Ecology

WHAT IS ECOLOGY?
Study of relationships between
organisms and their environments.

➢Biotic factors: all living parts of the

environm.

➢Abiotic factors: nonliving parts of the

environm.
➢(i.e. temperature, soil, light, moisture)
 Biosphere largest

Biome
Levels of Ecosystem
Ecological
Organization Community

Population

smallest
Organism
1. Biosphere: Earth (all ecosystems)
2. Biome: ecosystems with similar life and
climate ex.: tropical rainforests, tundra
3. Ecosystem: Smallest group containing
both biotic and abiotic factors
4. Community: Group of different
populations in an area (No abiotic factors)
5. Population: a group of organisms of same
species
6. Organism: an individual.
 Habitat vs. Niche
Niche - the role a species plays in a
community
Habitat- the place where an organism
lives

Limiting factor- biotic or abiotic

factors that limits where an organism
can survive
Ex.: amount of water available, food, space,
shelter
 Community Relationships
1. Competition for resources: food, shelter,
water, etc.
2. Predation predator kill prey for food
3. Symbiosis different species living closely
together
 Types of Symbiosis:
1. Commensalism
2. Parasitism
3. Mutualism
Type of Species Species Species
relationship harmed benefits neutral
Commensalism
+ 0
Parasitism
- +
Mutualism
+
Commensalism-
one species benefits, the other is neither harmed nor helped
Ex. orchids on a tree

Epiphytes: A plant, such as a tropical orchid or

a bromeliad, that grows on another plant upon
which it depends for mechanical support but not
for nutrients. Also called xerophyte, air plant.
Parasitism-
one species benefits (parasite) and
the other is harmed (host)
Ex.: fleas, mosquitos, etc..
• Note: parasites want to keep host alive! (why?)
Mutualism-
both species benefit each other

Ex. cleaning birds and alligators, lichen

 The food web: trophic levels
•Producer = autotrophs - Make own food
-
•Consumer = heterotrophs - Consume food
-Can be:
•primary -> herbivores (eat plants)
•secondary,tertiary -> carnivores (eat
meat) or omnivores (eat meat and plants)
Always bottom of food chain
•Trophic Level: Each link in a food chain;
A feeding step in transfer of energy in
ecosystem .
Other feeding categories:
• Scavengers: eat decaying animals
Ex: vultures

• Detritivores: eat pieces of organic matter in soil

Ex: worms, crabs

• decomposers: absorb (do not “eat”) nutrients

from decaying organic matter
Ex: fungi
Trophic Levels flow of energy
E
n 0.1% Tertiary
consumers- top
e carnivores, omnivores

R 1% Secondary consumers-
small carnivores
G
y 10% Primary consumers- Herbivores

F
L
100% Producers- Autotrophs
O
w
 Only 10% of energy and biomass are
transferred from bottom of food pyramid to
the top!

*Biomass= amount of organic matter in a group

of organisms in a habitat.

• As you move up a food chain, both available

energy and biomass decrease.

• Energy is transferred upwards but is

diminished with each transfer.
 Trophic Levels
Food chain- linear model of energy
flow
**Arrow points from food to eater!
Food web- network of food chains
Food chain Food web
Linear group of food chains
 Nutrient Cycles
-Cycles of Matter through biotic and
abiotic factors:
1. Water cycle
2. Carbon cycle
3. Nitrogen cycle
Water cycle- Evaporation,transpiration,
condensation,precipitation
Carbon cycle- Photosynthesis and
respiration, combustion and decomposition
cycle carbon and oxygen in environment.
Nitrogen cycle-
Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) makes up nearly
78%-80% of air.
Organisms can not use it in that form.
Lightning and bacteria convert nitrogen into
usable forms.
Nitrogen cycle-
Only in certain bacteria and industrial
technologies can fix nitrogen.
Nitrogen fixation-convert atmospheric
nitrogen (N2) into ammonium (NH4+)
which can be used to make organic
compounds like amino acids.
N2 NH4+
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria: live in
symbiotic
relationship with
plants of the legume
family (e.g.,
soybeans, clover,
peanuts).
Nitrogen cycle-
•Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live
free in the soil.
•Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are
essential to maintaining the fertility
of semi-aquatic environments like rice
paddies.
 Atmospheric Nitrogen Cycle
Lightning nitrogen
Denitrification
by bacteria
Animals
Nitrogen
fixing bacteria
Plants
Decomposers

Ammonium Nitrification Nitrites Nitrates

by bacteria
Pollution in food chains-
While energy decreases as it moves up
the food chain, toxins increase in
potency!!
•This is called biological magnification

Ex: DDT & Bald Eagles

 Succession
Succession - a series of predictable changes that occurs
in a community over time
Two types:
1. primary succession
2. secondary succession

