, the low-pass signals need to be shifted, each to a
different range.

Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways: amplitude modulation (AM),

frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).

Amplitude Modulation

In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same;
only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information. Below Figure shows how this

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concept works. The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.

Frequency Modulation

In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier
signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of
the carrier changes correspondingly.

Phase Modulation

In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier

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signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the
carrier changes correspondingly. In FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal; in PM the instantaneous change in the
carrier frequency is proportional to the derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Digital to Analog conversion

• Digital data needs to be carried on an analog signal.

• A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the function of transporting the digital data in an
analog waveform.

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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of a carrier signal to reflect amplitude levels in
the digital signal.

• For example: a digital “1” could not affect the signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by making it
zero.

Frequency Shift Keying

The two binary values are represented by two different frequencies

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Phase Shift Keying

• The phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent the data.

• In PSK , the phase is varied to represent binary 1 or 0.

MULTIPLEXING:
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link. Multiplexing allows the various users to share
the channel simultaneously.
 As data and telecommunications use increases, the transmission traffic also increases.
 If the bandwidth of a link is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices connected to
it, the bandwidth is wasted. An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all
resources;

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 In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. The lines on the left
direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a
single stream (many-to-one).
 At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates
the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their
corresponding lines. In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The word
channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of
lines. One link can have many (n) channels.

Fig: Multiplexing
Advantages:
 Efficient use of the channel bandwidth
 Increased bit rates.
 Cost effective communication.
 Decrease in number of channels required.
Disadvantages:
 Extra devices like multiplexer and demultiplexer are required.
 Extra delay caused due to operations like multiplexing and demultiplexing
There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
 Frequency-division multiplexing,
 Wavelength-division multiplexing, and
 Time-division multiplexing.
The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 25
 Fig: Multiplexing Techniques
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING: (FDM)
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when
the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals
to be transmitted.
 The signals do not overlap each other’s bandwidth range, because the signals are
modulated on different carrier frequencies.

Fig: Multiplexing
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals
from overlapping.
 Based on the channel bandwidth, the number of sub channels is limited.
 FDM is used in radio and TV broadcasting.
 FDM to be an analog multiplexing technique; however, this does not mean that FDM
cannot be used to combine sources sending digital signals. A digital signal can be
converted to an analog signal before FDM is used to multiplex them.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 26
  FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
Multiplexing Process:
 Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range.
 Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies
(F1,F2, and F3).
 The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is
sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

Fig: FDM Multiplexing

Demultiplexing Process:
 The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals.
 The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and passes them to the output lines.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 27
 Fig: FDM Demultiplexing
The Analog Hierarchy:
 In this analog hierarchy, 12 voice channels are multiplexed onto a higher-bandwidth line
to create a group.
 A group has 48 kHz of bandwidth and supports 12 voice channels.
 A supergroup, at the next level, up to five groups can be multiplexed to create a
composite signal. A supergroup has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and supports up to 60 voice
channels.
 A Master Group, At the next level, 10 supergroups are multiplexed to create a master
group. A master group must have 2.40 MHz of bandwidth, but the need for guard bands
between the supergroups increases the necessary bandwidth to 2.52 MHz. Master groups
support up to 600 voice channels.
 A Jumbo,six master groups can be combined into a jumbo group. A jumbo group must
have 15.12 MHz (6 x 2.52 MHz) but is augmented to 16.984 MHz to allow for guard
bands between the master groups.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 28
 Fig: Analog Hierarchy
Applications of FDM:
 Common application of FDM is Cable television.
 A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting.
 Coaxial cable can carry many multiplexed channels.
 Another application is the first generation cellular telephones.
Advantages:
 In FDM system users can be added to the system by simply adding another pair of
transmitter modulator and receiver demodulators.

 A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.

 FDM does not need synchronization between its transmitter and receiver for proper
operation.

 Demodulation of FDM is easy.

