CHAPTER 6

Population, sample and sampling techniques

Research population
The population is a group of individuals who have one or more characteristics in
common and are of interest to the researcher (Best and Kahn, 2006). A research
population can also be referred to as a well defined collection of individuals or objects
known to have similar characteristics. All individuals or objects within a certain
population usually have a common binding characteristic. A collection of items in
research, the population represents a group that you wish to generalize your research to.
The group you wish to generalize to is often called the population in your study. This is
the group you would like to sample from because this is the group you are interested in
generalizing to.

Types of population in research

Usually there are two types of research, target population and accessible population.
Target population is the entire set of individuals or elements who meet the sampling
criteria. In other words, target population refers to the entire group of individuals or
objects to which researcher are interested in generalizing the conclusions. The target
population usually has varying characteristics and is also known as the THEORITICAL
POPULATION.

Accessible population is the portion of the target population to which the researcher has
reasonable access. It is the accessible population to which the researchers can apply their
conclusions. Moreover, it is from the accessible population that researchers draw their
samples.

Generalization
Generalization means that the findings can be applied to more than the sample under
study. Because of the importance of generalizing, there are risks of defining the
accessible population too narrowly. For example, a narrow definition of the accessible
population reduces the ability to generalize from the study sample to the target population
and, thus, diminishes the meaningfulness of the findings.

Sample
A sample is a group pf informants made of individuals, items or event selected from
large group or population. A sample represents a group of respondents drawn from the
population in such a way that the information obtained from the sample can be
generalized on a population.
Sampling
Sampling is defined as a process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such
a way that they represent a larger group from which they were selected, or simply it can
be referred to as drawing a sample from a population.

Sampling units
Sampling units refer to the limited members of the population selected for sampling.

Sampling frame
The complete set of all the members/units of the population from which each sampling
unit is selected is known as sampling frame. This provides an opportunity for each person
to be selected for the sample.

Sampling or eligibility criteria

Sampling criteria also referred to as eligibility criteria include a list of characteristics
essential for membership or eligibility in the target population. Sampling criteria may
include characteristics such as the ability to read, to write responses on the data collection
instruments or forms, and to comprehend and communicate using the English language
etc.

Representativeness
For a sample to be representative, it must be like the target population in as many ways as
possible. It is especially important that the sample be representative in relation to the
variable being studied and to other factors that may influence the study variables. For
example, if a study examines attitudes towards AIDS, the sample should be
representative of the distribution of attitudes towards AIDS that exists in the specified
population. In addition, a sample must be representative of characteristics such as age,
gender, ethnicity, income, and education, which often study variables.

Why sampling
Here are some advantages of sampling
• Minimizes time taken to collect data.
• It reduces the expenses in terms of time, money and effort.
• It is the only option when collecting data using a destructive testing physical
impossibility of accessing the entire population.
• Maximizes accuracy of data collected due to its limited size.

Summary
Who do you want to generalize to? The theoretical population.
What population can you get access to? The study population
How can you access the study population? The sampling frame.
Who is supposed to be in your study? The sample.

Census versus sampling

There are two options of data collection in research studies.

Census and sampling

Census is the process of obtaining response from or about each member of the
population. The determination of the size of the population of a country is an example of
census. Census is only possible if the population is manageable, otherwise this method is
seldom feasible.
Sampling, as stated previously, is a process of selecting a subset of the population of a
study and collecting data about their attributes. Based on the data of the sample, the
analyst will draw inference about the population.

Sampling techniques
A sampling technique or plan describes the strategies that will be used to obtain a sample
for a study. The technique is developed to enhance representatives, reduce systematic
bias, decrease the sampling error, and promote the optimal sample selection.
Sampling techniques can be classified into:

1. Probability sampling techniques/methods and

2. Non – probability sampling techniques / methods

In probability sampling, each unit of the population has a chance of being selected as a
unit of the sample. This type of sampling method is more rigorous and free from bias.
In non – probability sampling, not every element or unit of the population has an
opportunity to be included in the sample.