Terms:
pioneer species – the first organisms that live in a previously
uninhabited area
climax community – a stable, mature community that undergoes
little or no change
limiting factors – environmental factors that affect an organism’s
ability to survive (food, predators, space)
• Each biome on Earth has a different type of climax community
- grasslands - rainforest
 Primary Succession
• occurs on surfaces where
no soil exists
• the colonization of new sites
by communities of organisms
called pioneer species
rocks → lichens→ mosses →
→ grasses, shrubs→ trees
Secondary Succession
• occurs when a disturbance
of some kind changes an
existing community without
removing the soil
• takes less time than primary
succession because soil is
already present
• disturbances include wildfires,
storms, deforestation, farming
soil → grasses, shrubs → trees
 Population growth = an increase in the size of a
population over time
 birthrate greater than death rate → population grows
 birthrate equals death rate → population stays the same
 death rate greater than birthrate → population shrinks
Under ideal conditions with unlimited resources, a
population will grow exponentially
• exponential growth = as a population
gets larger, it also grows faster

Increase
Population decrease population
Limiting factor = Any biotic or abiotic factor that
restricts the numbers of organisms

Examples: food, water, shelter, etc

Two types of Limiting Factors:

1. density-dependent
2. density-independent
 Density-dependent limiting factors
- CAUSED BY BIOTIC FACTORS.

Ex.: number of individuals in a given area

• competition and availability of food, water and space

• predation
• parasitism and disease
Density-independent limiting factors
-Caused by abiotic factors
Ex.: limit a population’s growth regardless of the density
of the population
1. unusual weather
2. natural disasters
3. human activities (pollution or dam building)
 CARRYING CAPACITY
•The maximum number of individuals that
can be supported by the ecosystem.

•The limit is determined by the availability

of resources and by their interactions
with other organisms.
LOGISTIC GROWTH CURVE “S” CURVE
Occurs when population growth is limited by factors
in the environment
• Reaches carrying capacity
“S” curve • As resources become less
carrying available, the growth of the
capacity
population slows or stops.
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH CURVE “J” CURVE

• Population growth is NOT limited

• Takes on an J-shape
• Ideal and doesn’t normally occur in
most populations
• What kinds of organisms might
have exponential growth and why?
• R-Strategist
P. 98

REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS
•Species of organisms vary in the
number of births per reproductive
cycle, in the age that reproduction
begins, and in the life span of the
organism.
• R-strategist
• K-strategist
 P. 98

R-strategist
• Small organism (fruit fly or a mouse)
• Short life span
• Produce many offspring
• Strategy is to produce as many offspring as
possible in a short time in order to take
advantage of some environmental factors
• Populations are controlled by density-
independent factors (changes in abiotic factors)
P. 99

K-strategist (also called Carrying Capacity Strategy)

• Large organism (elephant)
• Long life span
• Produce fewer offspring but invest a lot of care
• Strategy is to produce only a few offspring who have
a better chance of living due the care they get from
parents
• Populations are controlled by density-dependent
(biotic factors)
Which are you?

R-strategist K-strategist
 Human Impact on the Environment
1. Effects of Human Overpopulation:
• loss of land/habitat • species extinction
• water and food shortage • poverty
• poor sanitation • emerging disease
2. deforestation
- cause soil erosion, loss of habitat, and species extinction

3. threaten biodiversity

4. pesticide use – using chemicals to kill and control pests

- will sometimes kill non-target species
- pollutes water sources
- causes health problems
5. bioaccumulation/biological magnification
– concentrations of a harmful substance increase
in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food web
 Human Impact on the Environment
Global Warming Acid Rain
• pollution in our atmosphere Pollution from fossil fuels
causes too much heat to makes rain acidic
stay on earth

• changes overall temperature/

climate
• raises sea level
• affects health of ecosystems

• causes health problems

• damages forests and lakes
• damages buildings
 Effects on Water Quality
The runoff of silt, soil, pesticides, and fertilizers from agricultural
land is the largest single source of water pollution.

Eutrophication:
- excess fertilizers can run off into lakes and ponds
- Usually caused by excess phosphorous in fertilizers and
chemicals Or by weathering of rocks.
- this stimulates plant and algae overgrowth
- a buildup of algae can lower the levels of dissolved oxygen in
the water
- this leads to the dying off of the fish population
- over time, lakes and ponds slowly begin to fill in
Why can’t you just clean up
polluted water?
- it is expensive
- who pays for it?
- technology not available for all types
 Effects on Natural Resources
Renewable resources
- can regenerate if they are living or can be replenished
by biochemical cycles if they are nonliving
- ex. trees, fresh water
Nonrenewable resources
- cannot be replenished by natural processes
- ex. fossil fuels

Sustainability = a way of using natural resources without

depleting them for future generations
• use renewable resources that can be “restocked”
• recycle and reuse products
• plant tree farms
• only cut down selected trees instead of clear-cutting
• follow emission standards
 The Story of Easter Island
• Humans first landed on Easter Island between 400 and 700 A.D.
• Island had thick forests, rich soil, many bird and animal species
• Human population grew quickly over next 1000 years
• They cut down forests for lumber and boats faster than the trees
could grow back
• Eventually, there were no trees left….no wood for shelter or boats,
rich soil washed away, habitat lost for animal species, no fishing
without boats
• With no food, and island resources nearly gone, the Easter Island
human population crashed and the Easter Islanders disappeared.