 It supports full duplex information flow which is required by the most of the applications.
Disadvantages:
 The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.
 Inter modulation distortion takes place, a problem for one user can sometimes affect
others.
 Large number of modulators and filters are required.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 29
  FDM suffers from the problem of crosstalk.
 The initial cost is high.
Implementation
 FDM can be implemented very easily. In many cases, such as radio and television
broadcasting, there is no need for a physical multiplexer or demultiplexer. As long as the
stations agree to send their broadcasts to the air using different carrier frequencies,
multiplexing is achieved.

WAVELENGTH-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (WDM):

 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of
fiber-optic cable.
 WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
 The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.
 Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing
allows us to combine several lines into one.
 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The idea is the same: We
are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the
frequencies are very high.
 Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of
light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.

Fig: WDM Channel

 The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. That a prism
bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 30
  Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light,
each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of
frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.
 One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical fiber lines are
multiplexed and demultiplexed.
 Dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very large number of channels by spacing
channels very close to one another. It achieves even greater efficiency.
Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to combine
multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the
demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. Recall
from basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the
frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of
light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of
frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process. Figure 5 shows the
concept.

Figure 5 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to
share the high bandwidth of a link Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in
FDM, time is shared.
 Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link gives a conceptual view of TDM.
In the figure, portions of signals 1,2,3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 31
 Fig: TDM Channel
 This means that all the data in a message from source 1 always go to one specific
destination, be it 1, 2, 3, or 4. The delivery is fixed and unvarying, unlike switching.
 TDM is, in principle, a digital multiplexing technique. Digital data from different sources
are combined into one timeshared link. However, this does not mean that the sources cannot
produce analog data; analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then
multiplexed by using TDM.
 TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one
high-rate one.
TDM into two different schemes:
 SYNCHRONOUS and
 STATISTICAL
SYNCHRONOUS TDM:
 In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not
sending data.
Time Slots and Frames:
 In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where
each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of
data. Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot.
 The duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 32
 Fig: Synchronous Time division multiplexing
 In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into a
frame. If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is
allocated for each unit, one for each input line.
 Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots,
with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with n input lines, each frame
has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line.
 The data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
Interleaving:
 TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the
other on the demultiplexing side.
 The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions. On
the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving.
 On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has
the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.

Fig: Interleaving

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 33
Empty Slots:
 Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not have data to
send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty. In which one of the input lines
has no data to send and one slot in another input line has discontinuous data.

Fig: Empty Slots

Data Rate Management:
 If data rates are not the same, three strategies, or a combination of them, can be used. We
call these three strategies
 multilevel multiplexing,
 multiple-slot allocation, and
 pulse stuffing.
A) Multilevel Multiplexing
 Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a
multiple of others.
 For example, we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps. The first
two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last
three. A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.

Fig: Multilevel Multiplexing

B) Multiple-Slot Allocation
 Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input line.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 34
  For example, we might have an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of another
input. the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two slots in the output. We insert
a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs out of one.

Fig: Multiple-Slot Allocation

C) Pulse Stuffing
 Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other. Therefore,
neither of the above two techniques can be applied. One solution is to make the
highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input
lines with lower rates. This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse
stuffing, bit padding, or bit stuffing.

Fig: Pulse Stuffing

Frame Synchronizing
 Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue. If the.
multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may
be received by the wrong channel.
 For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each
frame. These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 35
 demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots
accurately.
 In most cases, this synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating
between 0 and 1
Digital Signal Service
 Telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy of digital signals, called
digital signal (DS) service or digital hierarchy.