Probability sampling methods

Methods of probability sampling are listed as follows:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi stage sampling

Simple random sampling

A simple random sampling is obtained by selecting elements randomly from the sampling
frame. This means that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
A simple random sample is free from sampling bias.
This can be achieved either by random number table, simple lottery, or a computer.

Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling can be conducted when an ordered list of all members of the
population is available. The process involves selecting every kth individual on the list,
using a systematic point selected randomly. If the initial starting point is not random, then
the sample is not a probability sample. In order to use design, the researcher should:
1. Know the number of elements in the population.
2. The size of sample desired.
3. Divide the population size be the desired size to obtain K.

For example, if population size is N= 8000 and desired sample size is n=100, then K=N/
N = 800/80 = 10Thus K is 10, which means that every 10th person on the list would be
included in the sample.

NB. The first element should be selected by simple random sampling.

Stratified sampling
Under this, the population is divided into several sub-populations that are individually
more homogenous than the total population (sub populations are called strata) and then
each item is selected from each strata to constitute a sample. Variables commonly used
for stratification are age, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, diagnosis,
geographical region, type of institution, type of care, and site of care. There are two
types:

• Proportional stratified sampling: If we use the same proportion of sampling units from
each stratum.
• Disproportional stratified sampling: If we do not use the same proportion of sampling
units from each stratum.

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is a technique in which the population is divided into different clusters
such that members within each cluster are dissimilar (heterogeneous) in terms of their
attributes, but different clusters are similar to each other. The units of the clusters are
selected (sampled) to arrive at inference about the population.

Area sampling
If the clusters happen to be some geographic subdivision in that case clusters sampling is
better known as area sampling.

Multi-stage sampling
The multi-stage sampling employs more than one stage to sample the population
depending upon the reality. For example, the researcher might first randomly select
states, then randomly select cities with the sampled states. Hospitals within the randomly
selected cities might then be selected. At this level, either all the patients on the nursing
unit who fit the criteria for the study might be included or patients could be randomly
selected.

Non – probability (Non random) sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling (accidental sampling method).
This is non – probability sampling method in which the researcher will decide the
choice of sampling units or subjects based on their convenience. This means in
convenience sampling, subjects are included in the study because they happened d
to be in the right place at the right time. Available subjects are simply entered into
the study until the desired sample size is reached. Convenience is mainly used
where probability sampling methods can not be applied, and it is useful for
descriptive and correlation studies conducted in new areas of research.

2. Quota sampling
The quota sampling is a non – probability sampling in which the population is
classified into a number of groups based on some criterion. A strategy used to
ensure the inclusion of subject types that are likely to be under – represented in
the convenience sample, such as women, minority groups, the elderly, the poor,
the rich, and the undereducated. The proportions of number of sampling units
selected from these categories are taken to be the same for instance, the sampling
units of women, the elderly, the poor, will be 20%, 50% and 30% of sample size
respectively. Later, while selecting the required number of sample from each
category, one can use any one of the non - probability sampling method.

The two non – probability sampling methods mentioned above , are mainly used in
quantitative research. Now let us discuss some of non – probability methods used in
qualitative research.

1. Purposive / judgmental sampling method / selective sampling

Purposive sampling involves the conscious selection by the researcher of certain
subjects, elements, events, or incidents to include in the study. Also, sampling
units are selected on the advice of some experts of by the intuition / opinion of the
researcher.
2. Snow balling sampling
This is a judgmental sampling procedure used for studying special characteristics
of a population. It is also called multiplicative or mixed probability sampling.
Initial subjects with desired characteristics are randomly selected or judgmental
selection. The additional respondents in the sample are obtained by referral or
information provided by the initial subjects. This type of sampling is used to
estimate characteristics that are rare in the population. The procedure increases
the probability of the finding the subject or individual with the desired
characteristics at a lower cost.

Sample size
Sample size may be obtained based on judgment or statistically on the requirements
of error and confidence.

Suitable sample size

• The choice of sample size to ensure generalization s about populations from data
collected is governed by:
• The confidence you used to have in your data.
• The margin of error that you can tolerate - that is the accuracy required for any
estimates to be make from the sample.
• The types of analysis you are going to undertake.
• The size of the total population from which your sample is being drawn.