Fig: Digital Signal Service

 A DS-O service is a single digital channel of 64 kbps.
 DS-I is a 1.544-Mbps service; 1.544 Mbps is 24 times 64 kbps plus 8 kbps of overhead. it
can be used to multiplex 24 DS-O channels or to carry any other combination desired by
the user that can fit within its 1.544-Mbps capacity
 DS-2 is a 6.312-Mbps service; 6.312 Mbps is 96 times 64 kbps plus 168 kbps of
 overhead. It can be used as a single service for 6.312-Mbps transmissions;
 DS-3 is a 44.376-Mbps service; 44.376 Mbps is 672 times 64 kbps plus 1.368 Mbps of
overhead. It can be used as a single service for 44.376-Mbps transmissions;
 DS-4 is a 274. 176-Mbps service; 274.176 is 4032 times 64 kbps plus 16.128 Mbps of
overhead. It can be used to multiplex 6 DS-3 channels, 42 DS-2 channels, 168 DS-l
 channels, 4032 DS-O channels, or a combination of these service types.
T Lines
 DS-O, DS-l, and so on are the names of services. To implement those services, the
telephone companies use T lines (T-l to T-4). These are lines with capacities precisely

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 36
 matched to the data rates of the DS-l to DS-4 services.

E Lines
 Europeans use a version of T lines called E lines. The two systems are conceptually
identical, but their capacities differ.

STATISTICAL TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

 In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can be
inefficient if some input lines have no data to send.
 In statistical TDM, slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency.
 when an input line has a slot's worth of data to send is it given a slot in the output frame.
 In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in each frame is less than the number of
input lines.
 The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an
input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line.
Addressing:
 In statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.
 In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no reassigned or reserved slots. We need to include the address of the
receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered.

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 37
 Fig: Synchronous and statistical TDM
Slot Size
 Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data
size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient.
No Synchronization Bit
 There is another difference between synchronous and statistical TDM, but this time it
is at the frame level. The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so we
do not need synchronization bits.
Bandwidth
 In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity of the
link based on the statistics of the load for each channel.
Code Division Multiplexing

There is a third kind of multiplexing that works in a completely different way than FDM and
TDM. CDM (Code Division Multiplexing) is a form of spread spectrum communication in
which a narrowband signal is spread out over a wider frequency band. This can make it more
tolerant of interference, as well as allowing multiple signals from different users to share the
same frequency band. Because code division multiplexing is mostly used for the latter purpose it
is commonly called CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). CDMA allows each station to
transmit over the entire frequency spectrum all the time. Multiple simultaneous transmissions are
separated using coding theory.

In CDMA, each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals called chips. Typically, there are 64
or 128 chips per bit, but in the example given here we will use 8 chips/bit for simplicity. Each
I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 38
station is assigned a unique m-bit code called a chip sequence. For pedagogical purposes, it is
convenient to use a bipolar notation to write these codes as sequences of −1 and +1. We will
show chip sequences in parentheses. To transmit a 1 bit, a station sends its chip sequence. To
transmit a 0 bit, it sends the negation of its chip sequence. No other patterns are permitted. Thus,

for m = 8, if station A is assigned the chip sequence (−1 −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 +1 +1), it can send a 1
bit by transmiting the chip sequence and a 0 by transmitting (+1 +1 +1 −1 −1 +1 −1 −1). It is
really signals with these voltage levels that are sent, but it is sufficient for us to think in terms of
the sequences.

Increasing the amount of information to be sent from b bits/sec to mb chips/sec for each station
means that the bandwidth needed for CDMA is greater by a factor of m than the bandwidth
needed for a station not using CDMA (assuming no changes in the modulation or encoding
techniques). If we have a 1-MHz band available for 100 stations, with FDM each one would
have 10 kHz and could send at 10 kbps (assuming 1 bit per Hz). With CDMA, each station uses
the full 1 MHz, so the chip rate is 100 chips per bit to spread the station’s bit rate of 10 kbps
across the channel.

Let us use the symbol S to indicate the m-chip vector for station S, and S for its negation. All
chip sequences are pairwise orthogonal, by which we mean that the normalized inner product of
any two distinct chip sequences, S and T (written as S T), is 0. It is known how to generate such
orthogonal chip sequences using a method known as Walsh codes. In mathematical terms,
orthogonality of the chip sequences can be expressed as follows:

I.RAJU-ASST.PROF-VIEW 39